IT-508 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Computer Networks
Network: A network is a set of devices connected via a physical media link. In a
network, two or more nodes are connected by a physical link or two or more
networks are connected by one or more nodes. A network is a collection of devices
connected to allow data sharing.
Network Topology:
Network topology is the layout of a computer network, showing how devices (computers, servers,
switches, etc.) are connected and how data flows between them.
Types of Network Topology:
Star Topology:
Star topology is a network topology in which all the nodes are connected to a
single device known as a central device.
A star topology requires more cable than other topologies.
Therefore, it is more Strong as a failure in one cable will only disconnect a specific
computer connected to this cable.
1. If the central device is damaged, then the whole network fails.
2. A star topology is elementary to install, manage, and troubleshoot. It is
Commonly used in office and home networks.

Ring Topology:
1. Ring topology is a network topology in which nodes are exactly connected to two or more
nodes, forming a single continuous path for transmission.
2. It does not need any central server to control the connectivity among the nodes.
3. If the single node is damaged, then the whole network fails.
4. Ring topology is very rarely used as it is expensive, complex to install and
Manage.
Bus Topology:
1. Bus topology is a network topology in which all the nodes are connected to a
single
A single cable known as a central cable or bus.
2. It acts as a shared communication medium, i.e., if any device wants to send the
data to other devices, then it will send the data over the bus.
3. Bus topology is helpful for a small number of devices.
4. If the bus is damaged, then the whole network fails.

Mesh Topology:
1. Mesh topology is a network topology in which all the nodes are individually connected.
Connected to other nodes.
3. It does not need any central switch or hub to control the connectivity among the nodes.
Mesh topology is categorized into two parts:

Fully connected mesh topology:

In this topology, all the nodes are connected.
Partially connected mesh topology:
In this topology, not all the nodes are connected.

It is robust, as a failure in one cable will only disconnect the specified computer
Connected to this cable.
6. Cabling cost is high as it requires bulk wiring.
Tree Topology:
1. Tree topology is a combination of star and bus topology. It is also known as the expanded star
topology.
2. In tree topology, all the star networks are connected to a single bus.
3. The Ethernet protocol is used in this topology.
4. In this, the whole network is divided into segments known as star networks, which can be
easily maintained. If one segment is damaged, there is no effect on the other segments.
5. Tree topology depends on the "main bus," and if it breaks, then the whole the network gets
damaged
Hybrid Topology:
1. A hybrid topology is a combination of different topologies to form a resulting
topology.
2. If a star topology is connected with another star topology, then it remains a star
topology. If a star topology is connected with a different topology, then it becomes
a Hybrid topology.
4. It provides flexibility as it can be implemented in a different network
environment.
Different Types of Networks:
- Networks can be divided based on the area of distribution. For example:
PAN (Personal Area Network): Its range limit is up to 10 meters. It is created for
Personal use. Generally, personal devices are connected to this network. For example,
computers, telephones, fax machines, printers, etc.

LAN (Local Area Network): It is used for a small geographical location, like an office,
hospital, school, etc.

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network that connects devices within a
limited geographic area, such as an office, school, or building. It enables users to
share resources like files, printers, and internet connections efficiently.
LANs typically use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi for communication between computers
and other devices.
They are fast, reliable, and secure for internal data sharing. LANs are
managed by network administrators who control access and maintain
network performance.
Overall, LAN technology forms the backbone of most organizational
communication systems.

HAN (House Area Network): It is actually a LAN that is used within a house, and is used
to connect homely devices like personal computers, phones, printers, etc.
 CAN (Campus Area Network): It is a connection of devices within a campus area, which links
to other departments within the same campus.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): It is used to connect the devices which span to large
cities like metropolitan cities over a wide geographical area.
WAN (Wide Area Network): It is used over a wide geographical location that may range to
connect cities and countries.
GAN (Global Area Network) uses satellites to connect devices across the global area.
VPN (Virtual Private Network): VPN, or the Virtual Private Network, is a private WAN
(Wide Area Network) built on the Internet. It allows the creation of a secure tunnel
(Protected network) between different networks using the Internet (public network). By using the
VPN, a client can connect to the organization’s network remotely.
Advantages of VPN:
1. VPN is used to connect offices in different geographical locations remotely and is cheaper
when compared to WAN connections.
2. VPN is used for secure transactions and confidential data transfer between
Multiple offices are located in different geographical locations.
3. VPN keeps an organization’s information secured against any potential threats or
Intrusions by using virtualization.

Access VPN: Access VPN is used to provide connectivity to remote mobile users. It serves as an
alternative to dial-up connections or ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
Services Digital Network) connections. It is a low-cost solution and provides a wide range of
connectivity.
Site-to-Site VPN: A Site-to-Site or Router-to-Router VPN is commonly used in large
Companies having branches in different locations to connect the network of one office to another
in different locations. There are two sub-categories, as mentioned below:
Intranet VPN: Intranet VPN is useful for connecting remote offices in different locations
geographical locations using shared infrastructure (internet connectivity and servers) with the
same accessibility policies as a private WAN (wide area network).

