IC ENGINE

Complete Interview Notes

Internal Combustion Engines — Fundamentals to Advanced Topics

# Chapter Coverage

01 Basics & Power Cycles IC Engine definition, Otto/Diesel/Dual/Brayton cycles

02 Classification 7 classification types with detailed breakdown

03 2-Stroke & 4-Stroke Stroke-by-stroke, valve timing, full comparison

04 Engine Parts & Functions 20 major components — material, role, wear

05 Combustion & Fuel Systems SI vs CI, detonation, CRDI, turbocharging

06 Engine Testing Morse test, Motoring test — complete procedure

07 Pollution & Emission Control Smoke types, BS norms I-VI, DPF, SCR, EGR, CAT

Prepared for: Mechanical

Engineering Interviews Level: Entry to Mid-Senior Total Topics: 7 Chapters

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CHAPTER 1 — BASICS & POWER CYCLES

Definition | Terminology | Otto | Diesel | Dual | Brayton

1.1 What is an IC Engine?

An Internal Combustion (IC) Engine is a heat engine in which combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder itself. The heat released by combustion acts directly on the working fluid (gases), which in turn does
mechanical work on the piston. IC engines convert chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical work.

Key Difference: IC vs EC Engine

Parameter IC Engine EC Engine (Steam)

Combustion location Inside cylinder Outside (boiler)

Working fluid Combustion gases Steam / air

Thermal efficiency Higher (~30-45%) Lower (~15-25%)

Starting time Immediate Long warm-up

Size & weight Compact, lighter Bulky, heavier

Examples Car engine, bike Steam turbine, Stirling

1.2 Key Engine Terminology

TDC (Top Dead Centre): Position of the piston when it is at the highest point in the cylinder;
minimum volume.

BDC (Bottom Dead Centre): Position of the piston when it is at the lowest point; maximum volume.

Stroke (L): The distance travelled by the piston from TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.

Bore (D): The internal diameter of the engine cylinder.

Swept Volume (V_s): Volume swept by the piston in one stroke = (pi/4) x D^2 x L. Also called
displacement volume.

Clearance Volume (V_c): Minimum volume of gas above the piston at TDC. Essential for
compression ratio.
Compression Ratio (r): r = (V_s + V_c) / V_c. Typical petrol engine: 8-12; diesel engine: 14-22.

Mean Effective Pressure Hypothetical constant pressure that would produce the same work as the
(MEP): actual cycle over one stroke.

Indicated Power (IP): Power developed inside the cylinder, calculated from the p-V (indicator)
diagram.

Brake Power (BP): Actual useful power output available at the crankshaft/flywheel,
measured by a dynamometer.

Frictional Power (FP): Power lost due to friction in bearings, piston rings, valves etc. FP = IP -
BP.

Mechanical Efficiency n_mech = BP / IP. Typical value: 80-90%. Represents how much IP is
(n_mech): available as BP.

Indicated Thermal Efficiency n_ith = IP / (m_fuel x CV). Ratio of work done to heat supplied.
(n_ith):

Brake Thermal Efficiency n_bth = BP / (m_fuel x CV). Most practical efficiency measure.
(n_bth):
Volumetric Efficiency Ratio of actual mass of air inducted per cycle to the theoretical mass;
(n_vol): typically 70-90%.

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BMEP: Brake Mean Effective Pressure = (BP x 60) / (L x A x N x n); key

comparison metric.

Specific Fuel Consumption Fuel consumed per unit power per unit time (kg/kWh). Lower is better.
(SFC):

Calorific Value (CV): Heat energy released per unit mass of fuel on complete combustion.
Petrol ~44 MJ/kg, Diesel ~42 MJ/kg.

1.3 Power Cycles

Otto Cycle (Constant Volume / SI Engine Cycle)

The Otto cycle is the ideal thermodynamic cycle for spark-ignition (SI/petrol) engines. Combustion occurs at constant
volume.

Process Name Description

Piston moves TDC; air-fuel compressed adiabatically; temp &

1-2 Isentropic Compression
pressure rise

Spark ignites mixture; pressure & temp rise at constant volume

2-3 Constant-Volume Heat Addition
(V=const)

3-4 Isentropic Expansion Hot gases expand, pushing piston down; work output

Constant-Volume Heat
4-1 Exhaust valve opens; heat rejected at constant volume
Rejection

Thermal Efficiency (Otto) = 1 - 1/r^(gamma-1) where r = compression ratio, gamma = Cp/Cv = 1.4 for air
Note: Higher compression ratio => higher efficiency. Limited by knocking (detonation).

Diesel Cycle (Constant Pressure / CI Engine Cycle)

The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression-ignition (CI/diesel) engines. Combustion occurs at constant
pressure (cut-off period).

Process Name Description

Air compressed to very high pressure (~35 bar); temp rises to

1-2 Isentropic Compression
~500-600 C

Constant-Pressure Heat Fuel injected; burns at constant pressure; piston moves slightly
2-3
Addition outward

3-4 Isentropic Expansion Gases expand doing work on piston

Constant-Volume Heat
4-1 Exhaust valve opens; heat rejected at constant volume
Rejection

Thermal Efficiency (Diesel) = 1 - (1/r^(gamma-1)) x [(rc^gamma - 1) / (gamma x (rc - 1))]

where r = compression ratio, rc = cut-off ratio (V3/V2)
Note: For same compression ratio, Otto > Diesel efficiency. But diesel engines run higher r, so actual diesel efficiency is higher.

Dual / Mixed / Sabathe Cycle

The Dual cycle combines constant-volume and constant-pressure heat addition. More realistic representation of
actual diesel engine combustion, especially for modern high-speed diesel engines.

Process Description

1-2 Isentropic Compression Air compressed; pressure and temp rise

2-3 Const-Volume Heat Add. Part of fuel burns at constant volume (rapid pressure rise)

3-4 Const-Pressure Heat Add. Remaining fuel burns at constant pressure (slower, controlled combustion)

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4-5 Isentropic Expansion Work output stroke

5-1 Const-Volume Heat Rej. Exhaust gases released; heat rejected

Efficiency (Dual) lies between Otto and Diesel for same compression ratio. Uses both rp (pressure ratio)
and rc (cut-off ratio).

Brayton Cycle (Gas Turbine Cycle)

The Brayton cycle is the ideal cycle for gas turbines and jet engines. Uses constant-pressure heat addition and
rejection (open or closed cycle).

Process Name Description

1-2 Isentropic Compression Air compressed in compressor; temperature & pressure rise

2-3 Const-Pressure Heat Addition Fuel burns in combustion chamber at constant pressure

3-4 Isentropic Expansion Hot gases expand through turbine; work produced

4-1 Const-Pressure Heat Rejection Exhaust gases released to atmosphere (open) or cooled (closed)

Thermal Efficiency (Brayton) = 1 - 1/r_p^((gamma-1)/gamma) where r_p = pressure ratio = P2/P1

Note: Gas turbines use Brayton cycle. Not strictly IC engine type but covered as related power cycle.

Cycle Comparison Summary

Parameter Otto Diesel Dual Brayton

Heat Addition Const Volume Const Pressure Both Const Pressure

Heat Rejection Const Volume Const Volume Const Volume Const Pressure

Engine Type SI (Petrol) CI (Diesel) High-speed CI Gas Turbine / Jet

Compression Ratio 8-12 14-22 14-22 —

Typical Efficiency 25-35% 35-45% 35-45% 30-40%

Fuel Petrol/LPG Diesel Diesel Jet fuel / Natural gas

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CHAPTER 2 — CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

7 Classification Types — Detailed Breakdown

2.1 Classification by Fuel Used

Petrol / Gasoline Engine Uses volatile liquid fuel (petrol) with spark ignition. Fuel-air mixture
formed in carburetor or port fuel injector. Examples: motorcycles, cars,
small aircraft.

