STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Electric Charge and Electrons

Electric charge is the property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an electric field.

Charge may be:

• Positive (protons)
• Negative (electrons)
An electron carries a fixed negative charge:

𝑄 = −1.602 × 10−19 C
The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C).

Electric current in circuits occurs because of the movement of electrons carrying charge.

Introduction to Atomic Structure

• Electronics engineering requires understanding the structure and behavior of atoms.
• Since atoms are extremely small, scientists study them through experiments and
theoretical models.
• Several atomic models were proposed, but the model by Niels Bohr is important for
explaining electron energy levels used in electronics.
• Atoms consist of:
o Protons (positive charge)
o Neutrons (neutral)
o Electrons (negative charge)
NB: Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, while electrons move around the
nucleus.

Bohr’s Atomic Model

Main Postulates
1. An atom has a central nucleus with electrons revolving around it in circular orbits.
2. Electrons can move only in specific allowed orbits called energy levels or shells.
3. Each orbit has a fixed amount of energy.
4. The farther the orbit from the nucleus, the greater the energy of the electron.
5. Electrons can jump from one orbit to another by gaining or losing energy.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Ground State
The normal condition of an atom where electrons occupy the lowest possible energy level.
Excited State
If additional energy (heat, light, electricity) is supplied to an electron:
• It jumps to a higher orbit
• The atom becomes excited
When the electron returns to its original orbit, the extra energy is released as electromagnetic
radiation (heat or light).

The figures below shows the Structure of the silicon atom as shown in (i), (ii) shows the
convenient way of representing energy levels of different orbits.

• The energy levels are commonly represented as:

o K shell (n = 1)
o L shell (n = 2)
o M shell (n = 3)
o N shell (n = 4)
• Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by:
2𝑛2
Where n = shell number.
Example:
• K shell → 2 electrons
• L shell → 8 electrons
• M shell → 18 electrons

Prepared by Eng Korir

Energy Levels in an Atom
• Electrons occupy discrete energy levels around the nucleus.
• These levels are often represented using energy level diagrams.
Note:
• Small orbit radius → low energy
• Large orbit radius → high energy
• Electrons normally stay in the lowest possible energy level (ground state).
Excited State
• When energy such as heat, light, or electricity is supplied:
o An electron moves to a higher energy level.
o The atom becomes excited.
Energy Release
• The excited electron quickly returns to its original orbit.
• The extra energy is released as:
o Light
o Heat
o Electromagnetic radiation
Understanding atomic energy levels helps explain:
• Semiconductor Theory
• Diode operation
• Transistor operation
• Energy Bands in Solids
In semiconductors:
• Electron movement between energy levels forms conduction and valence bands, which
control electrical conductivity.

Energy Levels in an Atom

Prepared by Eng Korir

Based on the atomic model proposed by Niels Bohr:
1. Electrons move in orbits with fixed energy.
Each orbit around the nucleus has a specific amount of energy.
2. Energy increases with orbit size.
o Electrons in larger orbits have higher energy.
o Electrons in inner orbits have lower energy.
3. Energy Level Representation
o The different electron orbits are shown using an energy level diagram.
o The first orbit represents the first energy level.
o The second orbit represents the second energy level, and so on.
4. Relationship between radius and energy
o Greater orbit radius → higher energy level.
o Smaller orbit radius → lower energy level.
5. Quantum considerations
o The allowed radii of the orbits are determined by quantum rules, meaning
electrons can only exist in certain specific energy levels.
Key Idea:
Electrons occupy discrete (fixed) energy levels, and higher orbits correspond to higher
electron energy.
Energy Bands
1. Energy of Electrons in an Atom
• In a single isolated atom, electrons move in fixed orbits (energy levels) around the
nucleus.
• Each orbit has a definite and specific energy.
• An electron in that orbit can only have that one energy value.
Example energy levels:
• 1st energy level (r₁)
• 2nd energy level (r₂)
• 3rd energy level (r₃)

Energy of Electrons in a Solid

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • In a solid material, atoms are very close to each other.
• Because of this interaction, the energy levels of electrons split into many closely spaced
levels.
Therefore:
• Electrons no longer have a single energy value.
• Instead, they can have a range of energies.
This range is called an Energy Band.
Energy Band is the range of energies possessed by electrons in a solid is called an energy
band.

Formation of Energy Bands

• In a solid, there are millions of atoms.
• Electrons in the same orbit experience slightly different forces.
• This causes their energy levels to become slightly different.
• These many close energy levels merge to form an energy band.
Example:
• Electrons in first orbit → 1st energy band
• Electrons in second orbit → 2nd energy band
• Electrons in third orbit → 3rd energy band
Types of Energy Bands
In solids, energy bands are mainly divided into:
1. Valence Band
• The outermost energy band containing electrons.
• Electrons here are bound to atoms.
• They do not conduct electricity easily.
2. Conduction Band
• The band above the valence band.
• Electrons here are free to move.
• These electrons conduct electric current.

Prepared by Eng Korir

3. Forbidden Energy Gap (Band Gap)
• The space between the valence band and conduction band.
• No electrons can exist in this region.
Band Gap is the energy difference between the valence band and the conduction band.
Classification of Solids and Energy Bands
Solids are classified according to their electrical conductivity and energy band structure.
There are three main types of solids:
1. Insulators
2. Conductors
3. Semiconductors
The difference between them depends on the arrangement of valence band, conduction band,
and band gap.