OSI (Open System Interconnections)

It is a network architecture model based on the ISO standards. It is called the OSI model as it
deals with connecting the systems that are open for communication with other systems.
The OSI model has seven layers.
The principles used to arrive at the seven layers can be summarized as follows:
 Each layer should have a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer is chosen based on internationally standardized protocols.
 Seven Layers:
1. Physical Layer
i. It is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model.
ii. It is used for the transmission of an unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium.
iii. Physical layer transmits the data either in the form of electrical/optical form.
iv. The physical layer is mainly used for the physical connection between the devices, and
such a physical connection can be made by using twisted-pair cable, fibre-optic or
wireless transmission media.
2. Data Link Layer
1. It is used to transfer data between nodes.
2. It receives the data from the network layer, converts the data into data frames
and then attaches the physical address to these frames, which are sent to the physical
layer.
Functions of the Data-link layer:
Flow control: The data-link layer controls the data flow within the network.
Error control: It detects and corrects errors that occur during transmission from
Source to destination.
Addressing: Data-link layers attach the physical address to the data frames so that
the individual machines can be easily identified.
3. Network Layer
The network layer converts the logical address into a physical address.
The routing concept means it determines the best route for the packet to travel from the source
to the destination.
Functions of the network layer:
Routing: The network layer determines the best route from source to destination. This function
is known as routing.
Logical addressing: The network layer defines the addressing scheme to identify each device
uniquely.
Internetworking: The network layer provides the logical connection between the different
types of networks for forming larger networks.
4. Transport Layer
It delivers the message through the network and performs error checking to ensure no mistakes
occur during the transfer of data.

5. Session Layer
1. The primary responsibility of the session layer is to begin, maintain and end the
communication between the devices.
2. The session layer also reports errors from the upper layers.
3. The session layer establishes and maintains a session between the two users.
6. Presentation Layer
1. The presentation layer, also known as the translation layer, translates data from one
format to another.
2. At the sender side, this layer translates the application-layer data format into a standard
format. At the receiver side, it translates the standard format into a format used by the
application layer.
7. Application Layer
1. The application layer enables the user to access the network.
2. It is the topmost layer of the OSI reference model.
3. Application layer protocols are file transfer protocol, simple mail transfer protocol,
domain name system, etc.
4. The most widely used application protocol is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). A
user
5. Sends the request for the web page using HTTP.