Diesel Engine Uses diesel fuel with compression ignition. Fuel injected at end of
compression stroke. Higher efficiency, higher torque. Examples: trucks,
buses, generators, ships.

Gas Engine Operates on gaseous fuels — CNG, LPG, producer gas, biogas. Lower
emissions. Examples: CNG buses, LPG-powered vehicles.

Dual-Fuel Engine Uses two fuels simultaneously — typically gas (primary) with diesel
(pilot injection for ignition). Common in marine and industrial
applications.

Alcohol Engines Use ethanol (E85, E100) or methanol. Renewable, lower emissions,
higher octane. Used in flex-fuel vehicles, racing.

Hydrogen Engine Runs on hydrogen fuel. Zero carbon emissions. Still under
development for mass use.

2.2 Classification by Number of Strokes

2-Stroke Engine One power stroke per revolution of crankshaft. Simpler construction,
higher power-to-weight ratio, louder, more pollution. Used in scooters
(old), chainsaws, boats, motorcycles.

4-Stroke Engine One power stroke per two revolutions. Better fuel economy, less
pollution, smoother operation. Used in cars, trucks, most modern
engines.

2.3 Classification by Thermodynamic Cycle

Otto Cycle Constant-volume combustion. SI engines (petrol). Compression ratio
8-12.

Diesel Cycle Constant-pressure combustion. CI engines (diesel). Compression ratio

14-22.

Dual / Mixed Cycle Combination of constant volume + constant pressure. Modern

high-speed diesel engines.

Atkinson / Miller Cycle Modified Otto cycle with longer expansion stroke than compression
stroke. Used in hybrid engines (Toyota Prius) for higher efficiency.

2.4 Classification by Cooling Method

Air-Cooled Engine Cylinder walls exposed to air; cooling fins increase surface area.
Simple, lighter, no coolant leakage risk. Examples: motorcycles (older),
aircraft piston engines, lawnmowers.

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Water-Cooled Engine Water jacket surrounds cylinders; coolant circulates via pump,
dissipates heat through radiator. More uniform cooling, quieter, better
efficiency. Examples: cars, trucks, most modern engines.

Oil-Cooled Engine Engine oil used as coolant (oil jet cooling). Common in performance
bikes like some Yamaha, Kawasaki models.

2.5 Classification by Cylinder Arrangement

In-Line Engine All cylinders in a single row. Compact, simple manufacturing. Used in
cars (4-cylinder inline common).

V-Engine Cylinders arranged in two banks at angle (V-shape). Compact for large
cylinder count. Examples: V6, V8, V12 in cars and trucks.

Horizontally Opposed Cylinders on opposite sides, pistons move horizontally facing each
(Boxer) other. Lower centre of gravity. Examples: Subaru, Porsche, VW Beetle.

Radial Engine Cylinders arranged radially around crankshaft in a circle. Used in piston
aircraft engines.

W-Engine Three banks of cylinders (like two V-engines sharing crank). Very
compact. Example: VW W12 engine.

Opposed-Piston Engine Two pistons per cylinder moving toward each other. No cylinder head
needed. Used in submarines, Junkers 2-stroke diesels.

2.6 Classification by Engine Speed

Low-Speed Engine < 400 RPM. Used in large marine engines, stationary industrial plants.
Very high torque.

Medium-Speed Engine 400-1200 RPM. Used in medium marine engines, large generators.

High-Speed Engine > 1200 RPM. Used in automobiles, motorcycles, small aircraft. Most
common type.

2.7 Classification by Ignition Method

Spark Ignition (SI) Fuel-air mixture ignited by electric spark from spark plug. Used with
petrol, CNG, LPG, alcohol. Requires lower compression ratio (8-12);
mixture must be within flammability limits.

Compression Ignition (CI) Air compressed to very high temperature; fuel injected auto-ignites.
Used with diesel. Higher compression ratio (14-22); no spark plug
needed. More efficient, more torque at low RPM.

Homogeneous Charge Hybrid of SI and CI — premixed fuel-air mixture ignited by

Compression Ignition compression. Potentially very high efficiency, very low NOx. Major
(HCCI) challenge: controlling ignition timing.

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CHAPTER 3 — 2-STROKE & 4-STROKE ENGINES

Stroke-by-Stroke Analysis | Crank Angles | Valve Timing | Comparison

3.1 Four-Stroke Engine — Detailed Analysis

In a 4-stroke engine, the piston completes 4 strokes (2 up + 2 down) and the crankshaft rotates 720 degrees (2 full
revolutions) for one complete thermodynamic cycle. There is one power stroke per two revolutions of crankshaft.

Crank Angle: 0° to 180° (Piston moves TDC →

STROKE 1: SUCTION (Intake) BDC)
• Inlet valve OPEN; Exhaust valve CLOSED
• Piston moves downward from TDC to BDC
• Volume increases → pressure drops below atmospheric
• Fresh air-fuel mixture (SI) or only air (CI) is inducted into the cylinder
• Inlet valve actually opens slightly before TDC (5-15° BTDC) for SI engines — called Inlet Valve Opening (IVO)
• Inlet valve closes slightly after BDC (30-60° ABDC) — called Inlet Valve Closing (IVC) — to use inertia of incoming
charge

Crank Angle: 180° to 360° (Piston moves BDC →

STROKE 2: COMPRESSION TDC)
• Both inlet and exhaust valves CLOSED
• Piston moves upward; mixture compressed to 1/8 to 1/12 of original volume (SI) or 1/14 to 1/22 (CI)
• Temperature rises to 300-400°C (SI) or 500-600°C (CI) due to compression
• Pressure rises to 8-12 bar (SI) or 30-40 bar (CI)
• Near TDC (5-30° BTDC): Spark plug fires (SI) OR fuel injected (CI)
• Combustion begins just before TDC to maximize pressure rise at start of power stroke

Crank Angle: 360° to 540° (Piston moves TDC →

STROKE 3: EXPANSION (Power) BDC)
• Both valves CLOSED (initially)
• Burning mixture expands at extremely high pressure (40-60 bar)
• Piston forced downward — this is the ONLY stroke that produces work
• Temperature: ~2000-2500°C at peak → drops to ~700-900°C by BDC
• Exhaust valve opens 30-60° BBDC (Before BDC) — called Exhaust Valve Opening (EVO) — to begin early blowdown
• Connecting rod transmits force to crankshaft, converting reciprocating motion to rotation

Crank Angle: 540° to 720° (Piston moves BDC →

STROKE 4: EXHAUST TDC)
• Exhaust valve OPEN; Inlet valve CLOSED
• Piston moves upward, pushing burnt exhaust gases out through exhaust valve
• Exhaust valve typically opens at 40-60° BBDC (during power stroke) and closes 10-30° ATDC
• At the end, the cycle repeats from Stroke 1
• VALVE OVERLAP: Brief period when both inlet and exhaust valves are open simultaneously (near TDC between
exhaust and intake strokes). Helps scavenge residual gases.

4-Stroke Valve Timing Diagram (Typical SI Engine)

Event Abbreviation Typical Crank Angle Purpose

Inlet Valve Opens IVO 5-15° BTDC (before TDC) Early opening for inertia-assisted filling

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Inlet Valve Closes IVC 30-60° ABDC (after BDC) Late closing to use charge inertia

Pre-ignition to ensure max pressure at

Spark / Ignition SP 10-30° BTDC
TDC

Early blowdown to reduce back

Exhaust Valve Opens EVO 40-60° BBDC (before BDC)
pressure

Exhaust Valve Closes EVC 10-30° ATDC (after TDC) Late closing to scavenge burnt gases

Both valves open; residual exhaust

Valve Overlap — IVO to EVC
scavenged

3.2 Two-Stroke Engine — Detailed Analysis

In a 2-stroke engine, the piston completes 2 strokes (1 up + 1 down) and the crankshaft rotates 360 degrees (1
revolution) for one complete cycle. Power stroke in every revolution — theoretically double the power of 4-stroke for
same displacement.