1. Insulators
Insulators are materials that do not allow the flow of electric current easily.
In terms of energy bands,
• Valence band: Completely filled
• Conduction band: Empty
• Band gap: Very large (about 5 eV or more), Because the band gap is very large,
electrons cannot move to the conduction band. Therefore current cannot flow.

Temperature Effect
• At higher temperatures, a few electrons may gain energy and jump to the conduction
band.
• But conductivity is still very small.
Examples ; Glass, Rubber, Wood & Plastic

Prepared by Eng Korir

2. Conductors
Conductors are materials that allow electric current to flow easily.
In terms of energy bands;
• Valence band and conduction band overlap
• Band gap = 0, Because the bands overlap, electrons move freely. A large number of free
electrons are available for conduction. As a result even a small voltage can produce a
large electric current.

Examples; Copper, Aluminium, Silver etc.

3. Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.
In terms of energy bands;
• Valence band is Almost full and Conduction band is Almost empty. Band gap is Small
(about 1 eV). Because of this small gap, electrons can jump easily to conduction band
with little excitation. These electrons become free charge carriers.

Temperature Effect
When temperature increases, more electrons move to the conduction band, therefore
conductivity increases.
Examples
• Silicon (Si)
• Germanium (Ge)

Prepared by Eng Korir

Silicon
• Silicon (Si) is the most widely used semiconductor material in electronics.
• Although Germanium (Ge) was used earlier, silicon is preferred due to better
performance and stability.
Three Reasons Why Silicon is Mostly Used in Electronics
Silicon is mostly used because:
1. Abundant and inexpensive
Silicon is widely available in nature (found in sand and rocks), so it is cheaper than many
other semiconductor materials like Germanium.
2. High temperature stability
Silicon can operate at higher temperatures without excessive leakage current, making
devices more reliable.
3. Forms a good oxide layer
Silicon easily forms Silicon Dioxide (SiO₂), which is an excellent insulator and is very
useful in making transistors and integrated circuits.

Atomic Structure of Silicon

• Silicon has atomic number 14.
• It has 4 valence electrons in the outermost shell.
• Electron arrangement:
o K shell → 2 electrons
o L shell → 8 electrons
o M shell → 4 electrons
#These 4 valence electrons are important for bonding and conductivity.
Comparison: Silicon vs Germanium

Property Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge)

Valence electrons 4 4

Valence shell level 3rd orbit 4th orbit

Distance from nucleus Closer Farther

Binding force Stronger Weaker

Prepared by Eng Korir

Property Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge)

Stability More stable Less stable

Key Point
• In silicon, valence electrons are closer to the nucleus, so they are tightly bound.
• This makes silicon:
o More stable
o Less affected by temperature

Energy Band Structure of Silicon

• Silicon is a semiconductor with a small band gap.
Energy Levels
• Valence band energy ≈ –0.7 eV
• Conduction band energy ≈ –1.8 eV
• Band gap:

Behavior of Electrons in Silicon

• At absolute zero (0 K):
o Valence band is completely full
o Conduction band is empty
o Silicon behaves like an insulator
• At room temperature:
o Some electrons gain energy and move to the conduction band
o This creates:
▪ Free electrons (in conduction band)
▪ Holes (in valence band)
Both electrons and holes contribute to electric current.

Important Additional Points (Very Useful for Exams)

Covalent Bonding in Silicon

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • Each silicon atom forms 4 covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms.
• This forms a crystal lattice structure.
This bonding is responsible for:
• Stability of silicon
• Controlled conductivity
Why Silicon is Preferred in Electronics
• Higher thermal stability than germanium
• Lower leakage current
• Abundant and cheaper (available in sand)
• Forms strong oxide layer (SiO₂) → useful in IC fabrication

Temperature Effect
• As temperature increases:
o More electrons move to conduction band
o Conductivity increases
Silicon has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Key Exam Points to Remember

• Silicon has 4 valence electrons
• Band gap ≈ 1.1 eV
• Forms covalent bonds
• Conducts due to electrons and holes
• Most important material in semiconductor devices

Prepared by Eng Korir

SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity lies between that of conductors
and insulators.
• It has moderate conductivity
• Neither a good conductor nor a good insulator
Based on Resistivity:
A semiconductor has resistivity approximately between:
10−4 to 0.5 Ω𝑚

Examples
• Silicon
• Germanium
• Selenium

2. Comparison with Other Materials

Material Nature Resistivity

Copper Conductor Very low

Germanium Semiconductor Medium

Glass Insulator Very high

Nichrome Resistance material Moderate

Key Understanding
• Semiconductor resistivity is:
o Higher than conductors
o Lower than insulators
BUT:
• A semiconductor is NOT a resistance material, even though resistivity may seem
similar.

3. Why Semiconductor is NOT a Resistance Material

• Resistance materials (e.g. nichrome) are used to oppose current.

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • Semiconductors are used to control current flow.
Important:
• Classification is based on behavior, not just resistivity value.

4. Properties of Semiconductors
(i) Intermediate Resistivity
• Less than insulators
• Greater than conductors

(ii) Negative Temperature Coefficient

Meaning:
• As temperature increases, resistance decreases
• As temperature decreases, resistance increases
Opposite of conductors!
Example:
• Germanium behaves:
o Like insulator at low temperature
o Like conductor at high temperature

(iii) Effect of Impurities (Doping)

• Adding small amounts of impurity greatly increases conductivity
Examples of impurities:
• Arsenic
• Gallium
This process is called doping (VERY IMPORTANT concept).
5.2 Bonds in Semiconductors (Detailed Summary)
1. Why Bonding Occurs
• Atoms combine to form stable structures.
• Stability is achieved when the outermost shell (valence shell) has 8 electrons (octet
rule).

