Chapter 15 - The Elements:

The Last Four Main Groups

• Group 15/V: The Nitrogen Family

• Group 16/VI: The Oxygen Family
• Group 17/VII: The Halogens
• Group 18/VIII: The Nobel gases
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
The Element

ƒ Electron configurations
ns2np3 (n is the period
number)
ƒ Oxidation states that range
from -3 to +5
ƒ The metallic character of
the group increases down
the group
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
The Element (Nitrogen)

ƒ Rare in the Earth’s crust but elemental nitrogen (N2) is the

principal component of our atmosphere (76% by mass)
ƒ N ≡ N triple bond strength is 944 kJ·mol-1 making it almost as
inert as the noble gases
ƒ Nitrogen is used in medicines, fertilizers, explosives, and plastics
ƒ The biggest commercial use for elemental nitrogen gas is for the
formation of ammonia in the Haber process
ƒ N is very electronegative and it is the only group 15 element that
can form hydrides capable of hydrogen bonding
ƒ N has a wide range of oxidation numbers. Nitrogen compounds
are known to have every whole number oxidation number from
-3 to +5. In addition, some fractional oxidation numbers are
known to exists.
ƒ N can only form up to four bonds
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
The Element (Phosphorus)
ƒ The radius of phosphorus is nearly 50% bigger than that of
nitrogen. Thus P is too big to approach each other close enough
for their 3p orbitals to overlap and form π bonds
ƒ The availability of the 3d orbitals means that phosphorus can form
as many as six bonds
ƒ Condensed phosphorus vapor is called white phosphorus and is a
soft, white, poisonous, molecular solid consisting of tetrahedral P4
molecules.
ƒ White phosphorus is highly reactive due to strain in its bonding
angles and burst into flame when exposed to air
ƒ White phosphorus changes to red phosphorus (amorphous
network) when heated in the absence of air. Red phosphorus is
much less reactive
ƒ Red phosphorus is used in the striking surfaces of matchbook
because the phosphorus ignites with friction
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

NH3 (ammonia)

Properties:
Pungent
Toxic
Gas
Condenses to clear liquid at -33ºC

ƒNH3 is a reasonably strong Lewis base

ƒNH3 salts decompose when heated
ƒThe pungent smell of decomposing ammonium carbonate
((NH4)2CO3) once made it an effective “smelling salt”
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate)

ƒ Nitrate anion can oxidize the ammonium cation (products are
temperature dependent).

NH4NO3(s) ⎯⎯⎯→N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)

250o C

2NH4NO3(s) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2N2(g) + O2(g) + 4H2O

>300o C

ƒ The higher temperature reaction has explosive power and that is

the reason that NH4NO3 is used as a component of dynamite
ƒ Plants need nitrogen to grow but the N2 is so stable that the plants
can not break the triple bond to be able to utilize the nitrogen.
NH4NO3 has a high concentration of N and dissolves in water
there fore it is used as a fertilizer.
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

NH2NH2 (hydrazine)
Properties:
Oily
Colorless
Liquid
Dangerous Explosive

Uses:
Rocket Fuel
Remove dissolved corrosive oxygen from water

N2H4(aq) + O2(g) Æ N2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

Nitrides (solids that contain the nitride ion N3-)

ƒ Nitrides are only stable for small cations such as lithium or
magnesium

Example:
Mg3N2

ƒ Most nitrides dissolve in water to produce ammonia and the

corresponding hydroxide

Example:
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) Æ 3Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NH3(g)
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

N3- (azide ion)

ƒ Highly reactive polyatomic anion
ƒ Its most common salt is sodium azide (NaN3)
ƒ Like most of the azide salts, NaN3 it is shock sensitive
ƒ NaN3 is used in airbags where it decomposes to elemental sodium
and nitrogen when detonated
2NaN3(s) Æ 2Na(s) + 3N2(g)
ƒ The azide ion is a weak base and accepts a proton to from its
conjugate acid, hydrazoic acid (HN3) which is a weak acid
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

