Chapter 5

Dielectric materials
and Insulation

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• Introduction

• A dielectric material is an insulator which contains electric

dipoles, that is where positive and negative charge are
separated on an atomic or molecular level

• When an electric field is applied, these dipoles align to the

field, causing a net dipole moment that affects the
material properties.

• Dielectric materials have two important functions;

- They have the ability to increase the capacitance

- They have insulating ability.

Let us see the effect of dielectric materials in increasing

the charge storing capacity of a capacitor.
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• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with free
space as an insulator is given by;

0 A
C=
d
Where, C - capacitance of a capacitor
ε0 - absolute permittivity ( permittivity of free space
A - plate face area
d - separation distance between plates

• Capacitance is the ability to store charge across a

potential difference.

Example: parallel conducting plates

A capacitor (condenser) is an apparatus usually consisting of

two Metal plates at a distance from each other. In between the
two metal plates, An insulator is placed/inserted.
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• If two parallel plates separated by a distance d are
connected to a voltage source V, then,

Q0
C0 = , Farad

V
• For a parallel- plate capacitor, C depends on geometry of plates
and material between plates

 r 0 A A
C= =
d d
Where, εr is relative permittivity (or dielectric
constant)
of the material.
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εr = ε /εo
• If there is a material medium ( usually dielectric)
between the plates, the charge storing ability per unit
voltage increases by the factor εr ( relative permittivity of
the medium).

• The increase in capacitance is due to the polarization of

the medium.( +ve and –ve charges are displaced with
respect to their equilibrium position.)

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Polarization and Relative permittivity.

• Polarization is the development of an electric dipole moment P,

which is a measure of the electrostatic effect of a pair of
opposite charges, +Q and _Q separated by a finite distance X.
i.e.
P = Q X

If an atom possesses an effective dipole moment due to applied

field, it is said to be polarized.

The induced dipole moment depends on applied field

PE  Pind = E
Where,  - polarizability of the atom.

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Mechanisms of Polarization
1. Optical (electronic) polarizability – when an external
field E is applied to an atom, the electron clouds are
displaced slightly with respect to the +ve charges
because, the force due to an applied electric field on
electrons is in opposite direction to the force on +ve ion
cores.

• Thus there develops a displacement between the ion core

and the center of mass of the orbiting electrons. Then,
due to this distance separation, we have a dipole
moment which we call optical (electronic) polarizability.

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• 2) Molecular polarizability – In the molecule made up of
two atoms (eg. H+ and Cl-), due to the interaction
between the atoms, there is a redistribution of electrons
between the atoms.

There is a displacement of charge in the bonding

between H+ and Cl- ions. This gives rise to a +ve charge
separated from a –ve charge by a small distance
forming a dipole.

Under the influence of an applied field, the polarization

of a polar substance (molecules having a large dipole
moments) will change due to two possible mechanisms.

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a) The field may cause the atoms to be displaced changing
the distance between them, thus changing the dipole
moment of the molecule. ( atomic polarization)

b) The field may cause the molecule as a whole to rotate

about its axis of symmetry, so that the dipole aligns
itself with the field. (Orientational polarizability).

3) Interfacial polarizability – In real insulating materials

there are inevitably defects such as vacancies,
impurities, dislocations, etc with some free electrons.

Under the influence of an applied field, some or all of

these may migrate through the material towards the
electrode of appropriate polarity. If they reach the
electrode and are able to discharge there, the result is
a loss current through the dielectric.

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However, if not all of them can discharge, there results a
pile-up of charge; +ve and _ve in the vicinity of each
electrode. This gives the dielectric dipole moment and
constitutes Interfacial polarizability.