Prepared by Eng Korir

 Most semiconductor atoms (like Silicon and Germanium):
• Have 4 valence electrons
• Need 4 more electrons to complete the outer shell

2. Covalent Bond
Definition
A covalent bond is formed when atoms share valence electrons to complete their outer shells.

3. Formation of Covalent Bonds in Semiconductors

• Each atom shares its 4 valence electrons with neighboring atoms
• Each bond consists of 2 shared electrons
• Each atom becomes surrounded by 8 electrons (stable octet)
Example:
• In Germanium:
o Each atom forms 4 covalent bonds
o Bonds are formed with 4 neighbouring atoms

4. Structure of Semiconductor Crystal

• Atoms are arranged in a regular crystal lattice
• Each atom is connected to four adjacent atoms
• Forms a strong and stable structure

5. Important Characteristics of Covalent Bonds

(i) Sharing of Electrons
• Valence electrons are shared between atoms
• Each electron is associated with two atoms

(ii) No Free Electrons (At Low Temperature)

• All electrons are tightly bound in covalent bonds

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • No free electrons available
Therefore:
• Semiconductor behaves like an insulator at very low temperature

(iii) Bond Breaking

• When energy (heat/light) is supplied:
o Covalent bonds break
o Electrons become free

6. Generation of Charge Carriers

When a bond breaks:
• A free electron is released
• A hole is created in its place
This is called electron-hole pair generation

7. Conduction in Semiconductors
Electric current flows due to:
• Movement of free electrons
• Movement of holes
Both contribute to current (VERY IMPORTANT).

8. Effect of Temperature
• Increase in temperature → more bonds break
• More electron-hole pairs are generated
• Conductivity increases
This explains negative temperature coefficient

Feature N-Type P-Type

Dopant Pentavalent Trivalent

Prepared by Eng Korir

Feature N-Type P-Type

Majority carrier Electrons Holes

Minority carrier Holes Electrons

Impurity atom Donor Acceptor

Charge type Negative Positive

Prepared by Eng Korir

Prepared by Eng Korir
5
Definition
An N-type semiconductor is formed when a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor like silicon or germanium.
Pentavalent impurity = atom with 5 valence electrons
Examples:
• Phosphorus (P)
• Arsenic (As)
• Antimony (Sb)
Formation of N-Type Semiconductor
Pure silicon has 4 valence electrons.
When phosphorus (5 valence electrons) is added:
• 4 electrons form covalent bonds with neighboring silicon atoms.

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • 1 extra electron remains free.
This extra electron can move easily and conduct electricity.
That is why conductivity increases.
Why it is called N-type
It is called N-type because:
• The majority charge carriers are negative electrons
(N = Negative)
Charge Carriers
Majority carriers:
Electrons
These are many and carry most current.
Minority carriers:
Holes
These are very few.
Donor Atom
Pentavalent impurity atoms are called donor atoms because they donate one extra free electron.
Example:
Phosphorus → donates 1 electron
Energy Band Explanation
In N-type semiconductor:
• Extra electrons create a donor energy level
• This level lies just below the conduction band
Very little energy is needed to push electrons into conduction band.
This makes conduction easy even at room temperature.

Conductivity of N-Type Semiconductor

N-type semiconductor has high conductivity because:
✔ Many free electrons are available
✔ Electrons move easily
✔ Less energy is required for conduction

Prepared by Eng Korir

Conductivity is much higher than intrinsic semiconductor.
Current Flow in N-Type
When voltage is applied:
• Electrons move toward positive terminal
• Conventional current flows opposite to electron flow
Current mainly depends on electron movement.
Important Properties
✔ Electrically neutral overall
(positive donor ions balance electrons)
✔ Conductivity increases with temperature

✔ Electrons are majority carriers

✔ Used widely in semiconductor devices

Uses of N-Type Semiconductor
Used in making:
• PN Junction Diode
• Transistor
• Integrated Circuit
• Solar cells
• Electronic switching circuits

Quick Comparison

Feature N-Type Semiconductor

Impurity added Pentavalent

Examples P, As, Sb

Majority carrier Electrons

Minority carrier Holes

Prepared by Eng Korir

Feature N-Type Semiconductor

Impurity atom called Donor atom

Conductivity High

Exam Memory Trick

N-Type → Negative → Electrons
Pentavalent → 5 electrons → 1 free electron
Donor → Donates electron
These are the key points usually tested in electronics exams.