PH3 (phosphine)
Properties:
ƒThe nitrogen hydrogen Poisonous Gas
compounds are much Smells faintly of garlic
more stable that all of Burst into flame in air if it is slightly impure
the other hydrogen
compounds formed by the members of Group 15
ƒPH3 is much less soluble than ammonia in water because PH3 can
not form hydrogen bonds to water
ƒAqueous solutions of PH3 are neutral because the electronegativity
of phosphorus is so low that the lone pair of electrons on PH3 is
spread over the hydrogen atoms as well as the phosphorus atom
ƒPH3 is a very weak acid
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

ƒ A typical reaction of nonmetal halides, is their reaction with water

to give oxoacids (an acid that contains oxygen), without a change
in the oxidation number of the nonmetal that it is bonded to
Example:
PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) Æ H3PO3(s) + 3HCl

ƒ This reaction is also an example of a hydrolysis reaction (a reaction

with water in which new element-oxygen bonds are formed)
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Nitrogen Oxide and Oxoacids

ƒ All nitrogen oxides are acidic

ƒ Some are acid anhydrides (a compound that forms an oxoacid
when it reacts with water)
ƒ In atmospheric chemistry where the oxides play an important two
edged role in both maintaining and polluting the atmosphere they
are referred to collectively as NOx (read “nox”)
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Nitrogen Oxides and Oxoacids

N2O (dinitrogen oxide)

Properties:
Tasteless
Unreactive
Nontoxic in small amounts
Soluble in fat

Uses:
Foaming agent and propellant for whipped cream
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Nitrogen Oxides and Oxoacids

NO (nitrogen oxide, nitrogen monoxide, or nitric oxide)

ƒ NO (which is produced from hot airplane and automobile engines)
has many harmful effects: leads to acid rain, formation of smog, as
well as contributes to the destruction of the ozone layer
ƒ NO is rapidly oxidized to NO2 on exposure to air

2NO(g) + O2(g) Æ 2NO2(g)

ƒ The NO2 then reacts with water, forming acid rain

ƒ NO also plays beneficial roles in small amounts. In the body it acts
as a neurotransmitter and helps to dilate blood vessels and
participates in other physiological changes
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Nitrogen Oxides and Oxoacids

NO2 (nitrogen dioxide)

ƒ Brown poisonous gas that contributes to the color and odor of
smog
ƒ The molecule has a odd number of electrons and in the gas phase it
exist in equilibrium with its colorless dimer N2O4
ƒ NO2 dissolves in water to form nitric acid and nitrogen oxide
which is what leads to acid rain

3NO2(g) + H2O(l) Æ 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

ƒ NO2 also initiates a complex sequence of smog forming

photochemical reactions
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Nitrogen Oxides and Oxoacids

N2O3 (dinitrogen trioxide)

Properties:
Blue
Gas

ƒ Is the anhydride of nitrous acid (HNO2)

N2O3(g) + H2O(l) Æ 2HNO2(aq)

Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen and the Halogens

Nitrites ( compounds that contain NO2-)

ƒ Nitrites are produced by the reduction of nitrates (compounds
with NO3-) with hot metal
Example:
KNO3(s) + Pb(s) ⎯350
⎯⎯
o
C
→ KNO2(s) + PbO(s)

ƒ Most nitrites are mildly toxic

Uses:
Processing of meat products because they retard bacterial growth. They are
responsible for the pink color of ham, sausage and other cured meats.
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Nitrogen Oxides and Oxoacids

HNO3 (Nitric acid)

ƒ HNO3 is used in the production of fertilizers and explosives
ƒ It is both an acid and an oxidizing agent
ƒ It is made in the three-step Ostwald process

STEP 1: Oxidation of ammonia

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
850o C , 5 atm , Pt / Rh

STEP 2: Oxidation of nitrogen oxide

2NO(g) + O2(g) Æ 2NO2(g)
STEP 3: Disproportionation (single atom is both oxidized and
reduced) in water;
3NO2(g) + H2O(l) Æ 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Phosphorus Oxides and Oxoacids