Instead of valves, 2-stroke engines use ports cut in the cylinder wall (inlet port, transfer port, exhaust port) controlled
by piston position.

STROKE 1: COMPRESSION + TRANSFER (Piston moves Crank Angle: 0° to 180° (BDC →

UP) TDC)
• Piston moves from BDC upward toward TDC
• Piston uncovers the TRANSFER PORT → fresh charge from crankcase rushes into cylinder
• As piston rises: Transfer port closes, then Exhaust port closes
• Mixture is now trapped and compressed (compression ratio ~6-8)
• SIMULTANEOUSLY: As piston rises, it creates suction in crankcase — fresh fuel-air mixture drawn into crankcase
through inlet port
• Spark fires near TDC (5-15° BTDC) to initiate combustion

Crank Angle: 180° to 360° (TDC →

STROKE 2: POWER + EXHAUST (Piston moves DOWN) BDC)
• Burning gases expand; piston forced down
• Piston uncovers the EXHAUST PORT first (about 60° BBDC) — burnt gases blowdown at high pressure
• Piston then uncovers the TRANSFER PORT — fresh charge from crankcase enters cylinder
• Incoming fresh charge helps scavenge remaining exhaust gases (Scavenging)
• Types of Scavenging: (1) Loop scavenging — charge flows in loop, (2) Cross scavenging, (3) Uniflow scavenging (most
efficient)
• Piston reaches BDC — inlet port in crankcase closes as it was blocked by piston

2-Stroke Port Timing (Typical)

Port / Event Opens Closes Duration

Exhaust Port Opens (EPO) ~60° BBDC ~60° ABDC ~120° total

Transfer Port Opens (TPO) ~50° BBDC ~50° ABDC ~100° total

Inlet Port Opens (IPO) ~60° ATDC ~60° BTDC ~120° total (crankcase)

Ignition ~10-15° BTDC — Spark timing

3.3 2-Stroke vs 4-Stroke — Full Comparison Table

Parameter 2-Stroke Engine 4-Stroke Engine

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Power strokes 1 per revolution 1 per 2 revolutions

Power output Theoretically 2x for same size Lower for same displacement

Actual power 30-50% more (losses reduce ideal) Less but more consistent

Mechanical efficiency Higher (simpler mechanism) Slightly lower

Fuel efficiency Poor (fuel lost via ports) Good (precise valve control)

Lubrication Oil mixed with fuel (petrol 2-stroke) Separate oil sump; pressurised

Cooling requirement Higher (power every revolution) Lower

Exhaust emissions Higher HC, CO (fuel bypass) Lower; EURO norms compliant

Volumetric efficiency Lower (ports less efficient) Higher (proper valve timing)

Engine weight Lighter (no valvetrain) Heavier

Complexity Simpler (ports, no valves) Complex (valvetrain, camshaft)

Noise level Higher Lower

Reversibility Easy to reverse (ports symmetric) Not easy

Starting Easy (any piston position) Needs correct position

Wear Higher (ports cause piston ring wear) Lower (valves last longer)

Typical applications Chainsaws, dirt bikes, marine outboard Cars, trucks, buses, modern bikes

Compression ratio 6:1 to 9:1 8:1 to 22:1 (petrol to diesel)

Thermal efficiency Lower Higher

Cost Lower Higher

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CHAPTER 4 — ENGINE PARTS & FUNCTIONS

20 Major Components — Material | Function | Design Details

Understanding each engine component, its material selection rationale, and its specific function is critical for
mechanical engineering interviews. Each component is covered in depth below.

01 ENGINE BLOCK (Cylinder Block)

Function: The main structural foundation of the engine. Houses the cylinders, coolant
passages (water jackets), oil galleries, and provides mounting for all other
engine components. It transmits all combustion forces and loads to the engine
mountings.

Material: Grey Cast Iron (traditional — heavy, good vibration damping, cheap), Aluminium
Alloy (modern engines — lightweight, good thermal conductivity, needs cylinder
liners), or Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI) for high-performance diesel engines
(Ford trucks, Volvo).

Design Details: Contains: cylinder bores (may have dry or wet liners), main bearing webs (for
crankshaft), oil passages, coolant passages, freeze plugs, and mating faces for
head, sump, and accessories.

02 CYLINDER LINER / SLEEVE

Function: Replaceable cylindrical sleeve inserted into the cylinder block bore. The piston
rings slide against the liner bore. Allows cylinder to be replaced when worn
without replacing the entire block.

Types: (1) Dry Liner: Not in direct contact with coolant; press-fit into block bore. Used in
petrol engines. (2) Wet Liner: Outer surface in direct contact with coolant;
provides better cooling. Used in heavy diesel engines (trucks, ships). Wet liners
use O-rings at top and bottom for sealing.

Material: Cast iron (grey or alloyed), sometimes with Nikasil or chrome plating on bore
surface for reduced friction and wear. Honing marks on bore surface retain oil
for lubrication.

03 PISTON
Function: Reciprocating component that transmits force from combustion gases to the
connecting rod. It also seals the combustion chamber, acts as a sliding valve in
2-stroke engines, and helps control oil film on cylinder walls. Piston design must
handle: high temperature (crown ~300°C), high pressure (~60 bar), high
acceleration forces.

Material: Aluminium Alloy (most modern engines: Al-Si alloy, lightweight, good thermal
conductivity). Cast Iron / Steel (for heavy diesel engines, higher strength at
temperature). Forged aluminium (racing and high-performance engines).

Design Features: Piston Crown (top face — may be flat, domed, or shaped for combustion
chamber), Ring Grooves (for piston rings), Skirt (guides piston in bore, reduces
rocking), Gudgeon Pin Boss (piston pin/wrist pin bore), Oil drains/slots in oil ring
groove. Many modern pistons have cooling galleries inside.

04 PISTON RINGS

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Function: Seal the combustion chamber between piston and cylinder wall, preventing gas
blow-by into crankcase. Transfer heat from piston to cylinder wall. Regulate oil
film on cylinder — prevent excess oil from reaching combustion chamber.

Types: (1) Compression Rings (top 1-2 rings): Primary gas seal; rectangular or
keystone profile. (2) Oil Control Ring (bottom ring): Scrapers oil from cylinder
wall and returns it to sump. Usually a 3-piece ring (two steel rails + spacer
expander).

Material: Grey cast iron, Ductile iron, or Steel (for compression rings). Surface treated
with chrome, nitride, or molybdenum (moly) coating to reduce wear and friction.
Top compression ring typically plasma-sprayed with moly or chrome.

05 CONNECTING ROD (CON-ROD)

Function: Connects the piston to the crankshaft. Converts the reciprocating motion of the
piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft. Must withstand: compressive forces
during compression, tensile forces during intake, and complex bending loads.

Material: Forged Carbon Steel (C40, C45 steel) — most common, strong and tough.
Aluminium Alloy — lighter, used in some racing engines. Titanium — very
high-performance racing only (expensive). Modern trend: fracture-split
(crack-split) connecting rods for precise alignment.

Design: Small End (gudgeon pin end — solid eye with bronze bush or needle bearing),
Big End (crankpin end — split design with bolted cap, shell bearings), Shank
(I-section for high strength-to-weight ratio or H-section).

06 CRANKSHAFT
Function: Converts reciprocating motion of pistons into rotary motion (output torque). The
main rotating component. It balances the engine by using counterweights to
offset piston/con-rod mass (dynamic balance). Drives: flywheel, camshaft (via
timing chain/belt/gears), oil pump, water pump, alternator.