Any or all of the above three may contribute to the

behaviour in an electric field. For total and average
polarization of a material, they are lumped together to have
a constant . (polarizability)

 average =  elec +  molec +  int erf

Thus, Paverage = Eloc (elec +  molec + interf )

Where, Paverage – Average polarization
Eloc – local electric field applied
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 Permittivity
• From experiments we know that, coulombs force
between two charges is;
q1 q 2
F= a,  =
q1 q 2
Where, a unit vector
4r 2
4Fr 2
a

 =  0 r Total static permittivity (dielectric constant)

Q
Where, r = Relative permittivity of a material
Q0

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 Complex permittivity

• If AC voltage is applied to a capacitance of parallel plates

with a dielectric medium, then

V V
i= =
C 2fC
where, C = εrCo ; Where C0 is capacitance with vacuum/air

We know that, in ideal capacitive circuits current leads

voltage by 90o.
However, in real capacitors containing dielectrics, the angle
of shift between Voltage and current is less than 90o by an
angle δ. This is due to flow of resistive current which is the
cause of ohmic loss in the Capacitor.
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 i

ic

v
ir

Thus,  r =  + j
' '' Complex permittivity

 '
= tan 
 ''
Loss factor of the dielectric.
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 Dielectric loss

• When a perfect dielectric is subjected to ac voltage, there

is no consumption of power. ( I leads V by 90o)

• However , naturally there are imperfections and, therefore

there is power loss. Due to this power loss. The current
does not lead the voltage by 90o,and it leads by an angle
θo (90o-δ); where δ is the loss angle.

The power loss P = IVcosθ = IVcos(90o-δ) = sinδ

V2
P= sin 
Xc
sin = tan  since angle δ is small, sinδ = tanδ

P = V 2 2fC sin  = V 2 2fC tan 

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• Thus, tanδ is power factor of the dielectric and the power
loss is dependent on tanδ provided that V,f,C are constant.

Factors affecting dielectric loss

- temperature – as to increases, dielectric loss increases.
- moisture - “ “ “ “ “
- voltage - “ “ “ “ “
- frequency - “ “ “ “ “

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 Influence of frequency on permittivity

• Assume a single dipole in applied electric field;

- It aligns up itself with the field at a given time.
- If the field is reversed, the dipole turns itself
through 180o, i.e. it turns with the field to be
parallel with it.
• When the electric field is alternating one, the dipole will be
continually switching its position accordingly with the field.

• For an assembly of dipoles in a dielectric , the same will

apply.

• If the frequency of the field increases, a point will be

reached when, because of their inertia the dipoles can not
keep-up with the field and the alteration of dipoles
(polarization)
2/1/2023 will lag behind the field. 16
• This corresponds to a reduction in the apparent polarization
produced by the field, which is a measure of apparent
permittivity of the material.

• As the frequency increases, at some point, the field

produces virtually no polarization of the dielectric.

• The frequency beyond which the polarization no longer

follows the field is called relaxation frequency.

• By determining relaxation frequency of polarization

mechanisms, we can predict in general, which ones are
important to identify dielectric materials.

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2/1/2023 18
• Electronic (optical) polarization –
- relies on position of electrons relative to the core of an atom.
- They have extremely small mass, so they have little inertia and can follow alteration
of the electric field.
- Thus, the relaxation frequency can attain very high value, which is observed in
visible or ultraviolet light range.

• Atomic polarization –
- individual ions change their relative positions. They vibrate with thermal energy
and their frequency ranges in infrared wave length of light.

• Orientational polarization –
- refers to actual reorientation of groups of ions forming dipoles. The inertia of
these groups dictate the relaxation frequency to be in the radio frequency
spectrum range.
• Interfacial polarizability-
- Refers to the displacement of the whole body and relaxation frequency can be
very slow.
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• Based on electronic and atomic polarizability, all
dielectrics are classified as;

a) Non polar materials which show variations of

permittivity in the optical range of frequencies. This
includes all dielectrics having a single type of atom
(solids, liquids, gases).

b) Polar materials having variations of permittivity in the

infrared as well as the optical region (ionic solids, alkali
halides).

c) Dipolar materials which in addition show Orientational

polarization (water)

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 Properties of dielectric materials
I. Electrical properties
A. Insulation resistance
- Volume resistance;
- surface resistance.
Factors affecting insulation resistance are;
1. Temperature: Insulation resistance decreases with the rise of the temperature and is
very much affected by temperature variations.
2. . Moisture: Surface resistance of the insulation decreases if it expressed to moisture.
3. Voltage: The value of insulation resistance its also affected by the voltage applied.
Insulation resistance decreases with the increase in applied voltage.
4. . Age: Insulation resistance decreases with age.
B. Dielectric strength (Break down voltage)- minimum voltage when applied
results destruction of its insulating property.