Prepared by Eng Korir

5
Definition

Prepared by Eng Korir

A P-type semiconductor is formed when a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor
like silicon or germanium.
Trivalent impurity = atom with 3 valence electrons
Examples:
• Boron (B)
• Aluminium (Al)
• Gallium (Ga)
• Indium (In)
Formation of P-Type Semiconductor
Pure silicon has 4 valence electrons.
When a trivalent atom (like boron) is added:
• It forms 3 covalent bonds with neighboring silicon atoms.
• One bond remains incomplete because one electron is missing.
This missing electron creates a hole.
A hole acts like a positive charge carrier.
Why it is called P-type
It is called P-type because:
• The majority charge carriers are positive holes
(P = Positive)
Charge Carriers
Majority carriers:
Holes
These carry most of the current.
Minority carriers:
Electrons
These are very few.
Acceptor Atom
Trivalent impurity atoms are called acceptor atoms because they accept an electron to complete
the bond.
Example:

Prepared by Eng Korir

Boron accepts 1 electron.
Hole Movement
When a nearby electron fills a hole:
• It leaves another hole behind
This makes the hole appear to move through the crystal.
Actual movement is by electrons, but we say holes move.
Energy Band Explanation
In P-type semiconductor:
• Acceptor impurity creates an acceptor energy level
• This level lies just above the valence band
Very little energy is needed for electrons to jump into acceptor level.
This leaves holes in the valence band for conduction.
Conductivity of P-Type Semiconductor
P-type semiconductor has high conductivity because:
✔ Many holes are available
✔ Holes move easily
✔ Low energy needed for conduction
It conducts better than intrinsic semiconductor.
Current Flow in P-Type
When voltage is applied:
• Holes move toward negative terminal
• Electrons move opposite to hole movement
Current mainly depends on hole movement.
Important Properties
✔ Electrically neutral overall
✔ Holes are majority carriers
✔ Conductivity increases with temperature
✔ Minority carriers are electrons
Uses of P-Type Semiconductor
Used in making:
• PN Junction Diode

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • Transistor
• Integrated Circuit
• Rectifiers
• Solar cells
• Switching circuits

Quick Comparison

Feature P-Type Semiconductor

Impurity added Trivalent

Examples B, Al, Ga, In

Majority carrier Holes

Minority carrier Electrons

Impurity atom called Acceptor atom

Conductivity High

Difference Between N-Type and P-Type

Feature N-Type P-Type

Dopant Pentavalent Trivalent

Majority carrier Electrons Holes

Minority carrier Holes Electrons

Impurity atom Donor Acceptor

Charge type Negative Positive

Prepared by Eng Korir

Charge on N-type and P-type Semiconductors & Majority and Minority Carriers

Prepared by Eng Korir

Charge on N-type and P-type Semiconductors
N-type Semiconductor
N-type semiconductor is formed by adding pentavalent impurity atoms.
Examples:
• Phosphorus
• Arsenic
What happens:
• The impurity atom donates one free electron
• The atom becomes a positive donor ion after losing that electron
So N-type has:
• Free electrons (negative charge carriers)
• Fixed positive donor ions
These charges balance each other.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Important:
Although it has extra electrons, N-type is electrically neutral overall because:
Positive donor ions = Negative free electrons
P-type Semiconductor
P-type semiconductor is formed by adding trivalent impurity atoms
Examples:
• Boron
• Gallium
What happens:
• The impurity accepts one electron
• It becomes a negative acceptor ion
• A hole is created
So P-type has:
• Holes (positive charge carriers)
• Fixed negative acceptor ions
These also balance each other.
Important:
P-type is also electrically neutral overall because:
Negative acceptor ions = Positive holes
Key Point
Both N-type and P-type semiconductors are electrically neutral.
They conduct electricity because of movement of carriers, not because they have net charge.
5.13 Majority and Minority Carriers
Meaning
Charge carriers in semiconductors are:
• Electrons
• Holes
Depending on which are more, they are called majority carriers.

In N-type Semiconductor

Prepared by Eng Korir

Since pentavalent impurity adds many free electrons:
Majority carriers:
Electrons
Minority carriers:
Holes
Electrons carry most current.
In P-type Semiconductor
Since trivalent impurity creates many holes:
Majority carriers:
Holes
Minority carriers:
Electrons
Holes carry most current.
Quick Comparison Table

Property N-type P-type

Dopant Pentavalent Trivalent

Fixed ion Positive donor ion Negative acceptor ion

Majority carrier Electrons Holes

Minority carrier Holes Electrons

Overall charge Neutral Neutral

Exam Memory Trick

N-type → Negative → Electrons are majority
P-type → Positive → Holes are majority
Donor loses electron → Positive ion
Acceptor gains electron → Negative ion
These are very common electronics exam questions.
PN Junction and Properties of PN Junction

Prepared by Eng Korir

Prepared by Eng Korir
Prepared by Eng Korir
PN Junction
Definition
A PN junction is formed when a P-type semiconductor is joined with an N-type
semiconductor.
It is the basic structure used to make semiconductor devices such as:
• Diode
• Transistor
• Rectifier
Formation of PN Junction
When P-type and N-type materials are joined:
On N-side:
There are many free electrons
On P-side:
There are many holes

Prepared by Eng Korir

Because of concentration difference:
• Electrons move from N-side to P-side
• Holes move from P-side to N-side
This movement is called diffusion.