Material: Forged Steel (chromium-molybdenum steel, e.g. EN40B) for high-performance

and diesel engines — higher strength. Cast Iron / Ductile Iron (nodular cast iron)
for regular passenger car engines — cheaper. Surface: crank journals are
ground and hardened (induction or nitriding).

Components: Main Journals (supported in main bearings in block), Crank Pins (con-rod big
end journals), Crank Webs (arms connecting main journals to crank pins),
Counterweights (balance rotating masses), Flywheel flange (rear), Front snout
(timing gear/pulley mount), Oil passages drilled through.

07 FLYWHEEL
Function: Heavy rotating disc mounted on crankshaft rear. Stores kinetic energy during
power stroke and releases it to maintain smooth rotation during non-power
strokes. Reduces cyclic speed variation. Provides: starting ring gear (for starter
motor engagement), smooth idle, mounting surface for clutch friction plate
(manual gearbox) or flexplate (automatic).

Material: Cast Iron (most common, heavy, excellent energy storage). Steel or Billet Steel
(performance applications). Dual Mass Flywheel (DMF): Two flywheels
connected by springs — modern diesel cars — reduces vibration transmission.

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08 CYLINDER HEAD
Function: Seals the top of the cylinder forming the combustion chamber. Houses: intake
and exhaust valves and ports, spark plugs (SI) or injector bores (CI), coolant
passages, oil passages, and camshafts (in OHC/DOHC engines). Directs
air-fuel mixture into cylinder and routes exhaust gases out.

Material: Aluminium Alloy (most modern engines): lighter, better thermal conductivity,
lower operating temperature. Cast Iron (older diesel engines): stronger but
heavier and prone to cracking with aluminium blocks. Head gasket (usually
multi-layer steel MLS or copper) seals between head and block.

09 VALVES (Intake & Exhaust)

Function: Control the timing and flow of gases into and out of the cylinder. Intake Valve:
opens to allow fresh charge (air or air-fuel mixture) into cylinder during intake
stroke. Exhaust Valve: opens to allow burnt gases to exit during exhaust stroke.
Most 4-cylinder cars use 4 valves per cylinder (2 intake + 2 exhaust) for better
flow.

Material: Intake Valves: Alloy steel (nickel-chromium steel) — lower temperature,

standard alloy sufficient. Exhaust Valves: High-temperature alloys (Nimonic,
Inconel, austenitic steel) or hollow sodium-filled valves for very high
temperatures (~800°C). Valve seats: sintered steel or hard-faced with stellite for
wear resistance.

Types: Poppet Valve (most common: disc-type), Rotary Valve (some racing engines),
Sleeve Valve (historical). Valve springs keep valves closed; camshaft opens
them.

10 CAMSHAFT
Function: Controls the opening and closing of intake and exhaust valves according to the
engine cycle. Driven from crankshaft at half engine speed (360° per 720°
crankshaft rotation). Cam lobes push on followers/rockers/tappets to open
valves. Also drives: oil pump (in some engines), fuel injection pump (diesel), fuel
pump.

Material: Chilled Cast Iron (most common: cam lobes specially hardened). Forged Steel
(performance engines). Sintered camshafts (assembled from individual cams on
a tube) — modern BMW.

Types by OHV (Overhead Valve) — cam in block, pushrods. OHC (Overhead Cam) —
Location: cam in head: SOHC (one cam, both valves), DOHC (two cams, separate intake
& exhaust). Variable Valve Timing (VVT/VVTI/VTEC): phaser adjusts cam
timing for optimum power/economy.

11 HEAD GASKET
Function: Seals the mating surface between the cylinder head and engine block. Prevents
leakage of: (1) combustion gases from the cylinder, (2) coolant from coolant
passages, (3) engine oil from oil galleries. Withstands: high pressure, cyclic
thermal expansion, and chemical attack from combustion products.

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Material: Multi-Layer Steel (MLS): 3-5 layers of embossed stainless steel with elastomer
coating — modern standard, best sealing. Composite: graphite and metal core
(older engines). Copper: race and high-performance applications.

12 FUEL INJECTOR
Function: Atomizes and meters the exact quantity of fuel into the engine at the correct
time and pressure. Controls: injection timing, injection duration, spray pattern,
fuel quantity. Better atomization = better mixing with air = more complete
combustion = higher efficiency.

Material: High-strength steel body, hardened nozzle tip (tungsten carbide inserts in
some). Nozzle holes: typically 0.10-0.20 mm diameter, laser-drilled for
precision.

Types: Port Fuel Injector (PFI): injects into intake port. Direct Injector (GDI/DI): injects
directly into combustion chamber. Common Rail Injector (CRDI): high-pressure
diesel injection — see Ch. 5. Multi-hole nozzle injectors: 5-10 holes for fine
atomization.

13 FUEL PUMP
Function: Delivers fuel from the tank to the fuel injectors at the required pressure.
Low-pressure pump (mechanical/electric) transfers fuel from tank to
high-pressure pump. High-pressure pump (for CRDI/GDI) pressurizes fuel to
200-2500 bar.

Material: Aluminium housing, steel gears/plungers. High-pressure pump body:

precision-machined forged steel. Electric fuel pump uses brushless DC motor.

14 TURBOCHARGER
Function: Forces more air into the engine at above-atmospheric pressure (boost
pressure), allowing more fuel to be burned, thus increasing power output
without increasing engine displacement. Driven by energy from exhaust gases
— essentially free energy recovery. Typically increases power by 30-40%. Also
increases thermal efficiency (better fuel economy).

Components: (1) Turbine Wheel: in exhaust stream — spun by hot exhaust gases, (2)
Compressor Wheel: on same shaft — compresses incoming air, (3) Center
Housing (CHRA): contains shaft and bearings, (4) Wastegate: pressure relief
valve — limits boost pressure by diverting exhaust.

Material: Turbine Wheel: Nickel superalloy (Inconel) or titanium aluminide — withstands

~900-1050°C. Compressor Wheel: Aluminium alloy (lightweight, handles cooler
inlet air). Shaft: Hardened steel with oil-lubricated journal bearings.

Speed: Turbocharger rotates at 100,000-300,000 RPM. Turbo lag: delay in boost

build-up at low RPM. Intercooler (charge air cooler) used to cool compressed
air, increasing density and preventing knock.

15 OIL PUMP
Function: Circulates engine oil under pressure to all bearings, the camshaft, piston cooling
jets (in some engines), and other lubrication points. Critical for preventing
metal-to-metal contact and engine seizure. Maintains oil pressure typically 2-6
bar at operating temperature.

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Material: Cast iron or aluminium housing. Steel gears or rotors. Types: Gear pump (spur
gear pair, most common), Rotor pump (trochoid inner/outer rotors, compact),
Vane pump (used in some performance engines).

16 WATER PUMP
Function: Circulates coolant (water + antifreeze mixture) through the engine's water jacket
and radiator to remove heat from the engine and maintain operating
temperature (~85-95°C). Usually belt or timing chain driven from crankshaft.

Material: Cast iron or aluminium housing, plastic impeller (modern) or cast iron impeller
(older), centrifugal pump type. Mechanical seal prevents coolant leakage.

17 INTAKE MANIFOLD
Function: Distributes the incoming air (CI) or air-fuel mixture (older SI with carburetor)
evenly to each cylinder's intake port. Design critically affects engine breathing,
volumetric efficiency, and power characteristics. Long, narrow runners: better
low-RPM torque. Short, wide runners: better high-RPM power.

Material: Cast aluminium (most modern engines), plastic/composite (modern — lighter,

no heat soak, insulates charge), cast iron (older engines). Variable Intake
Manifold (Variable Runner Length VRL) adjusts runner length for different RPM.

18 EXHAUST MANIFOLD
Function: Collects exhaust gases from each cylinder and routes them to the exhaust
system (catalytic converter, muffler). Design affects back pressure and
scavenging. Equal-length headers maximize scavenging efficiency (used in
performance engines). Also provides mounting for oxygen/lambda sensor and
EGR connection.