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C. Dielectric constant (permittivity) – insulating materials have a
property of storing charge Q when voltage V is applied. i.e.

QV  Q = CV
Where, C – a constant – capacitor of a capacitance.

A
As it is known, C = ;
d
And, ε is the property of insulating material that causes the difference
in the value of capacitance, physical dimensions remaining the same.

ii) Mechanical properties –

- Mechanical strength
- Viscosity
- Porosity
- solubility
- Machinability & mouldability
- Density
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iii) Chemical properties
- It has to resist chemical actions

iV) Thermal properties

- melting point – as high as possible

- thermal expansion – as low as possible

- thermal conductivity – as high as possible

- Ignitability – exposed to arcing, it should be

non-ignitable

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 Dielectric Strength
• A defining property of a dielectric medium is not only its ability to
increase capacitance but also, and equally important, its insulating
behaviour.

• Dielectric materials are widely used as insulating media between

conductors at different voltages to prevent the ionization of air or
other medium hence current flashovers between conductors.

• However, under certain conditions, dielectric materials can break

down and conduct a significant current.

• Generally, the lattice of a dielectric has sufficient strength to absorb

the energy from impacting electrons that are accelerated by the
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applied electric field.
• However, under a sufficiently large electric field, some electrons present in the
dielectric will have sufficient kinetic energy to ionize the lattice atoms causing an
avalanching effect.

• As a result, the dielectric will begin to conduct a significant amount of current.

• This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown and the corresponding field

intensity is referred to as the dielectric breakdown strength.

• Dielectric strength may be defined as the maximum potential gradient to which a

material can be subjected without insulating breakdown, that is;

Where,
 dV  VB
Ds =   = DS - the dielectric strength in kV/mm,
 dx  max d VB - the breakdown voltage, and
d - the thickness

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• Dielectric strength depends on
➢material homogeneity,
➢specimen geometry,
➢electrode shape and disposition,
➢stress mode (ac, dc or pulsed) and
➢ambient condition.

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Dielectric breakdown mechanisms
a. Breakdown due to Partial discharge
• Regarding gases, due to cosmic radiation, there are always a few
free electrons in a gas. If the field is sufficiently large, then
some of these electrons can be accelerated to impact ionize a
neutral gas molecule and produce an additional free electron and
+vely charged gas ions.

• Both the first and librated electrons are now available to

accelerate and further impact ionize more neutral gas molecules,
and so on.

• Thus, an avalanche of impact ionization processes creates many

free electrons and +ve gas ions in the gas which give rise to a
discharge current between electrodes. The break down in gases
depends
2/1/2023 on pressure. i.e. Ebr increases with pressure. 27
• A partial discharge occurs when only a local region of the dielectric
is exhibiting discharge so that the discharge does not directly
connect the two electrodes. (eg. Corona discharge).

• Voids and cracks occurring within solid dielectrics and

discontinuities at the dielectric-electrode interface can also lead to
partial discharges.

• Partial discharges in these voids physically and chemically erode

the surrounding dielectric region and lead to an overall deterioration
of the dielectric strength.

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• In case of liquids, impurities existing in the liquid with small conductive
particles band together end to end to form a conducting bridge between the
electrodes and thereby give rise to partial discharge.

• Moisture and gas absorption from ambient and oxidation of certain liquids
generally deteriorate the dielectric strength.

b) Intrinsic (electronic) breakdown

• The most common type of electronic breakdown is an electron avalanche
breakdown.

• A free electron in the conduction band of a dielectric in the presence of a large

field can be accelerated to sufficiently large energies to collide with and ionize
the host atom of the solid.

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• If the energy gained by the electron is greater than the band gap
energy, then the electron can excite another electron from the
valence band to the conduction band, that is break a bond.

• Both the primary and the released electron can further impact
ionize other host atoms and thereby generate an electron
avalanche effect that leads to dielectric breakdown.

c) Thermal breakdown
• If there occurs a finite conduction in solid insulators it results in release within the
solid. Further at higher frequencies, the dielectric loss ‘V2ωtanδ’ becomes
significant.