Recombination
When free electrons meet holes:
• They combine and neutralize each other
This process is called recombination.
As recombination continues:
• N-side loses electrons → becomes positive ions
• P-side loses holes → becomes negative ions
Depletion Region
The region near the junction becomes empty of free charge carriers.
This region is called the depletion layer (depletion region).
It contains only fixed ions.
Important:
The depletion layer acts like an insulator and blocks current flow.
Electric Field Formation
Because of fixed ions:
• Positive ions on N-side
• Negative ions on P-side
An electric field is created across the junction.
Direction of electric field:
From N-side to P-side
This electric field opposes further diffusion.
Barrier Potential
The voltage developed across depletion layer is called barrier potential (or junction potential).
Typical values:
• Silicon → 0.7 V

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • Germanium → 0.3 V
Barrier potential prevents more electrons and holes from crossing.
5.15 Properties of PN Junction
1. Depletion Layer
• No free electrons or holes
• Acts as barrier to current
The wider the depletion layer, the less current flows.
2. Barrier Potential
Opposes movement of charge carriers.
Must be overcome before current can flow.
Silicon: 0.7 V
Germanium: 0.3 V
3. Electric Field
The fixed ions create an electric field across the depletion region.
This field:
• Stops further diffusion
• Maintains junction balance
4. Equilibrium State
After some time:
Diffusion force = Electric field force
At this point:
No net current flows.
The junction is stable.
Important Effects
Forward Bias
When external voltage reduces barrier potential:
Current flows easily.
(Used in diode conduction)
Reverse Bias
When external voltage increases barrier potential:

Prepared by Eng Korir

Current flow stops (very small leakage current only).
Quick Comparison

Property Description

Depletion layer Region with no free carriers

Barrier potential Voltage barrier across junction

Electric field Prevents further diffusion

Forward bias Current flows

Reverse bias Current blocked

Exam Memory Tricks

PN Junction = P-type + N-type joined
Diffusion → Recombination → Depletion region (Step precess)
Depletion region creates electric field
Electric field creates barrier potential
Silicon = 0.7V
Germanium = 0.3V
These are very important electronics exam points.

Simple Notes: Applying D.C Voltage Across PN Junction (Biasing) – 5.16

Prepared by Eng Korir

Prepared by Eng Korir
Prepared by Eng Korir
Definition of Biasing
Biasing is the process of applying an external D.C voltage across a PN junction.
Biasing controls whether current flows or not.
There are two types of biasing:
1. Forward Bias
2. Reverse Bias
1. Forward Bias
Connection
In forward bias:
• Positive terminal of battery is connected to P-type
• Negative terminal of battery is connected to N-type
What happens?
The external voltage opposes the junction barrier voltage.
This causes:
• Depletion layer becomes narrow
• Barrier potential decreases
• More electrons and holes cross the junction
Current starts flowing easily.
Result of Forward Bias
✔ Low resistance
✔ Large current flows
✔ Junction conducts
This condition is called ON state
Important Point
For conduction to start:
• Silicon diode needs about 0.7 V
• Germanium diode needs about 0.3 V
This is called cut-in voltage (threshold voltage)

Prepared by Eng Korir

Forward Bias Carrier Movement
• Electrons move from N-side to P-side
• Holes move from P-side to N-side
They recombine near the junction, allowing continuous current flow.

2. Reverse Bias
Connection
In reverse bias:
• Positive terminal of battery → connected to N-type
• Negative terminal of battery → connected to P-type

What happens?
The external voltage adds to barrier voltage.
This causes:
• Depletion layer becomes wider
• Barrier potential increases
• Majority carriers are pulled away from junction
Very few carriers cross junction.

Result of Reverse Bias

✔ Very high resistance
✔ Almost no current flows
✔ Junction blocks current
This condition is called OFF state

Reverse Current
A very small current flows due to minority carriers.
This is called:
Reverse saturation current
It is very small and usually ignored.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Important Warning: Breakdown
If reverse voltage becomes too high:
The junction breaks down suddenly and large current flows.
This is called:
Breakdown voltage
Types:
• Zener breakdown
• Avalanche breakdown
Zener Breakdown
Definition:
Zener breakdown is the sudden increase in reverse current when a heavily doped p–n junction
diode is reverse biased to a critical low voltage. The strong electric field breaks covalent bonds
and causes electrons to jump (tunnel) across the depletion region.
Related concept: Zener breakdown
Conditions for occurrence
• Heavily doped semiconductor
• Very thin depletion layer
• Low reverse breakdown voltage (usually below 5–6V)
• Strong electric field present
Working mechanism
Electrons tunnel directly through the depletion region due to the intense electric field.
Characteristics
• Sudden large increase in reverse current
• Reverse voltage remains almost constant
• Temperature coefficient is negative
(breakdown voltage decreases as temperature rises)
Applications
• Voltage regulation
• Voltage reference circuits
• Surge protection

Prepared by Eng Korir

Avalanche Breakdown
Definition:
Avalanche breakdown is the sudden rise in reverse current when reverse voltage becomes high
enough to accelerate charge carriers so they collide with atoms and create additional carriers by
impact ionization.
Related concept: Avalanche breakdown
Conditions for occurrence
• Lightly doped semiconductor
• Wide depletion layer
• High reverse voltage (usually above 6V)
Working mechanism
Carriers gain kinetic energy → collide with atoms → release more electron-hole pairs → chain
reaction (avalanche effect).
Characteristics
• Sudden heavy reverse current
• Breakdown voltage remains nearly constant
• Temperature coefficient is positive
(breakdown voltage increases as temperature rises)
Applications
• Avalanche photodiodes
• High-voltage protection circuits
Main Differences

Feature Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

Doping Heavy Light

Depletion region Thin Wide

Breakdown voltage Low High

Cause Quantum tunneling Impact ionization

Temperature coefficient Negative Positive

Prepared by Eng Korir

Comparison: Forward Bias vs Reverse Bias

Property Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Battery connection + to P, − to N + to N, − to P