ƒ Oxoacids and oxoanions of phosphorous are among the most

heavily manufactured chemicals.
ƒ Phosphate fertilizer production consumes two-thirds of all the
sulfuric acid produced in the United States
ƒ The structures of the phosphorus oxides are based on the
tetrahedral PO4 unit
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Phosphorus Oxides and Oxoacids

H3PO4 (phosphoric acid)

ƒ Used primarily for the production of fertilizer, food additives, and

detergent
ƒ Many soft drinks owe their tart taste to the presence of a small
amount of phosphoric acid
ƒ Although the phosphorus in H3PO4 has an oxidation number of +5
the acid shows appreciable oxidizing power at temperatures above
350ºC
Group 15: The Nitrogen Family
Phosphorus Oxides and Oxoacids

Phosphates (compounds contain PO43- )

ƒ Phosphate rock is mined in huge quantities in Florida and Morocco

ƒ The rock is crushed and treated with sulfuric acid to give a mixture
of sulfates and phosphates called superphosphates, a major
fertilizer
Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 2H2SO4(l) Æ 2CaSO4(s) + Ca(H2PO4)2(s)
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Element

ƒ Electron configurations ns2np4 (n

is the period number)
ƒ Elements become increasingly
more nonmetallic toward the
right-hand side of the periodic
table
ƒ The elements of the group are
collectively called the chalcogens
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Oxygen)

ƒ Oxygen is the most abundant Properties:

element in the Earth’s crust Colorless
Tasteless
ƒ The free element accounts for
Odorless
23% of the mass of the Condenses to a pale blue liquid
atmosphere
ƒ Earth is the only planet in the solar system with an oxidizing
atmosphere
ƒ Oxygen is much more reactive than nitrogen the other major
components of our atmosphere
ƒ The combustion of all living organisms in oxygen is
thermodynamically spontaneous however we do not burst into flame
at normal temperature because combustion has a high activation
energy
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Oxygen)

ƒ The most common form of elemental oxygen is O2.

Lewis Structure Molecular Orbital
Diagram
O=O

ƒ O2 has been shown to be paramagnetic therefore it behaves like the

molecular orbital diagram predicts instead of the Lewis structure
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Oxygen)

ƒ More than 2×1010 kg of liquid oxygen are produced in the United

States a a year
ƒ Liquid oxygen is produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air
ƒ The biggest consumer of oxygen is the steel industry which needs
about 1 t of oxygen to produce 1 t of steel.
ƒ In steelmaking, oxygen is blown into molten iron to oxidize any
impurities, particularly carbon
ƒ O2 is also used for welding and in medicine
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Oxygen)

O3 (ozone) Properties:
Blue gas
Condenses at -112ºC

ƒ O3 is formed in the stratosphere by the effects of solar radiation on

O2 molecules
ƒ O3 can be made in the laboratory by passing an electric discharge
through O2
ƒ O3 is present in smog where it is produced by the following
reaction
O(g) + O2(g) Æ O3(g)
Note the O(g) is produced by NO2(g) ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→ NO(g) + O(g)
UVradiation
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Sulfur)

ƒ Sulfur behaves differently than oxygen due to its increased size and
decreased electronegativity
ƒ O can form H bonds while sulfur cannot
ƒ Sulfur also has weaker tendencies to form multiple bonds to one
atom
ƒ Instead it can extend its octet by using its d orbitals and form as
many as six bonds to separate atoms
ƒ Sulfur has a striking ability to catenate, or forms chains of atoms.
Oxygen’s ability to form chains is limited
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Sulfur)