• Both conduction and dielectric losses therefore generate heat within the dielectric.

• If this heat is not removed sufficiently, it will lead to temperature rise which may
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lead to local hot spot areas and thereby insulation breakdown. 30
d) Electromechanical breakdown
• A dielectric medium between oppositely charged electrodes experiences
compressional forces because the opposite charges +Q and-Q on the plates
attract each other.

• As the applied voltage increases, so does the compressive load, and the dielectric
becomes squeezed. Thus,

- the thickness d becomes smaller;

- as d decreases, field E increases resulting in

more charges on the electrodes.

- the increase in E results in more heat and

dielectric loss development.

• Therefore the processes finally leads to a total breakdown of the dielectric.

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 e) Insulation aging

• It is well recognized that during service, the properties of an

insulating material become degraded and eventually dielectric
breakdown occurs at a field below that predicted at fresh forms.

• In actual fact, even in the absence of an electric field, the insulation

will experience physical and chemical aging whereby its physical
and chemical properties change considerably

• Thus, the insulation can develop structural defects, such as

microcracks, which may damage the dielectric strength thereby its
breakdown.
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 Piezoelectricity
• Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain materials (crystals like SiO2
and ceramics to generate an electric field or electrical potential in
response to applied mechanical stress.

• Charges appear on the surface of the crystal. Appearance of

surface charges leads to a voltage difference between the two
surfaces of the crystal.

• The same crystal also exhibit mechanical strain or distortion when

they experience an electric field. The direction of mechanical
deformation (extension or compression) depends on the direction
of the applied field. The two effects are complementary and define
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Piezoelectricity. 33
• Crystals with a special structure exhibit piezoelectricity
phenomenon; i.e. crystals which has no center of symmetry.

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage

when deformed (change in shape is greatly
exaggerated)

• Piezoelectric crystals are electromechanical transducers because

they convert an electrical signal to a mechanical signal and vice
versa. eg. Ultrasonic transducers, microphones, accelerometers,
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etc
Piezoceramic elements
- Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
- Barium Titanate , Cadmium Sulfide
- Piezoelectric Polymer
- Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)

Applications of piezoelectric materials:

• Watches/computer clocks: quartz (piezoelectric but not
ferroelectric): an electrical signal induces the mechanical vibration
of a quartz bar (to its resonance frequency). This frequency can be
used to count time.

• Lighters: a pressure on a sheet of a (PbZrxTi1-xO3) can induce an

electrical potential of 3 kV, enough to produce an arc discharge
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between two closely spaced sheets and ignite the gas.
Actuators: a potential difference applied on a transducer can change
its shape and actuate a mechanism, for instance, a inkjet printer.
• Ferroelectricity
• ferroelectric crystals are permanently polarized even in the
absence of an applied field. The crystal already possesses a finite
polarization vector due to the separation of positive and negative
charges in the crystal.

eg. Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) –

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• The critical temperature above which ferroelectric
property is lost is called the Curie temperature.
Below the Curie temperature, the whole crystal
becomes spontaneously polarized.

• All ferroelectric crystals are also piezoelectric, but the

reverse is not true: not all piezoelectric crystals are
ferroelectric.

• Ferroelectric materials, as dielectrics for capacitors:

the capacitors can be made 100-1000 smaller than
with conventional dielectrics.
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 Pyroelectricity

• migration of positive and negative charge (and therefore establishment

of electric polarization) to opposite ends of a crystal's polar axis as a
result of a change in temperature

• Some of crystals that lack center of symmetry of ion distribution, (i.e.

piezoelectrics) can also spontaneously develop electric dipoles
(polarize), with the degree of polarization dependent on temperature.

• Pyroelectric materials are very sensitive to small changes in

temperature. They can be used as infrared radiation detectors, for
instance, for night vision goggles, anti-burglar detectors (capable of
detecting the infrared radiation emitted by a person), etc…
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 Dielectric

Piezoelectric

Pyroelectric

Ferroelectri
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c39