Material: Cast iron (most common — withstands high temperatures ~800°C, resists
thermal fatigue). Stainless steel (performance headers). Some turbocharged
engines have cast stainless steel or Inconel manifolds to withstand turbo
temperatures.

19 SPARK PLUG (SI Engines)

Function: Produces an electric spark (typically 20,000-40,000 V) to ignite the compressed
air-fuel mixture at precisely the right moment (ignition timing). The spark gap is
typically 0.6-1.1 mm. Must withstand: 500-900°C tip temperature, 50-70 bar
peak cylinder pressure, 30,000 V electrical stress, chemical attack from
combustion products.

Material: Centre electrode: Nickel alloy (standard), Platinum (longer life), Iridium (longest
life, thinnest 0.4 mm electrode, best spark). Ceramic insulator: Aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) — electrical insulation + thermal conduction. Shell: Steel
(copper-coated for heat dissipation). Heat range: Cold plugs (racing) vs Hot
plugs (self-cleaning at low load).

20 TIMING CHAIN / TIMING BELT

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Function: Connects crankshaft to camshaft(s), maintaining precise valve timing relative to

piston position. Ratio 2:1 (cam rotates at half crankshaft speed). Critical: if
timing jumps or breaks, valves and pistons can collide (interference engine)
causing catastrophic damage.

Types: (1) Timing Chain: Steel roller chain or silent chain. Longer life (often engine
lifetime). Requires oil lubrication. Tensioner (hydraulic or mechanical) maintains
correct tension. (2) Timing Belt (toothed rubber belt): Lighter, quieter, no
lubrication needed. Requires replacement every 60,000-150,000 km. Failure =
catastrophic engine damage in interference engines.

Material: Chain: Hardened steel. Belt: Reinforced rubber (neoprene/HNBR) with

fibreglass or aramid fibre tensile cords. Sprockets/pulleys: Hardened steel or
aluminium.

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CHAPTER 5 — COMBUSTION & FUEL SYSTEMS

SI vs CI | Detonation | Octane/Cetane | CRDI | Turbocharging

5.1 SI vs CI Combustion — Comparison

Parameter SI Engine (Petrol) CI Engine (Diesel)

Ignition method Electric spark (spark plug) Auto-ignition by compression heat

Air-fuel ratio Stoichiometric ~14.7:1 (lambda=1) Lean 18:1 to 70:1 (always excess air)

Compression ratio 8:1 to 12:1 14:1 to 22:1

Combustion type Premixed (homogeneous) flame Diffusion flame (heterogeneous)

Fuel introduction Port or direct injection / carburetor Direct injection only (high pressure)

Throttle control Throttle (quantity control) Injector (quality control — no throttle)

Power control Air-fuel quantity control Fuel quantity variation only

Combustion temp ~2200-2500°C peak ~1800-2000°C peak

Peak pressure 40-60 bar 60-90 bar

Thermal efficiency 25-35% 35-45%

Specific power Higher power per kg Lower power per kg

Torque Less low-speed torque Higher torque at low RPM

Fuel economy Lower mpg Better mpg (15-30% advantage)

Emissions Lower NOx, lower PM, higher HC/CO Higher NOx and PM, lower HC/CO

Noise Quieter Noisier (diesel knock)

Starting Easy cold start Difficult cold start (glow plugs needed)

5.2 Stages of Combustion in SI Engine

• Stage 1: Ignition Lag / Preparation Phase: From spark discharge to visible flame propagation. Duration: 0.3-0.5 ms.
Chain reactions begin, free radicals form. Depends on: spark energy, mixture temperature, pressure, AFR.
• Stage 2: Flame Propagation Phase: Turbulent flame front travels across combustion chamber at 20-30 m/s. Pressure
rises rapidly. Most of the combustion and heat release occurs here. Governs: heat release rate, peak pressure, power
output.
• Stage 3: After Burning / Termination Phase: Residual gases near cylinder walls complete combustion. Small
contribution to total work. High temperature can cause NOx formation.

5.3 Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

• Stage 1: Ignition Delay Period: From start of fuel injection to start of combustion. Duration: 1-2 ms or 10-20 degrees
CA. Fuel atomizes, vaporizes, mixes with hot air. Chemical pre-reactions begin. Longer delay = harder knock.
• Stage 2: Rapid / Uncontrolled Combustion: All fuel that accumulated during delay period ignites simultaneously.
Rapid pressure rise (dp/d-theta). Causes diesel knock. Ideally this stage should be short — controlled by cetane
number.
• Stage 3: Controlled / Diffusion Combustion: Remaining fuel burns as it is injected. Rate of heat release controlled by
injection rate. Governs maximum power output. Flame color: blue-orange diffusion flame.
• Stage 4: After Burning: Rich regions near injector and walls complete combustion. Related to smoke formation —
incomplete combustion here produces soot (black smoke).

5.4 Detonation, Knocking & Pre-Ignition

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Detonation (Engine Knock) — SI Engines

Definition: Autoignition of the end-gas (unburned fuel-air mixture ahead of the normal flame front) before the flame
front reaches it. The end-gas spontaneously ignites due to high temperature and pressure created by advancing flame,
causing multiple pressure waves that collide — resulting in characteristic 'knock' or 'pinking' sound.
• Sound: Sharp metallic 'pinging' or 'knocking' noise, especially under load
• Damage: Piston crown erosion, piston ring damage, bearing wear, head gasket failure, hole in piston top
• Causes: Low octane fuel, over-advanced ignition timing, high compression ratio, hot combustion chamber deposits,
lean mixture, high intake temperature
• Prevention: Use higher octane fuel, retard ignition timing, reduce compression ratio, knock sensors (ECU retards
timing automatically), EGR, intercooler

Pre-Ignition
Definition: Ignition of the air-fuel mixture before the spark plug fires, caused by a hot spot in the combustion chamber
(e.g. overheated spark plug tip, carbon deposit glowing, overheated exhaust valve edge).
• More damaging than detonation — ignition timing completely out of control
• Symptoms: Engine continues running after ignition switched off ('running-on/dieseling'), rough running, potential piston
damage
• Difference from Detonation: Pre-ignition initiates combustion BEFORE spark; detonation is autoignition of end-gas
AFTER spark, during combustion

5.5 Octane Number & Cetane Number

Property Octane Number (SI Engines) Cetane Number (CI Engines)

Measure of fuel's resistance to Measure of fuel's ease of autoignition

Definition
autoignition (knocking) (ignition quality)

EASIER to ignite (shorter ignition delay —

Higher value means MORE resistant to knock (better for SI)
better for CI)

Iso-octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) = 100

Reference fuel (high) Hexadecane (cetane) = 100 CN
ON

Reference fuel (low) n-Heptane = 0 ON 1-Methylnaphthalene = 0 CN

Typical petrol value 91-100 RON (pump fuel 91-95 RON) —

Typical diesel value — 45-55 CN (Indian diesel: min 51)

Testing method CFR engine at fixed conditions CFR engine with specific protocol

High cetane = smooth quick start, less

Key relationship High octane needed for high CR engines
knock

5.6 Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) System

CRDI is an advanced fuel injection system for diesel engines where fuel is stored in a high-pressure common rail
(reservoir) at pressures of 1200-2500 bar, and supplied to individual electronically-controlled injectors. First introduced
by Bosch in 1997 (Alfa Romeo 156). Now standard in all modern diesel engines.