ƒ Sulfur is found in many types of ores

ƒ Because the ores are so common, sulfur is usually obtained as a by-
product of the extraction of a number of metals (most notably Cu)
ƒ Sulfur is also found as deposits of the native element called
brimstone
ƒ Sulfur has a low melting point
ƒ To extract the sulfur a process called the Frasch process is used
ƒ The Frasch process entails using super heated water to melt the
solid sulfur and then uses compressed air to push the resulting
slurry out
Uses:
Most sulfur is used to make sulfuric acid
The other largest use of sulfur is to vulcanize rubber
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Sulfur)

ƒ Two common crystal forms of elemental Properties:

sulfur are monoclinic Yellow
(a ≠ b ≠ c and α ≠ 90 β = γ = 90) Tasteless
and rhombic Almost Odorless
(a = b = c and α ≠ 90º, β ≠ 90º, γ ≠ 90º) Insoluble
Nonmetallic
ƒ The most stable form under normal
conditions is rhomic sulfur which forms a
beautiful yellow crystal

Rhomic Monoclinic
Sulfur Sulfur
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
The Elements (Selenium and Tellurium)

ƒ Selenium and tellurium occur in sulfide ores

ƒ They are also recovered from the refining of copper
ƒ Both elements have several allotropes with the most stable
consisting of long zigzag chains of atoms
ƒ These allotropes look like silver white metals however they are
poor electrical conductors
ƒ The conductivity of selenium is increased by exposure to light and
so it is used in solar cells, photoelectric devices, and photocopying
machines
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen (Oxygen)
ƒ The most important compound of O and H is water, H2O
ƒ Multiple steps are performed to purify our drinking water

4 10
1 2 3 6 7 8

5 9

1. Aerating is bubbling air through the water to remove any foul-

smelling dissolved gases such as H2S and organic compounds
2. Slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) is added to reduce the acidity and
precipitates Mg2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, and other metal ions
3. The precipitate tends to form as a colloid (a very fine powder that
remains suspended in the water)
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen (Oxygen)

4 10
1 2 3 6 7 8

5 9

4. Fe2(SO4)3 or alum (Al2(SO4)·18H2O) is added to coagulate

(aggregation of smaller particles into a large one) or flocculate
(the loose aggregation of particles to form a fluffy gel) the
precipitates so that it can be filtered out
5. CO2 is added to raise the acidity and promote the precipitation of
aluminum as Al(OH)3 so that it can be removed through filtration
6. Secondary settling basin
7. The water goes through sand to remove any particles that did not
settle out
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen (Oxygen)

4 10
1 2 3 6 7 8

5 9

8. The water then goes through activated charcoal to remove any

organic compounds left in the water
9. The pH of the water is checked again and made slightly basic to
reduce acid corrosion of the pipes
[Link] is added as a disinfectant. Law requires that the
chlorine level is greater than 1 g of Cl2 per 1000 kg of water at
the point of consumption. Note in water Cl2 forms hypochlorous
acid (HClO) which is highly toxic to bacteria
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen (Oxygen)

ƒ Often time we forget that water is reactive compound that is

considered aggressively corrosive
ƒ H2O is an oxidizing agent
2H2O(l) + 2e- Æ 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) E = -0.42 V at pH = 7

ƒ H2O is also a mild reducing agent

4H+(aq) + O2(g) + 4e- Æ 2H2O(l) E = 0.82 V at pH = 7
ƒ H2O is a Lewis base (an electron pair donor)

Example:
Water donates 1 of its lone pair electrons to form complexes
such as Fe(H2O)63+
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen (Oxygen)

H2O2 (Hydrogen Peroxide)

ƒ The presence of Properties:
the second oxygen Pale blue liquid
atom in H2O2 as Denser than H2O
apposed to H2O But has similar melting and boiling points to H2O
makes H2O2 a very weak acid (pKa1 = 11.75 )
ƒ H2O2 is also a stronger oxidizing agent than water
ƒ It can also act as a reducing agent in the presence of more
powerful oxidizing agents
ƒ H2O2 is sold for industrial uses as a 30% by mass aqueous solution
ƒ A 6% H2O2 solution acts to oxidize the pigments in hair in order
to bleach it
ƒ A 3% H2O2 solution acts a a mild antiseptic
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Compounds with Hydrogen

