Module 5 acn

[Link] of HTTP
1. Stateless Protocol – Each request is independent; the server does not
remember previous interactions.
2. Client–Server Model – The client (browser) sends requests, and the server
responds.
3. Text-Based Protocol – Uses plain text commands for communication.
4. Request–Response Model – Client sends a request, server sends a
response (HTML, image, JSON, etc.).
5. Supports Different Methods – Such as GET, POST, PUT, DELETE, etc.
6. Uses TCP as Transport Layer – Usually on port 80 (or 443 for HTTPS)
GET Command in HTTP
• Purpose: The GET command is used to request data from a web server.
• When you type a web address in your browser and press Enter, your browser
sends a GET request to fetch that webpage.

How it Works
1. The client (e.g., browser) sends a GET request to the server.
2. The requested resource (HTML page, image, etc.) is identified by the URL.
3. The server processes the request and sends back the resource with an HTTP
response.
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[Link] for Mapping Domain Name to IP Address

This process is done by the Domain Name System (DNS).

1. User enters a domain name
• Example: [Link]
2. DNS Resolver checks cache
• The operating system or browser first checks its cache to see if it
already knows the IP address.
3. Recursive Query to DNS Servers
• If not cached, it asks a DNS resolver (usually your ISP) to find the
address.
4. Root DNS Servers
• The resolver queries a root server, which directs it to the correct top-
level domain (TLD) server (like .com, .org).
5. TLD Server
• The TLD server tells the resolver which authoritative name server is
 responsible for [Link].
6. Authoritative Name Server
• This server contains the actual IP address mapping for
[Link].
7. IP Address Returned
• The resolver sends the IP address back to your computer.
8. Browser Connects to Server
• Now the browser uses this IP address to connect to the web server.
Example
• You type [Link]
• DNS finds [Link]
• Browser connects to that address.
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[Link] is a URL?
• URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator.
• It is the address of a resource (like a webpage, image, or video) on the
internet.
• A URL tells the browser where to find the resource and how to access it.

Parts of a URL

Example:

[Link]

1. Protocol – https:// → tells the browser how to communicate (HTTP or

HTTPS).
2. Domain Name – [Link] → name of the website.
3. Port (optional) – :80 → default for HTTP (80) and HTTPS (443).
4. Path – /path/[Link] → specific file or location on the website.
5. Query (optional) – ?name=John → extra information for the server.
6. Fragment (optional) – #section2 → points to a section within the page.

Simple Example
• URL: [Link]
• Protocol: HTTPS
• Domain: [Link]
 • No path/query/fragment here – it loads the homepage.
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[Link] Congestion Avoidance
• Developed by: Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).
• It is an early congestion notification mechanism used in computer
networks.

How it Works
1. Each packet has a congestion indication bit (DECbit) in its header.
2. Routers monitor their queue length:
• If the queue is growing (congestion likely), the router sets the DECbit
to 1.
• If the queue is normal, it keeps the bit 0.
3. The receiver copies this bit into the acknowledgment (ACK) packet.
4. The sender reads the ACK:
• If half or more of the ACKs have DECbit = 1, it means congestion is
happening → reduce sending rate.
• If most ACKs have DECbit = 0 → increase sending rate gradually.

Purpose
• To signal impending congestion before packet loss occurs.
• Provides early congestion detection and smoother traffic control compared to
waiting for packet drops.
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[Link] is RED (Random Early Detection)?
• RED is a congestion avoidance mechanism used in routers.
• It helps prevent congestion before buffers become full by dropping or
marking packets randomly.

How it Works
1. Routers continuously monitor the average queue size (not just the instant
queue).
2. If queue is small → No packet is dropped.
3. If queue starts growing (between minimum and maximum threshold) →
Some packets are randomly dropped or marked to warn senders.
4. If queue is full (above maximum threshold) → All incoming packets are
dropped.
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Purpose of Random Dropping

• Random dropping acts as a signal to TCP senders to slow down their
sending rate.
• It prevents global synchronization (where many TCP connections slow down
at the same time due to massive packet loss).

Advantages
• Avoids sudden congestion collapse.
• Keeps average delay low by controlling queue size.
• Fairer resource sharing among multiple users.
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[Link] is Source-Based Congestion Avoidance?

• In this method, the sender (source) is responsible for avoiding congestion.
• The network (routers) provides signals or feedback, and the source adjusts
its sending rate.

How it Works
1. The sender monitors network feedback (like packet loss, delay, or explicit
notifications).
2. If congestion is detected or signaled, the sender reduces transmission rate.
3. If no congestion is reported, the sender gradually increases sending rate
(e.g., Additive Increase).

Examples
• DECbit Scheme – Routers set a congestion bit in packets; the source reacts
accordingly.
• TCP Congestion Control (AIMD) – The source increases window size slowly
and reduces quickly when congestion is detected.

⸻
Advantages
• Less burden on routers (network devices).
• Flexible and widely used (e.g., in TCP/IP networks).