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Classification & Evolution

Wednesday, 25 March 2026 10:10

(a) the biological classification of species

Classification is the name given to the process by which living organism are sorted into
groups.
The seven groups are:
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species

Based on recent studies of genetic material, scientists add a further level of classification
known as Domain.
• This level is higher than Kingdom.
• The 3 domains are Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya.

A species defined as a group of organisms that are able to reproduce to produce fertile
offspring.

Scientists classify organisms:

• To identify species
• To predict characteristics
• To find evolutionary links

(b) the binomial system of naming species and the advantage of such a system

To ensure scientists the world over are discussing the same organisms we use a system
developed in the 18th century, by Carl Linnaeus. This is known as the binomial system.

All species are given a scientific name consisting of two parts:

• The first word indicates the organism's genus.
• The second word indicates the organism's species
• Many of these scientific names derive from Latin.
○ The world should be in italics, or underlined.
○ The name should be written in lowercase, with the exception of the first letter of the
genus name which should be uppercase.
○ E.g. Panthera leo

(c) (i) the features used to classify organisms into the five kingdoms

Living organisms can be classified into five kingdoms:

• Prokaryotae
○ Unicellular
○ No nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles
○ A ring of naked DNA
• Protoctista
○ (Mostly) unicellular
○ A nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
○ Some have chloroplasts
○ Some are sessile / immobile
○ Nutrients are acquired by photosynthesis (autotropic), ingestion of other organisms
(heterotrophic) or both
• Fungi
○ Unicellular/multicellular
○ A nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles including chloroplasts, and a cell
wall made of cellulose

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○ Contain chlorophyll
○ Most do not move
○ Nutrients are acquired by photosynthesis (autotrophic)
○ Store food as starch
• Plantae
○ Multicellular
○ Nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles including chloroplasts, and a cell
wall mainly composed of cellulose
○ Contain chlorophyll
○ Most do not move
○ Nutrients are acquired by photosynthesis (autotrophic)
○ Store food as starch
• Animalia
○ Multicellular
○ A nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
○ No chloroplasts
○ Nove with the aid of cilia, flagella or contractile proteins

(ii) the evidence that has led to new classification systems, such as the three domains of
life, which clarifies relationships

The three domains are Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya.

Eukarya:
• Have 80s ribosomes
• RNA polymerase contains 12 proteins.

Archaea:
• Have 70s ribosomes
• RNA polymerase of different organisms contain between 8-10 proteins

Bacteria:
• Have 70s ribosomes
• RNA polymerase contains 5 proteins

In Woese's system the Prokaryote kingdom becomes divided into two kingdoms –
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.

Archaebacteria:
• Also known as ancient bacteria
• Can live in extreme environments
• These include hot thermal vents, anaerobic conditions and highly acidic environments.

Eubacteria:
• Also known as true bacteria
• Are found in all environments and are the ones you will be most familiar with.
• They contain peptidoglycan in their cell wall.

(d) the relationship between classification and phylogeny

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Phylogeny is the name given to the evolutionary relationships between organisms.
• This reveals which group a particular organism is related to, and how closely related
these organism are.
A phylogenetic tree is a diagram used to represent the evolutionary relationships between
organisms.

Advantages of Phylogenetic classification:

• Phylogeny can be done without reference to Linnaean classification.
• Classification uses knowledge of phylogeny in order to confirm the classification groups
are correct or causes them to be changed.
○ Phylogeny produces a continuous tree whereas classification requires discrete
taxonomical groups meaning scientists put organisms into specific groups.
○ The hierarchal nature of the Linnaean classification can be misleading as it implies
different groups within the same rank are equivalent.

(e) the evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection

Evolution is the theory that describes the way in which organisms evolve, or change, over
many years as a result of natural selection.
• Darwin realised that organisms best suited to their environment are more likely to survive
and reproduce, passing on their characteristics to their offspring
• Darwin carried out some of his most famous observations on finches in the Galapagos
Islands

Evidence of evolution:
• Palaeontology
○ Fossils are formed when animals and plant remains are preserved in rocks.
○ Over time, sediment forms layers of rocks, different layers correspond to different
geological eras.

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▪ This is known as the fossil record
• Comparative anatomy
○ A homologous structure is a structure that appears different in different organisms
but has the same underlining structure.

• Comparative biochemistry
○ Study of similarities/differences in the proteins and other molecules that control life
processes
○ Eg rRNA, the order of DNA bases

(f) the different types of variation

The widest type of variation is between members of different species – these differences are
interspecific variation.

Differences between organisms within a species are called intraspecific variation. ○

• E.g. People vary in height and hair colour

The term variation refers to the differences that exist between at least two things (be it a level,
amount, quantity or feature of something)
• Continuous variation is the differences between individuals of a species where the
differences are quantitative (measurable)
• Discontinuous variation refers to the differences between individuals of a species
where the differences are qualitative (categoric)

Each type of variation can be explained by genetic and/or environmental factors.

Genetic causes of variation:

• Genetic variation is due to the genes an individual possesses.
• There are specific causes:
○ Alleles
▪ Individuals in a species population may inherit different alleles of a gene.
○ Mutations
▪ Changes to the DNA sequence and therefore to genes can lead to changes in
the proteins that are coded for.
○ Meiosis
▪ Before the nucleus divides and chromatids of a chromosome separate, the
genetic material inherited is mixed via independent assortment & crossing
over.
○ Sexual Reproduction
▪ The offspring produced from 2 individuals inherit genes from both parents,
therefore each individual differs from their parents.
○ Chance
▪ Many different gametes are produced from the parental genome, therefore the
individuals produced differ from their siblings due to a unique combination of
genetic material.

Environmental causes of variations:

• All organisms are affected by the environment in which they live, although plants may be
affected to a greater degree than animals due to their lack of mobility.
○ E.g. Presence/absence of any scars

(g) the different types of adaptations of organisms to their environment

Adaptations are characteristics that increase an organism's chance of survival and

reproduction in its environment.

Adaptations can be divided into three groups:

• Behavioural adaptations – the way an organism acts
○ E.g. survival behaviour, courtship
• Anatomical adaptations – physical features
○ E.g. camouflage
• Physiological adaptations – processes that take place inside an organism
○ e.g. Poison production
(h) the mechanism by which natural selection can affect the characteristics of a
population over time

Convergent evolution – Organisms from different taxonomic groups may show similar
adaptations even though they do not share a recent common ancestor
• Shared adaptations between unrelated organisms arise due to convergent evolution
• Convergent evolution occurs by natural selection as follows:

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○ two species live in different parts of the world with similar environments
○ the species deal with the same selection pressures
○ the same characteristics are advantageous in the two environments, so individuals
with these characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce
○ over time the advantageous characteristics become widespread in both populations

Many mutations are harmful or neutral but, under certain environmental conditions, the new
alleles may benefit their possessor, leading to an increased chance of survival and increased
reproductive success
• The advantageous allele is passed onto the next generation
• As a result, over several generations, the new allele will increase in frequency in the
population

(i) how evolution in some species has implications for human populations.

Evolution in insects and microorganisms directly impacts human populations by creating

resistant pests and pathogens that threaten food security and health.
• Through natural selection, pesticide resistance in insects and drug resistance in
microorganisms emerge as, following chemical exposure, only resistant individuals
survive and pass on resistance genes, necessitating stronger, more harmful chemicals.

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