ƒ Except for H2O all the other Group 16 binary compounds with
hydrogen (H2E where E is a group 16 element ) are toxic gases
with offensive odors
ƒ They are insidious poisons because they paralyze the olfactory
nerve and soon after exposure the victim cannot smell them

Example:
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) smells like rotten eggs because egg proteins
contain sulfur and eggs give off the gas when they decompose
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Sulfur Oxides and Oxoacids

ƒ Sulfur forms several oxides that in atmospheric chemistry are

referred to collectively as SOx (read “sox”)

Properties:
Gas
SO2 (Sulfur dioxide) Colorless
Choking
ƒ Sulfur burns in air to form SO2 Poisonous

Where the SO2 in our air comes from

ƒ ~7×1010 kg decomposition of vegetation and volcanic emissions
ƒ ~1×1011 kg naturally occurring H2S which is oxidized to SO2 by O
ƒ ~1.5×1011 kg industry and transportation (Electricity Plants)

*
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Sulfur Oxides and Oxoacids

SO2 (Sulfur dioxide)

Uses:
Refrigerant, preserve dried fruit, bleach for textiles and flour,
producing sulfuric acid

ƒ The oxidation number of sulfur in sulfur dioxide is +4 an

intermediate in sulfurs range from -2 to +6
ƒ Sulfur can act as either oxidizing agents or an reducing agent
ƒ SO2 is the starting material for making sulfur trioxide
2SO2(g) + O2(g) Æ 2SO3(g)
ƒ The SO3 is then used to make sulfuric acid
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Sulfur Oxides and Oxoacids

H2SO4 (Sulfuric acid) Properties:

Colorless
Corrosive
ƒ It can be produced very cheaply Oily liquid
ƒ H2SO4 is the most heavily produced inorganic chemical worldwide
Uses:
It is widely used in industry for the production of fertilizers,
petrochemicals, and detergents

ƒ About 2/3 of the sulfuric acid produced goes into manufacturing

phosphate and ammonium sulfate fertilizers
ƒ Three important chemical properties of H2SO4 are that it is a
strong Bronstead acid (proton donor), a dehydrating agent, and an
oxidizing agent
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Demo

H2SO4 (Sulfuric acid)

ƒ The powerful dehydrating ability of sulfuric acid can be seen when

a little concentrated acid is poured on sucrose (C12H22O11)

C12H22O11(s) Æ 12C(s) + 11H2O(g)

ƒCO and CO2 generated in a side reaction cause the froth

Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Sulfur Halides

ƒ Sulfur reacts directly with all the halogens except iodine

SF6 (Sulfur hexafloride)

ƒ Sulfur reacts spontaneously in fluorine and Properties:

burns brightly to give SF6 Dense
Colorless
ƒ Despite its high oxidation number (+6), it Odorless
is not a good oxidizing agent Thermally stable
ƒ It is a good insulator in air and is used in Nontoxic gas
switches on high-voltage power lines
Group 16: The Oxygen Family
Sulfur Halides

S2Cl2 (disulfur dicholride) Properties:

Yellow
Liquid
Nauseating Smell

ƒ S2Cl2 is one of the products of the reaction of sulfur with chlorine

Uses:
Vulcanization of rubber

ƒ When S2Cl2 reacts with ethene (C2H4), mustard gas is formed which
has been used in chemical warfare
Group 17: The Halogens
The Element

ƒ Electron configurations ns2np5

(n is the period number)
ƒ In its elemental state, all
halogens atoms combine to
form diatomic molecules (ex
F2,I2,…)
ƒ With the exception of F, the
halogens can also lose valence
electrons and their oxidation
states can range from -1 to +7
Group 17: The Halogens
The Elements (Fluorine)