Depletion layer Narrow Wide

Barrier potential Decreases Increases

Resistance Low High

Current flow Large current Very small current

Junction state ON OFF

Easy Memory Trick

Forward Bias
P to Positive, N to Negative
Barrier decreases
Resistance Reduces
Current increase

Reverse Bias
P to Negative, N to Positive
Barrier is widened
Resistance increases
Current drops

Why Biasing is Important

Biasing allows PN junctions to work as:
• Rectifier
• Switch
• Diode
• Transistor
These are essential in electronic circuits.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Current Flow in a Forward Biased PN Junction

Prepared by Eng Korir

Definition
A forward biased PN junction allows current to flow easily because the external battery
reduces the barrier potential.
This allows charge carriers to cross the junction.
Battery Connection in Forward Bias
• Positive terminal → connected to P-type
• Negative terminal → connected to N-type
This pushes charge carriers toward the junction.
How Current Flows Step by Step
Step 1: Electrons move in N-region
The negative terminal of the battery repels free electrons in the N-type region.
These electrons move toward the PN junction.
Current in N-region is due to free electrons.
Step 2: Electrons cross the junction
Since forward voltage reduces the depletion barrier:
Electrons cross from N-side → P-side

Prepared by Eng Korir

Step 3: Electrons combine with holes
When electrons enter the P-region:
They combine with holes.
This process is called recombination.
After combining, the electron becomes a valence electron.
Step 4: Holes move in P-region
When a hole is filled, another hole appears nearby.
This makes holes appear to move toward the junction.
Current in P-region is due to hole movement.
Step 5: Electrons return through battery
Valence electrons reach the positive terminal of the battery.
Inside the battery:
They are supplied back to the negative terminal.
The cycle continues.
Important Current Flow Rule
In N-region:
Current is carried by free electrons
In P-region:
Current is carried by holes
In external connecting wire:
Current is carried by electrons
Why Current Flows Continuously
The battery keeps:
✔ Pushing electrons from negative terminal
✔ Pulling electrons into positive terminal
✔ Maintaining continuous movement of charge
So current keeps flowing.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Key Concepts
Free Electron
An electron not attached to any atom and can move freely.
Hole
An empty space in a covalent bond.
It behaves like a positive charge.
Valence Electron
An electron attached in a covalent bond.
When free electron fills a hole, it becomes a valence electron.
Diagram Understanding
In forward bias:
• Electrons move N → P
• Holes move P → N
• Conventional current flows P → N
(Conventional current is opposite to electron flow)
**Conventional current is the assumed flow of electric charge from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of a source through an external circuit.**
Important Properties of Forward Current
✔ Large current flows
✔ Resistance is low
✔ Depletion layer becomes thin
✔ Junction conducts
This is called conduction state (ON state)
Quick Summary Table

Region Charge Carrier

N-region Free electrons

P-region Holes

External wire Electrons

Prepared by Eng Korir

Exam Memory Trick
Forward Bias the Junction ON
Electrons move N to P
Holes move P to N
Electrons + Holes = Recombination
NB: Although current inside the semiconductor is carried by both electrons and holes, current
in the external circuit is always carried by electrons.
Volt-Ampere (V-I) Characteristics of PN Junction

Prepared by Eng Korir

Prepared by Eng Korir
Definition
The Volt-Ampere (V-I) characteristic of a PN junction diode shows the relationship between:
• Voltage (V) across the diode
• Current (I) flowing through it
It helps us understand how a diode behaves in:
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
The V-I Graph Has Two Regions
• Forward Bias Region
• Reverse Bias Region
1. Forward Bias Characteristics
In forward bias:
• Positive terminal connected to P-type
• Negative terminal connected to N-type
This reduces the barrier potential.

At Small Voltage
When forward voltage is very small:
Current is almost zero
Why?
Because voltage is not enough to overcome barrier potential.

Cut-in Voltage (Threshold Voltage)

Current starts increasing rapidly after reaching a certain voltage called cut-in voltage.
Typical values:
• Silicon → 0.7 V
• Germanium → 0.3 V
At this point the diode starts conducting.

After Cut-in Voltage

Prepared by Eng Korir

A small increase in voltage causes a large increase in current.
Reason:
Resistance becomes very low.
This region is called conduction region
Forward Resistance
Forward resistance is very low
So diode allows current easily.
2. Reverse Bias Characteristics
In reverse bias:
• Positive terminal connected to N-type
• Negative terminal connected to P-type
This increases barrier potential.
Reverse Saturation Current
A very small current flows due to minority carriers.
This current is called:
Reverse saturation current
It remains almost constant even if reverse voltage increases slightly.
Reverse Resistance
Reverse resistance is very high
So current is almost zero.
3. Breakdown Region
If reverse voltage becomes very large:
The diode suddenly conducts heavily.
This is called breakdown
At this point:
Current rises sharply.
This can damage normal diodes.
Types of Breakdown
(a) Zener Breakdown
Occurs at low reverse voltage due to strong electric field.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Used in:
• Zener Diode voltage regulators

(b) Avalanche Breakdown

Occurs at high reverse voltage due to collision of electrons.