CRDI Components
Component Function

High-pressure fuel pump Pressurizes fuel to 1200-2500 bar; driven from engine

Common Rail (accumulator) High-pressure reservoir; dampens pressure fluctuations; supplies all injectors

Pressure sensor Monitors rail pressure; feeds ECU for closed-loop control

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Pressure control valve Regulates rail pressure by returning excess fuel to tank

Solenoid / Piezo injectors Electronically controlled; open/close by ECU signal (1-7 injections/cycle)

ECU (Engine Control Unit) Determines injection timing, duration, and number of injections per cycle

Fuel return line Returns excess fuel from injectors and pump back to tank

CRDI Advantages
• Multiple injections per cycle: pilot injection (reduces noise), main injection, post injection (DPF regeneration)
• Precise injection timing independent of engine speed
• Very fine atomization at high pressure → better combustion, less smoke
• 30-40% lower emissions vs mechanical injection
• 15-20% better fuel economy
• More power and torque
• Quieter operation (pilot injection reduces diesel knock)

Carburetor vs CRDI/Fuel Injection Comparison

Parameter Carburetor CRDI/Fuel Injection

Fuel metering Mechanical (venturi effect) Electronic (ECU-controlled)

Injection pressure Atmospheric (~1 bar) 1200-2500 bar (CRDI diesel)

Control Mechanical throttle/float Fully electronic (sensors+ECU)

Fuel economy Lower Higher (precise metering)

Emissions Higher Much lower (meets Euro VI)

Cold start Poor (choke required) Excellent (ECU manages fuelling)

Altitude compensation None (manual choke adjustment) Automatic (MAP sensor)

Cost Lower Much higher

Maintenance Simpler Requires specialist diagnostic tools

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CHAPTER 6 — ENGINE TESTING

Morse Test | Motoring Test | Indicator Diagram | Performance Parameters

Engine testing determines the performance, mechanical condition, and efficiency of an engine. Tests measure
Indicated Power (IP), Brake Power (BP), Friction Power (FP), and various efficiencies.

6.1 Morse Test — Indicated Power of Multi-Cylinder Engine

Purpose of Morse Test

The Morse test is used to determine the Indicated Power (IP) of each individual cylinder and of the whole engine. It
also allows calculation of Friction Power (FP) of each cylinder. The test is applied to multi-cylinder engines (typically
4-cylinder or more). It is a quick, practical test that does not require an indicator diagram.

Principle of Morse Test

The principle is based on the fact that if one cylinder is cut out (deactivated) while the engine continues to run on
remaining cylinders, the drop in brake power equals the indicated power of that cylinder (assuming friction power
of that cylinder remains unchanged when it is motored by the other cylinders).

For each cylinder: IP_n = BP_all - BP_(n cut out)

Total IP = Sum of all individual cylinder IP values
FP = IP - BP (where BP is the full-engine BP at test speed)

Complete Procedure — Morse Test (Step by Step)

1 Step 1: Set Up & Warm Up

Mount the engine on a dynamometer test bed. Connect to an absorption dynamometer (hydraulic or eddy current). Run
the engine at the desired test speed (e.g. 2000 RPM) under load until fully warm. Allow all temperatures (oil, coolant,
exhaust) to stabilize at operating levels. This is critical — a cold engine has different friction characteristics, affecting
results.

2 Step 2: Record Full-Engine Brake Power (BP_total)

With all cylinders firing: Run the engine at the chosen constant speed (hold speed constant via dynamometer). Record
the full-engine brake power (BP_all) using the dynamometer. Also record: speed (RPM), fuel flow rate, oil temp,
coolant temp. Example: 4-cylinder engine at 3000 RPM → BP_all = 60 kW.

3 Step 3: Cut Out Cylinder No. 1

Deactivate cylinder 1 by: disconnecting its spark plug lead (SI engine) OR cutting off its fuel supply (CI engine with
individual ECU control or mechanical stop). The cylinder is now motored (pushed by other cylinders) — it contributes
no power but still has friction. Immediately and quickly: Use the dynamometer to restore the engine speed to exactly
the same RPM as in Step 2. Why restore speed? — To ensure friction power conditions are identical for comparison.

4 Step 4: Record BP with Cylinder 1 Cut Out

At the same RPM, measure the new brake power (BP_1_cut). The dynamometer will show a lower BP because one
cylinder is not contributing power. Example: BP_1_cut = 45 kW

5 Step 5: Calculate IP of Cylinder 1

IP_1 = BP_all - BP_1_cut = 60 - 45 = 15 kW. This is the indicated power (work done per cycle) of cylinder 1 alone.

6 Step 6: Reconnect Cylinder 1 — Repeat for All Cylinders

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Re-enable cylinder 1. Allow engine to stabilize. Then cut out cylinder 2 → record BP_2_cut → calculate IP_2. Repeat
for cylinders 3 and 4 (or however many cylinders). Each measurement should be done quickly to avoid engine
overheating on reduced cylinders.

7 Step 7: Calculate Total Indicated Power

IP_total = IP_1 + IP_2 + IP_3 + IP_4 = (BP_all - BP_1_cut) + (BP_all - BP_2_cut) + (BP_all - BP_3_cut) + (BP_all -
BP_4_cut). Example: IP = 15 + 14 + 16 + 15 = 60 kW.

8 Step 8: Calculate Friction Power and Mechanical Efficiency

FP = IP_total - BP_all = 60 - 60... wait: this example shows equal IP and BP for illustration. Typically: BP_all = 52 kW,
IP_total = 62 kW → FP = 62 - 52 = 10 kW. Mechanical Efficiency = BP / IP = 52/62 = 83.9%.

9 Step 9: Identify Faulty Cylinders

If one cylinder shows significantly lower IP than others (e.g. IP_3 = 8 kW vs others ~15 kW), that cylinder has a
problem: burnt valve, worn piston rings, low compression, or injector fault. This diagnostic capability is a key benefit of
the Morse test.

Assumptions & Limitations of Morse Test

• Friction power of cut-out cylinder is ASSUMED equal to when it was firing (this is an approximation — friction may differ
slightly)
• Test must be done quickly: after cutting a cylinder, engine temp changes and friction varies
• Most accurate at constant speed — dynamometer must maintain RPM precisely
• Not applicable to single-cylinder engines (no other cylinders to maintain running)
• Results more reliable at medium to high load conditions
• Each cut-out reduces load on remaining cylinders — minor error introduced

6.2 Motoring Test — Friction Power Measurement

Purpose of Motoring Test

The Motoring Test directly measures the Friction Power (FP) of an engine. It is used to determine mechanical friction
losses, assess engine condition, identify worn components, and verify piston ring / bearing losses after rebuild.
Combined with BP measurement: IP = BP + FP → allows mechanical efficiency calculation.

Principle of Motoring Test

The engine is driven (motored) by an external electric dynamometer/motor at the test speed, without any combustion
(fuel cut off, ignition off). The power required to motor the engine against its own friction is the Friction Power. The
dynamometer now acts as a motor (absorbs electrical power → drives engine) rather than a brake.

FP = Power input to motor the engine at a given speed (measured by dynamometer as motor)

Complete Procedure — Motoring Test (Step by Step)

1 Step 1: Prepare the Test Setup

Mount engine on a dynamometer capable of both motoring and absorbing power (electrical dynamometer or a
separate electric motor). Connect cooling water and oil systems to maintain normal operating temperatures. Ensure
engine is fully warmed up first — run under normal power to reach steady oil and coolant temperature. Critical: Friction
is strongly temperature-dependent; cold oil has much higher viscosity → higher friction.

2 Step 2: Warm Up Engine Under Firing Conditions

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Run the engine under normal firing conditions (with fuel and ignition) at the desired test speed and load. Allow oil
temperature to reach ~80-90°C and coolant to ~85-90°C. Record ambient conditions: temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure (for corrections).

3 Step 3: Cut Fuel Supply and Ignition

Switch off fuel supply (close fuel valve or disable injectors via ECU). Switch off ignition (SI) or injection (CI). Do this
while engine is still at test speed. The engine will now decelerate unless the dynamometer takes over.