ƒFluorine is the halogen with greatest abundance in Properties:

the Earth’s crust Colorless
Gas
ƒIt occurs widely in many minerals
ƒFluorine is the most strongly oxidizing element. Therefore, it
cannot be obtained from its compounds by oxidation with another
element
ƒFluorine is produced by electrolyzing an anhydrous molten mixture
of potassium fluoride and hydrogen fluoride at about 75ºC with a
carbon anode
ƒMost of the F produced by industry is used to make the volatile
solid UF6 used for processing nuclear fuel
ƒThe next biggest user of F is the production of SF6 for electrical
equipment
Group 17: The Halogens
The Elements (Fluorine)

ƒ Is the most electronegative element

ƒ It has an oxidation number of -1 in all its compounds
ƒ The high electronegativity and small size (it allows for several F
atoms to pack around a central atom) allow it to oxide other
elements to their highest oxidation number
ƒ F is less soluble than other halides
Group 17: The Halogens
The Elements (Chlorine)

ƒ Chlorine is more soluble in water than fluorine Properties:

ƒ As a result even though there is more F present Pale yellow
in the Earth’s crust the oceans are salty with Gas
chlorides rather than fluorides
ƒ Cl is one of the most heavily manufactured chemicals
ƒ It is obtained from electrolysis of molten rock salt (NaCl) or brine
ƒ Cl will directly react with nearly all the elements except for C,
N,O and the noble gases
ƒ It is a strong oxidizing agent
Uses: In a number of industrial processes, including the manufacture of plastics,
solvents, and pesticides. It is also used as bleach in the paper and textile
industries and as a disinfectant in water treatment plants. In addition, Cl is
used to produce Br
Group 17: The Halogens
The Elements (Bromine)

Uses: Properties:
Br is used widely in synthetic organic chemistry Corrosive
because of the ease at which it can be added to and Red-Brown
removed from organic chemicals that are being used Liquid
to carry out complicated syntheses. Organic
bromides are incorporated into textiles as fire
retardants and are used as pesticides. Inorganic
bromides, particularly silver bromide, are used in
photographic emulsions
Group 17: The Halogens
The Elements (Iodine)

ƒ When iodine dissolves in organic solvents it produces solutions

having a variety of colors
ƒ These colors arise from the different interaction between the I2
molecules and the solvent
ƒ Iodine is an essential trace element for living systems; a deficiency
in humans leads to a swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck
ƒ Iodides are added to table salt (iodized salt) to prevent this
deficiency
Group 17: The Halogens
Compounds of the Halogens
ƒ The halogens form compounds among
themselves. These interhalogens have the
formulas XX’, XX’3 , XX’5, and XX’7 (X
heavier halogen)
ƒ These compounds are prepared by direct
reaction of the two halogens, the product
formed being determined by the proportions of
the reactants used
Example:
Cl2(g) + 3F2(g) Æ 2ClF3(g)
Cl2(g) + 5F2(g) Æ 2ClF5(g)

ƒ The trends of the interhalogens are intermediate

between those of their parent halogens
Group 17: The Halogens
Compounds of the Halogens (Hydrogen Halides)

ƒ The hydrogen halides (HX) can be prepared by the direct reaction

of the elements.
Example:
H2(g) + X2(g) Æ 2HX(g)

ƒ Fluorine reacts explosively by a radical chain reaction as soon as

the F2 and H2 are mixed
ƒ The mixture of H2 and Cl2 explodes when it is exposed to light
ƒ Br2 and I2 react much more slowly
ƒ Another way to produce the hydrogen halides is the reaction of a
metal halide with a nonvolatile acid
Example:
CaF2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq, conc) Æ Ca(HSO4)2(aq) + 2HF(g)
Group 17: The Halogens
Compounds of the Halogens (Hydrogen Halides)