TCP/IP Reference Model: It is a compressed version of the OSI model with only four layers.
It was developed by the US Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1860s. The name of this model
is based on two standard protocols, namely TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP
(Internet Protocol).
● HTTP and HTTPS:
HTTP is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which defines the set of rules and standards on how
information can be transmitted on the World Wide Web (WWW). It helps web browsers and
web servers communicate. It is a ‘stateless protocol’ where each command is independent with
respect to the previous command.
HTTP is an application-layer protocol built upon TCP. It uses port 80 by default.
HTTPS is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure, or Secure HTTP. It is an advanced and
secure version of HTTP. On top of HTTP, the SSL/TLS protocol is used to provide security. It
enables secure transactions by encrypting the communication and also helps identify
network servers securely. It uses port 443 by default.
DNS (Imp):
1. DNS is an acronym that stands for Domain Name [Link] was introduced by Paul
Mockapetris and Jon Postal in 1983.
2. It is a naming system for all the resources on the Internet, which includes physical nodes and
applications. It is used to locate resources easily over a network.
3. DNS is an internet service that maps the domain names to their associated IP addresses.
Addresses.
4. Without DNS, users must know the IP address of the web page that they want to access.
● Working of DNS (Imp): If you want to visit the website of "shaurya", then the user will type
"[Link] into the address bar of the web browser. Once the domain name is
entered, the Domain Name System will translate the domain name into the IP address, which the
computer can easily interpret. Using the IP address, the computer can locate the web page
requested by the user.
● DNS Forwarder: A forwarder is used with a DNS server when it receives DNS queries that
cannot be resolved quickly. So it forwards those requests to external DNS servers for resolution.
A DNS server which is configured as a forwarder will behave differently from a DNS server
which is not configured as a forwarder.
● SMTP Protocol: SMTP is the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP sets the rules for
communication between servers. This set of rules helps the software to transmit emails over the
Internet. It supports both End-to-End and Store-and-Forward methods. It is always in listening
mode on port 25.
● Difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol)
Protocol):
1. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, whereas UDP is a connectionless protocol. A key
difference between TCP and UDP is speed, as TCP is comparatively slower than UDP.
Overall, UDP is a much faster, simpler, and more efficient protocol; however, retransmission of
lost data packets is only possible with TCP
2. TCP provides extensive error-checking mechanisms. It is because it provides flow control and
acknowledgement of data. UDP has only a fundamental error-checking mechanism: checksums.
Important Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules which is used to govern all aspects of information communication.
The main elements of a protocol are:
● Syntax: It specifies the structure or format of the data. It also specifies the order in which they
are presented.
● Semantics: It specifies the meaning of each section of bits.
● Timing: Timing specifies two characteristics: When data should be sent and how fast it can be
sent.
● DHCP: DHCP is the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. It is an application-layer
A protocol used to auto-configure devices on IP networks, enabling them to use the TCP and
UDP-based protocols. The DHCP servers auto-assign the IPs and other network configurations
to the devices individually, which allows them to communicate over the
IP network. It helps get the subnet mask and IP address, and it helps resolve DNS. It uses port 67
by default.
● FTP: FTP is a File Transfer Protocol. It is an application-layer protocol used to transfer files
and data reliably and efficiently between hosts. It can also be used to download files from remote
servers to your computer. It uses port 27 by default.
● ICMP: ICMP is the Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a network layer protocol used
for error handling. Network devices mainly use it like routers for diagnosing the network
connection issues, and it is crucial for error reporting and testing if the data is reaching the
preferred destination in time. It uses port seven by default.
● ARP: ARP is the Address Resolution Protocol. It is a network-level protocol used to convert
the logical address, i.e. IP address, to the device's physical address, i.e. MAC address. It can also
be used to get the MAC address of devices when they are trying to communicate over the local
network.
● RIP: RIP stands for Routing Information Protocol. It is accessed by the routers to send data
from one network to another. RIP is a dynamic protocol which is used to find the best route from
the source to the destination over a network by using the hop count algorithm. Routers use this
protocol to exchange the network topology information. Small or medium-sized networks can
use this protocol.
● MAC address and IP address:
1. Both MAC (Media Access Control) Address and IP Address are used to uniquely define a
device on the Internet uniquely. NIC Card’s Manufacturer provides the MAC Address;
On the other hand, the Internet Service Provider offers the IP Address.
2. The main difference between MAC and IP addresses is that MAC addresses are used to
ensure the physical address of a computer. It uniquely identifies the devices on a network. IP
addresses uniquely identify a device's connection to a network.
● Ipconfig and Ifconfig:
1. Ipconfig: Internet Protocol Configuration. It is a command used in Microsoft operating
systems to view and configure network interfaces
2. Ifconfig: Interface Configuration. It is a command used in MAC, Linux, and UNIX operating
systems to view and configure network interfaces
● Firewall: The firewall is a network security system that is used to monitor the incoming and
outgoing traffic and block the same based on the firewall security policies. It acts as a wall
between the Internet (public network) and the networking devices (a private network). It is either
a hardware device, a software program, or a combination of both. Itadds a layer of security to the
network.
3. Hub:
A hub is a networking device which is used to transmit the signal to each port (except one
port) to which the signal was received. Hub is operated on a Physical layer. In this packet,
filtering is not available. It is of two types: Active Hub, Passive Hub.
4. Switch: A switch is a network device which is used to enable the connection
establishment and connection termination based on need. The switch is operated on the
Data Link layer. In this packet, filtering is available. It is a type of full-duplex
transmission mode, also called an efficient bridge.
5. A subnet is a network inside a network, achieved by the process called subnetting, which
helps divide a network into subnets. It is used for getting a higher routing efficiency and
enhancing the security of the network. It reduces the time to extract the host address from the
routing table.
6. Node and Link: A network is a connection setup of two or more computers directly
connected by some physical medium like optical fibre or coaxial cable. This physical medium of
connection is known as a link, and the computers that it is connected to are known as nodes.
7. Gateway and router: A node that is connected to two or more networks is commonly known
as a gateway. It is also known as a router. It is used to forward messages from one network to
another. Both the gateway and router regulate the traffic in the network. Differences
between a gateway and a router: A router sends the data between two similar networks, while
a gateway sends the data between two dissimilar networks.
8. NIC (Imp): NIC stands for Network Interface Card. It is a peripheral card attached to the
PC to connect to a network. Every NIC has its own MAC address that identifies the
PC on the network. It provides a wireless connection to a local area network. NICs were mainly
used in desktop computers.
9. POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol version3. POP is responsible for accessing the mail
service on a client machine. POP3 works in two modes, namely the Delete mode and
Keep mode.
10. Private IP Address - Three ranges of IP addresses have been reserved for private use. They
are not valid for use on the Internet. If you want to access the
When using the Internet on these private IPs, you must use a proxy server or a NAT server.
Public IP Address - A public IP address is an address assigned by the Internet Service Provider.
A provider that facilitates communication on the Internet.
11. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It is a method to provide
Fault Tolerance by using multiple hard drives.
12. Netstat: It is a command-line utility program. It gives valuable information about the current
TCP/IP settings of a connection.
13. Ping: The "ping" is a utility program that allows you to check the connectivity between the
network devices. You can ping devices using their IP address or name.
14. The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-peer
processes. (P2P).
15. Unicasting: If the message is sent to a single node from the source, then it is known as
unicasting. This is commonly used in networks to establish a new connection.
Anycasting: If the message is sent to any of the nodes from the source, then it is known as any
casting. It is mainly used to get the Content from any of the servers in the Content
Delivery System.
Multicasting: If the message is sent to a subset of nodes from the source, then it is known as
multicasting. Used to send the same data to multiple receivers.
Broadcasting: If the message is sent to all the nodes in a network from a source, then it is
known as broadcasting. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) and ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) on the local network use broadcast messages.