Important Graph Points

Forward Side
• No current at first
• Current rises after cut-in voltage
Reverse Side
• Very small current first
• Sudden rise at breakdown voltage
Comparison Table

Property Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Resistance Low High

Current Large Very small

Barrier voltage Decreases Increases

Conducts? Yes No (until breakdown)

Why Resistance R is Used in Circuit

A resistor is connected in series to:
✔ Limit current
✔ Protect diode from damage
✔ Prevent excessive forward current
Important Exam Values
Silicon cut-in voltage = 0.7 V
Germanium cut-in voltage = 0.3 V

Prepared by Eng Korir

Easy Memory Trick
Forward Bias
Barrier ↓
Current ↑
Resistance ↓
Reverse Bias
Barrier ↑
Current ↓
Resistance ↑
Main Conclusion
A PN junction diode behaves like a one-way switch:
✔ Allows current in forward bias
✔ Blocks current in reverse bias
✔ Conducts heavily only at breakdown
This property makes it useful in:
• Rectifier
• Switching circuits
• Voltage regulators
• Signal detection circuits

Prepared by Eng Korir

Important Terms & Limitations in Operation of PN Junction

Prepared by Eng Korir

Important Terms
These are very common exam terms related to PN junction diodes.
1. Breakdown Voltage
Definition

Prepared by Eng Korir

The reverse voltage at which a diode suddenly conducts large reverse current is called
breakdown voltage.
At breakdown:
• Reverse resistance becomes very low
• Reverse current increases suddenly
• The diode may get damaged if current is not limited
Why it happens
Very high reverse voltage breaks the depletion barrier and allows many electrons to flow.
Important Note
Normal diode operation must always stay below breakdown voltage.
(Except in Zener Diode where breakdown is used safely)
2. Knee Voltage (Cut-in Voltage / Threshold Voltage)
Definition
The minimum forward voltage required for noticeable current to flow is called knee voltage.
It is the point where current rises rapidly.
Values
For Silicon:
0.7 V
For Germanium:
0.3 V
Why called Knee Voltage?
Because the V-I graph bends sharply like a knee at that point.

Graph Meaning
Before Knee Voltage
Current is very small
At Knee Voltage
Current begins increasing quickly
After Knee Voltage
A small voltage increase gives large current increase

Prepared by Eng Korir

Diode conducts strongly.
Difference: Knee Voltage vs Breakdown Voltage

Property Knee Voltage Breakdown Voltage

Bias type Forward bias Reverse bias

Current Starts increasing Suddenly very large

Safe operation Yes Usually dangerous

Limitations in Operation of PN Junction

A PN junction diode has safe operating limits.
If exceeded, the diode can fail.
Main limitations are:
1. Maximum Forward Current
2. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
3. Maximum Power Dissipation
1. Maximum Forward Current
Definition
The highest forward current a diode can safely carry.
If current exceeds this value:
• Diode overheats
• Junction gets damaged
Protection
A series resistor is used to limit current.
This prevents overheating.
2. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Definition
The maximum reverse voltage a diode can withstand safely.
If reverse voltage exceeds PIV:
• Breakdown occurs
• Large reverse current flows
• Diode may be destroyed

Prepared by Eng Korir

Important
PIV must never be exceeded in normal operation.
3. Maximum Power Dissipation
Definition
The maximum power a diode can safely handle without overheating.
Formula:
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

Where:
• P = Power
• V = Voltage
• I = Current
If exceeded:
• Junction temperature rises
• Diode may burn out
Why These Limits Matter
These limits ensure:
✔ Safe operation
✔ Longer diode life
✔ Prevent damage
✔ Stable circuit performance
Quick Comparison Table

Term Meaning

Breakdown Voltage Reverse voltage causing sudden current

Knee Voltage Minimum forward voltage for conduction

Maximum Forward Current Highest safe forward current

PIV Highest safe reverse voltage

Power Dissipation Maximum safe power handling

Important Values
Silicon Knee Voltage = 0.7 V

Prepared by Eng Korir

Germanium Knee Voltage = 0.3 V
Forward Bias
Knee Voltage starts conduction
Reverse Bias
Breakdown Voltage starts heavy reverse current
Safety Rule
Never exceed:
• Forward current
• PIV
• Power rating

Diode Behaviour, Resistance, Equivalent Circuit & Models

Prepared by Eng Korir

Prepared by Eng Korir
Resistance of Crystal Diode
A diode offers different resistance depending on how it is connected.
There are two types of resistance:
1. Forward Resistance
When diode is forward biased:
• Current flows easily
• Resistance is very low
Formula:

Prepared by Eng Korir

 𝑉𝑓
𝑅𝑓 =
𝐼𝑓

Where:
• 𝑉𝑓 = Forward voltage
• 𝐼𝑓 = Forward current
Important:
Low resistance means easy conduction.
So diode behaves like a closed switch.
2. Reverse Resistance
When diode is reverse biased:
• Current is almost zero
• Resistance is very high
Formula:
𝑉𝑟
𝑅𝑟 =
𝐼𝑟

Where:
• 𝑉𝑟 = Reverse voltage
• 𝐼𝑟 = Reverse current
Since reverse current is very small:
𝑅𝑟 ≫ 𝑅𝑓

(reverse resistance is much greater than forward resistance)

Key Difference

Property Forward Resistance Reverse Resistance

Bias Forward bias Reverse bias

Current High Very low

Resistance Low High

Switch action Closed Open

Prepared by Eng Korir

Equivalent Circuit of Crystal Diode
An equivalent circuit is a simple electrical model used to represent actual diode behavior.
It helps make circuit analysis easier.
There are two equivalent conditions:
(a) Forward Biased Equivalent Circuit
When diode is ON:
It behaves like a closed switch
• Current flows
• Very small resistance
Practical silicon diode voltage drop:
0.7 V
Practical germanium diode voltage drop:
0.3 V
Equivalent:
Battery + small resistor
(b) Reverse Biased Equivalent Circuit
When diode is OFF:
It behaves like an open switch
• No current flows
• Very high resistance
Equivalent:
Broken/open circuit
6.5 Crystal Diode Equivalent Models
A diode can be represented using different models.
There are three main models:
1. Approximate Model
This is the simplest model.