ƒ All the hydrogen halides are colorless, pungent gases except HF

which is a liquid at temperature below 20ºC
ƒ HF is significantly different that the other hydrogen halides
because it can form short zigzag chains up to 5 HF molecules long.
These chains are sustained due to H bonding networks
ƒ All hydrogen halides dissolve in water to give acidic solutions
ƒ HF has the distinctive property of attacking glass and silica and the
interiors of lamp bulbs are frosted by the vapors from a solution of
HF and ammonium fluoride
ƒ HF is also used for making fluorinated carbon compounds such as
Teflon
Group 17: The Halogens
Compounds of the Halogens (Oxoacids)
ƒ The acid strengths and the oxidizing ability of the halogen oxoacids
increase with the oxidation number of the halogens
ƒ Hypohalous acids (HXO note +1 oxidation number) are prepared
by direct reaction of the halogen with water
Example:
Cl2(g) + H2O(g) Æ HClO(g) + HCl

ƒ Hypohalite ions (XO-) are formed when a halogen is added to the

aqueous solution of a base
ƒ Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2) is used to chlorinate swimming
pools because when placed in the pool it forms Ca2+ ions which
form insoluble calcium carbonate which can be removed through
filter systems
ƒ Because hypochlorites (HClO) oxidize organic material they are
used in liquid household bleaches and as disinfectants
Group 18: The Nobel gases
The Elements

ƒ Electron configurations
ns2np6 (n is the period
number)
ƒ Their closed shell electron
configuration makes them
have a very low reactivity
Group 18: The Nobel gases
The Elements

ƒ All the noble gases occur in the atmosphere as monatomic gases.

ƒ Together they make up 1% (by mass) of the atmosphere
ƒ Argon is the third most abundant gas in the atmosphere after
nitrogen and oxygen
ƒ All of the noble gases except He and Rn are obtained by the
fractional distillation of liquid air
Group 18: The Nobel gases
The Elements (Helium)

ƒ Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe after

hydrogen
ƒ However it is rare on earth because it is so light that it can reach
the high speeds needed to escape from the atmosphere
ƒ However unlike hydrogen, helium can not be anchored to
compounds. Therefore is less common the hydrogen on earth
ƒ Helium is found as a component of natural gases trapped under
rock formations where it has collected as a result of the emission
of α particles by radioactive elements
ƒ Helium gas is twice as dense as hydrogen under the same
conditions
ƒ Its density is still very low and it is nonflammable therefore it is
used to provide buoyancy in blimps
Group 18: The Nobel Gases
The Elements (Helium)

ƒ Helium is the only

substance known to have
more than one liquid
phase
ƒ Below 2 K liquid helium-II
shows the remarkable
property of superfluidity
(the ability to flow
without viscosity i.e. has
no resistance to flow)
Group 18: The Nobel Gases
The Elements

ƒ Neon glows orange-red when an electrical current is passed

through it and is used for advertising sings and displays
ƒ Argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere for welding to
prevent oxidation
ƒ Argon is also used to fill some types of light bulbs, where it
conducts heat away from the filament
ƒ Krypton gives an intense white light when an electrical current is
passed through it and it is used in airports for there runway lights
ƒ Krypton is produced by nuclear fission, its atmospheric abundance
is one measure of worldwide nuclear activity
ƒ Xeon is used in halogen lamps, for automobile headlights, and in
high speed photographic flash tubes
ƒ Radon is a radioactive gas that seeps out of the ground and its
presence can lead to dangerously high levels of radiation
Group 18: The Nobel Gases
Compounds of the Nobel Gases

ƒ The ionization energies of the noble gases are very high but
decrease down the group
ƒ No compounds of helium, neon, or argon exist except under very
special conditions
ƒ Krypton forms only one known stable neutral molecule KrF2
ƒ Xenon’s ionization energy is low enough for electrons to be lost to
very electronegative elements
ƒ Xe forms several compounds with fluorine and oxygen and
compounds with Xe-N and Xe-C bonds have been reported
ƒ Xenon fluorides are used as powerful fluorinating agents (reagents
for attaching fluorine atoms to other substances)