4 Step 4: Switch Dynamometer to Motoring Mode

Immediately connect the dynamometer in reverse mode — it now acts as an ELECTRIC MOTOR driving the engine.
Adjust dynamometer output to bring engine speed to the same test speed as during firing. Maintain constant speed
precisely — speed affects both friction and pumping losses.

5 Step 5: Measure Power Input to Dynamometer

Once speed is stable, measure the electrical power input to the dynamometer motor. This power input is the Friction
Power (FP) of the engine at that speed. Measure FP at multiple speeds to build an FP vs RPM curve. Also note: oil
pressure, oil temperature, coolant temperature — must be same as firing test.

6 Step 6: Separate Friction Components (Advanced)

To isolate individual friction sources: (a) Motor engine with rings removed → gives bearing + auxiliary friction only. (b)
Motor engine with one cylinder disabled → compare with all-cylinder motoring. (c) Use oil of different viscosities to
separate viscous friction from boundary friction.

7 Step 7: Plot and Analyze Results

Plot: FP vs Engine Speed curve, IP vs Speed (from indicator diagram or Morse), BP vs Speed (from firing test).
Calculate: Mechanical Efficiency = BP / IP at each speed. Compare FP before and after rebuild to quantify
improvement. Identify abnormal friction: if FP is high, investigate bearings, piston rings, valve train.

8 Step 8: Calculate Indicated Power and Efficiencies

IP = BP + FP. Mechanical Efficiency (n_mech) = BP / IP = BP / (BP + FP). Indicated Thermal Efficiency: n_ith = IP /
(mass_fuel x calorific_value). Brake Thermal Efficiency: n_bth = BP / (mass_fuel x calorific_value). Indicated Mean
Effective Pressure: IMEP = (IP x 60 x n) / (L x A x N) where n=1 for 2-stroke, n=2 for 4-stroke.

Advantages of Motoring Test

• Direct measurement of FP — no calculations involving IP needed
• Can be done at any temperature — very useful for cold vs hot friction comparison
• Can isolate specific friction sources by removing components
• Can assess engine condition before and after overhaul
• Does not produce combustion gases — useful for measuring friction of prototype engines

Limitations of Motoring Test

• FP during motoring may differ from FP during firing — gas pressure affects ring friction, piston friction
• Cylinder pressure during motoring (compression only) is much lower than firing (combustion adds pressure) → ring
friction different
• Temperature may change during test period — affects oil viscosity and friction
• Requires specialized electrical dynamometer capable of operating as a motor
• Pumping losses (gas exchange) are included in measured FP — not pure mechanical friction

6.3 Morse Test vs Motoring Test — Comparison

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Parameter Morse Test Motoring Test

What is measured Indicated Power (IP) per cylinder Friction Power (FP) of whole engine

Engine condition Firing (combustion occurring) Non-firing (fuel/ignition off)

Dynamometer mode Absorbing mode (acts as brake) Motoring mode (acts as motor)

Applicable to Multi-cylinder engines only Any engine (single or multi)

Accuracy Moderate (assumptions about FP) Good (direct FP measurement)

Temperature issue Hot engine — realistic FP Must maintain same oil temp

Key formula IP_n = BP_all - BP_(n off) FP = Power input to motor engine

Output IP of each cylinder, total IP, FP FP vs RPM curve, mechanical efficiency

Diagnostic use Identify weak/faulty cylinders Identify high friction, worn bearings

6.4 Other Important Engine Tests — Quick Reference

• Heat Balance Test: Accounts for all energy input (fuel) and how it is distributed: useful work (BP), cooling water losses,
exhaust heat, friction heat, radiation. Drawn as Sankey diagram or heat balance sheet.
• Willan's Line Method: Used for CI engines. Plots fuel consumption vs BP at constant speed — extrapolate line to zero
fuel consumption axis. The intercept gives negative BP = FP. Simple, no cylinder cut-out needed.
• Retardation Test: Engine motored to test speed, then fuel and dynamometer disconnected — engine decelerates.
Rate of deceleration measured. FP calculated from rotational inertia x deceleration.
• Indicator Diagram (P-V Diagram): Pressure vs Volume traced in the cylinder. Area of diagram = work done per cycle.
IP = (IMEP x L x A x N x n) / 60. Obtained via electronic pressure transducer and crank encoder.
• Exhaust Gas Analysis: Measures: CO, CO2, HC, NOx, O2 in exhaust. Used for emission compliance testing and AFR
optimization. Lambda (lambda) sensor reading = 1.0 means stoichiometric combustion.
• Compression Test: Engine cranked without fuel; pressure measured at TDC for each cylinder. Standard: typically
10-15 bar (petrol), 25-35 bar (diesel). Low reading: worn rings/valves. Differential diagnosis: add oil → if pressure
improves = ring wear; if no change = valve leak.

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CHAPTER 7 — POLLUTION & EMISSION CONTROL

Smoke Types | BS Norms I-VI | Catalytic Converter | DPF | SCR | EGR

7.1 Engine Smoke — Diagnosis by Color

Smoke Color Cause Solution / Implication

Rich mixture: too much fuel / insufficient air. CI:

injector fault, clogged air filter, turbocharger Service: clean/replace air filter, check injectors,
BLACK Smoke failure, high fuel delivery. SI: rich AFR, faulty check turbo boost, check AFR sensor. Indicates
injector (leaking), failed lambda sensor, stuck incomplete combustion and high HC, CO, PM.
open injector.

Coolant/water entering combustion chamber:

Head gasket test: check for sweet smell, milky
blown head gasket, cracked head, cracked
oil, bubbles in coolant. Persistent white smoke =
WHITE Smoke block. At cold startup: condensation in exhaust
serious mechanical failure. Can also be diesel
(normal briefly). Unburned fuel at cold start
mist at cold start (temporary).
(normal briefly in diesel).

Oil burning in the combustion chamber: worn Blue smoke at startup = valve stem seals. Blue
piston rings (oil passes ring gap), worn valve smoke throughout = ring wear. Check: engine
BLUE Smoke
stem seals (oil drawn into port), worn valve oil level dropping, spark plugs oil-fouled, oily
guides, turbocharger oil seal leakage. deposits in intake. Overhaul required.

Diagnose: check injectors, check rings and

Mixture of white and black smoke. Oil burning +
valve seals. Grey transient smoke on
GREY Smoke rich mixture simultaneously. Can also indicate
deceleration often normal (momentary rich
EGR system issues in diesel engines.
condition).

7.2 Bharat Stage (BS) Emission Norms — India

Bharat Stage (BS) norms are Indian emission standards based on European Euro norms. They regulate the maximum
permissible levels of pollutants from vehicle exhausts. India has progressively tightened these norms, skipping BS5
entirely to jump from BS4 to BS6 in 2020.

Equivalent
BS Norm Introduced Year Key Requirement/Change
Euro

2000 (Delhi), 2001

BS I Euro 1 Basic emission control; catalytic converter required
(India)

2001 (metros),
BS II Euro 2 Tighter limits; unleaded petrol mandatory; OBD basic
2003 (India)

2005 (metros), Further tightening; better catalytic converters; diesel cars

BS III Euro 3
2010 (India) improved

2010 (metros), Significant reduction CO/HC/NOx; OBD-I; fuel quality improved;

BS IV Euro 4
2017 (all India) DPF/EGR introduction

SKIPPED —
BS V Never introduced Euro 5 India skipped to fast-track cleaner technology
in India

Massive reduction 80-90% NOx/PM; OBD-II; DPF mandatory

April 1, 2020 (all
BS VI Euro 6 (diesel); GPF (petrol); real-driving emission (RDE) testing;
India)
ultra-low sulphur fuel (10 ppm max)

BS IV vs BS VI — Emission Limits Comparison (Diesel Passenger Car)

Pollutant BS IV Limit BS VI Limit % Reduction

CO (Carbon Monoxide) 0.50 g/km 0.50 g/km 0%

HC + NOx (combined) 0.30 g/km 0.17 g/km 43%

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NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) 0.25 g/km 0.08 g/km 68%

PM (Particulate Matter) 0.025 g/km 0.0045 g/km 82%

Particle Number (PN) Not regulated 6.0x10^11 /km New requirement

Sulphur in fuel 50 ppm max 10 ppm max 80% reduction

7.3 Three-Way Catalytic Converter (TWC) — SI Engines

A Catalytic Converter is an emission control device fitted in the exhaust system that converts harmful pollutants into
less harmful substances via chemical reactions. Called Three-Way Catalyst (TWC) because it simultaneously reduces
three pollutants: CO, HC, and NOx.