Assumption:
• Forward biased diode = perfect conductor

Prepared by Eng Korir

 • Reverse biased diode = open circuit
Voltage drop ignored.
Used for:
Simple circuit analysis
Behaviour:
Forward bias:
Switch closed
Reverse bias:
Switch open
2. Simplified Model
This model includes the barrier voltage.
Voltage drop considered:
• Silicon = 0.7 V
• Germanium = 0.3 V
Forward bias equivalent:
Ideal diode + voltage source
Reverse bias:
Open switch
Used for:
More accurate practical calculations
3. Ideal Model
Perfect diode assumption:
Forward bias:
• Zero resistance
• Zero voltage drop
Reverse bias:
• Infinite resistance
This is theoretical.
Used for:
Basic understanding

Prepared by Eng Korir

Comparison of Diode Models

Model Forward Voltage Drop Accuracy

Ideal Model 0V Low practical accuracy

Approximate Model Ignored Medium

Simplified Model Included (0.7V/0.3V) High

Practical Example
If:
Supply voltage = 10 V
Silicon diode drop = 0.7 V
Then resistor gets:
10 − 0.7 = 9.3𝑉
This is used in circuit calculations.
Why Equivalent Models Are Important
They help engineers:
✔ Analyze circuits easily
✔ Calculate voltage and current
✔ Design rectifiers
✔ Study diode operation
Important Exam Points
Silicon forward drop = 0.7 V
Germanium forward drop = 0.3 V
Forward bias = closed switch
Reverse bias = open switch
Final Summary
A crystal diode:
✔ Has low forward resistance
✔ Has high reverse resistance
✔ Acts as one-way conductor
✔ Can be represented using different equivalent models
These concepts are very important for solving diode circuit problems in electronics exams.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Prepared by Eng Korir
Special Purpose Diodes

Prepared by Eng Korir

Prepared by Eng Korir
Special-purpose diodes are designed for specific electronic functions like:
• Voltage regulation
• Light production
• Signal detection
• Switching
Zener Diode
Definition
A Zener diode is a diode specially designed to operate in reverse breakdown region safely.

Prepared by Eng Korir

Unlike ordinary diodes, it works normally in reverse bias.
Working
Forward Bias
Acts like normal diode
Silicon:
0.7𝑉

Germanium:
0.3𝑉

Reverse Bias
Very small current until breakdown voltage is reached.
At breakdown:
Voltage stays constant.
This is called:
𝑉𝑍

(Zener voltage)
Formula
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝑍 =
𝑅𝑆

Where:
• 𝐼𝑍 = Zener current
• 𝑉𝑆 = Supply voltage
• 𝑉𝑍 = Zener voltage
• 𝑅𝑆 = Series resistor
Example
Given:
𝑉𝑆 = 12𝑉
𝑉𝑍 = 6𝑉
𝑅𝑆 = 1𝑘Ω

Prepared by Eng Korir

Current:
12 − 6
𝐼𝑍 =
1000
𝐼𝑍 = 6𝑚𝐴

Uses
• Voltage regulation
• Circuit protection
• Reference voltage source
Analogy
Think of Zener as a pressure release valve
Too much pressure?
It releases excess safely.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Definition
An LED emits light when forward biased.
It converts electrical energy into light.
Working
When forward biased:
Electrons recombine with holes.
Energy released as:
Light

This process is called:

Electroluminescence

Typical LED Voltage

Red LED:
1.8𝑉

Prepared by Eng Korir

Green LED:
2.2𝑉

Blue LED:
3.3𝑉

Analogy
Like people clapping when they meet.
Electron + Hole meet → light released
Used in:
• Indicators
• Displays
• Traffic lights
• TV screens
LED Voltage and Current
LED needs a series resistor to prevent damage.
Formula for Series Resistor

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑆 =
𝐼
Where:
• 𝑅= resistor
• 𝑉𝑆 = supply voltage
• 𝑉𝐷 = LED voltage
• 𝐼= LED current

Prepared by Eng Korir

Advantages of LED
✔ Low power consumption
✔ Long life
✔ Small size
✔ Fast switching
✔ High efficiency
✔ No warm-up time
Example
Compare:
Incandescent bulb life:
~1000 hours
LED life:
~50,000 hours
Huge difference.
Analogy
LED is like a fuel-efficient motorcycle.
Bulb is like an old fuel-hungry truck.
Both move, but one wastes less energy
Comparison: Zener vs LED

Feature Zener Diode LED

Bias used Reverse Forward

Output Constant voltage Light

Main use Regulation Indication

Prepared by Eng Korir

Exam Memory Shortcuts
Zener
“Zener Zaps excess voltage”
LED
“LED Lets Energy Display”
Formula Memory
Current:
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

Power:
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

LED resistor:
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝐷
𝑅=
𝐼

Zener current:
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝑍 =
𝑅𝑆

Fast Revision
Zener
Reverse bias regulator
LED
Forward bias light source
Silicon diode drop
0.7𝑉

Germanium diode drop

0.3𝑉

Prepared by Eng Korir