Construction
• Metal canister (stainless steel housing)
• Substrate: Ceramic honeycomb monolith (cordierite) with ~400 cells/inch^2 — extremely high surface area
• Washcoat: Alumina (Al2O3) layer increases surface area 7000x
• Precious metal catalyst: Platinum (Pt), Palladium (Pd), Rhodium (Rh) — typically 2-5 grams total
• Oxygen storage material: Cerium oxide (CeO2) — stores/releases oxygen to maintain ideal stoichiometric window

Three Simultaneous Reactions

1. Oxidation of CO: CO + 1/2 O2 → CO2 (using Pt/Pd)
2. Oxidation of HC: HC + O2 → CO2 + H2O (using Pt/Pd)
3. Reduction of NOx: NOx + CO → N2 + CO2 (using Rh)

Operating Conditions
• Light-off temperature: ~250-300°C — catalyst not effective below this (cold start problem)
• Operating window: lambda = 0.99-1.01 (very narrow stoichiometric window) — requires closed-loop lambda sensor
control
• Max efficiency: ~95-98% reduction of all three pollutants at stoichiometry
• Temperature limit: ~850-1000°C maximum — above this, catalyst sinters and deactivates (thermal degradation)
• Catalyst poisoning: Lead (no leaded fuel), Sulphur (reduced by low-sulphur fuel), Oil phosphorus (from worn rings)

7.4 Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)

A DPF captures soot (PM — Particulate Matter) particles from diesel exhaust, preventing them from being emitted.
Required for BS VI (Euro 6) diesel vehicles. Mandatory for all new diesel passenger cars in India since April 2020.

Construction & Function

• Silicon carbide (SiC) or cordierite honeycomb filter with alternately plugged channels
• Exhaust flows through porous walls — soot trapped on walls, clean gas passes through
• Filtration efficiency: >99% of particles by number captured
• Pressure sensors (before and after DPF) monitor pressure drop → indicates soot loading level

DPF Regeneration — Critical Concept

When soot accumulates, DPF must be cleaned (regenerated) to avoid blockage. Two types:
• Passive Regeneration: Occurs automatically when exhaust temperature is high enough (>600°C) — e.g. motorway
driving. Soot burns off naturally. No driver input.
• Active Regeneration: ECU injects extra fuel to raise exhaust temperature to ~600-650°C to burn soot. Triggered when
soot load exceeds threshold (~40-45%). Engine may run rough briefly. Takes 10-15 minutes.
• Forced Regeneration: Performed with diagnostic tool in workshop when DPF is severely blocked and active regen
failed. Must be done carefully to avoid damage.

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• DPF failure causes: Short urban drives only (no passive regen), interrupted active regen, ash accumulation
(non-combustible). DPF replacement cost: Rs. 30,000-1,50,000!

7.5 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) — NOx Control

SCR is a technology used to reduce NOx (nitrogen oxides) in diesel exhaust to near-zero levels. Required by Euro 6 /
BS VI for all diesel commercial vehicles and heavy trucks. Also used in cars (AdBlue system).

How SCR Works

AdBlue (Diesel Exhaust Fluid, DEF) — an aqueous solution of 32.5% urea in deionized water — is injected into the
exhaust stream upstream of the SCR catalyst.

Step 1: Urea thermolysis: CO(NH2)2 → NH3 + HNCO (AdBlue decomposes to ammonia)

Step 2: HNCO hydrolysis: HNCO + H2O → NH3 + CO2
Step 3: SCR reaction: 4NH3 + 4NO + O2 → 4N2 + 6H2O (NOx reduced to N2)

• Catalyst: Zeolite or Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) on TiO2

• NOx reduction: >90%
• AdBlue consumption: ~5-8% of diesel consumption
• AdBlue tank refill interval: ~10,000-15,000 km
• If AdBlue runs out: Engine power limited by ECU (limp mode) to enforce refill — legal requirement

7.6 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

EGR reduces NOx formation by recirculating a portion of exhaust gas back into the intake manifold, mixing with fresh
air. Exhaust gas contains CO2 and H2O — these are inert gases with high heat capacity.

Why EGR Reduces NOx

NOx forms at very high temperatures (>1800°C) in the combustion chamber during peak combustion. EGR reduces
peak combustion temperature by: (1) Diluting oxygen content (less intense combustion), (2) Adding inert gases with
high heat capacity (absorb combustion heat). Lower peak temp = less NOx formed.

EGR Rate = (Volume of exhaust gas recirculated / Total intake volume) x 100% [Typically 5-30%]

EGR Types
• External EGR: Exhaust gas piped from exhaust manifold to intake manifold via EGR valve and cooler. Most common.
Has EGR cooler (water-cooled) to reduce gas temperature before mixing.
• Internal EGR: Valve overlap timing used to retain exhaust gases in cylinder. No separate piping. Used in some SI
engines.
• High-pressure EGR (HP-EGR): Takes gas from upstream of turbocharger turbine (high pressure). Good at low
RPM/load. Used in most modern diesels.
• Low-pressure EGR (LP-EGR): Takes gas from downstream of DPF/turbocharger (low pressure). Better at high load.
Helps turbocharger efficiency. Used in BS VI engines.

EGR Side Effects / Disadvantages

• Reduces volumetric efficiency — less oxygen available for combustion → lower power
• Increases soot (PM) and HC emissions if EGR rate too high
• Can deposit soot and acidic condensates in intake manifold, EGR cooler, and intake valves → carbon fouling
• EGR cooler can crack → coolant leak into intake → water in engine → serious damage
• EGR valve sticking is common diesel fault → rough idle, poor performance, smoke

7.7 Emission Control Devices — Summary Table

IC ENGINE — Complete Interview Notes Page 25

 Internal Combustion Engines

Device Target Pollutants Engine Type Mechanism Required from

Three-Way CAT CO, HC, NOx SI only Catalytic oxidation + reduction BS II (2001)

Diesel Oxidation
CO, HC, VOCs CI Oxidation catalyst BS III
Catalyst (DOC)

DPF PM (soot), PN CI Physical filtration + regeneration BS VI (2020)

GPF PM, PN SI (GDI) Particulate filter on petrol car BS VI (2020)

CI
SCR + AdBlue NOx Urea injection + SCR catalyst BS VI (2020)
(trucks/cars)

EGR NOx CI + SI Exhaust gas dilution of intake BS IV onwards

Lean NOx Trap SI lean-burn,

NOx Absorb NOx at lean; reduce at rich BS VI
(LNT) diesel

BS VI (full
OBD-II All (monitoring) All On-board diagnostics, MIL
OBD-II)

KEY EXAM FACTS: BS VI fuel: max 10 ppm sulphur (BS IV was 50 ppm) | TWC only works at stoichiometry
(lambda=1) | DPF removes >99% particulates | AdBlue = 32.5% urea in water | EGR reduces NOx but can increase
PM | India skipped BS V entirely | BS VI introduced 1 April 2020 across India

IC ENGINE — Complete Interview Notes Page 26