TABLE OF CONTENTS

Week 1: Semiconductors & Energy Bands

L01 — Introduction to Semiconductors
L02 — Introduction to Energy Bands
L03 — Fundamentals of Band Structure
L04 — Band Structure & Fermi-Dirac Distribution
L05 — Density of States

Week 2: Carrier Concentrations & Doping

L06 — Doping & Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
L07 — Equilibrium Carrier Concentration
L08 — Temperature-Dependence of Carrier Concentration
L09 — High Doping Effects & Incomplete Ionization

Week 3: Transport: Drift, Diffusion & Continuity

L10 — Carrier Scattering & Mobility
L11 — Low/High-Field Transport & Diffusion
L12–13 — Drift-Diffusion, Traps & Continuity Equation
L14 — Intro to p-n Junction

Week 4: p-n Junction: Equilibrium & Bias

L15–16 — p-n Junction Under Equilibrium
L17–18 — p-n Junction Under Bias
L19 — Generation-Recombination Currents

Week 5: Junction Applications & Schottky

L20 — Applications of p-n Junctions
L21 — Junction Breakdown & C-V Profiling
L22–24 — Schottky Junction

Week 6: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

L25–28 — BJT Basics & Operation
L29 — Delays in BJT

Week 7: MOS Structure & Threshold Voltage

L30 — MOS: Introduction
L31–32 — MOS C-V & Threshold Voltage
L33 — MOS C-V in Detail

Week 8: MOSFET: Operation & Short-Channel Effects

L34–35 — MOSFET Introduction & I-V Characteristics
L36 — Substrate Bias & Subthreshold Conduction
L37 — Short-Channel Effects (SCE)

Week 9: Compound Semiconductors & Heterojunctions

L38–41 — Compound Semiconductors & Heterojunctions
L42 — Heterojunction Transistors (HBT & HEMT)
L43 — III-Nitrides (GaN)

Week 10: Solar Cells & Photodetectors

L44–46 — Solar Cells
L47–49 — Photodetectors

Week 11: Recombination, LEDs

 L50 — Basics of Recombination
L51–53 — LEDs

Week 12: Advanced Devices & Fabrication

L54–56 — Power, RF & Memory Transistors
L57–58 — Microelectronic Fabrication
L59 — Course Summary & Key Takeaways
 WEEK 1 | SEMICONDUCTORS & ENERGY BANDS

L01 · Introduction to Semiconductors

KEY CONCEPTS
• Semiconductors sit between conductors (metals) and insulators in terms of conductivity.
• Unique property: conductivity can be tuned by many orders of magnitude by adding impurities (doping).
• Common semiconductors: Si (most widely used), Ge, GaAs, GaN, SiC, InP.
• Classification: elemental (Si, Ge) vs compound (GaAs, GaN); direct vs indirect bandgap.
• Applications span from transistors (CMOS, BJT) to LEDs, solar cells, lasers, power devices, RF devices.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Resistivity: ρ = 1/(nqµ)
■ For intrinsic Si at 300 K: ρ ≈ 2300 Ω·cm

KEY TERMS: Bandgap (Eg) | Intrinsic semiconductor | Extrinsic semiconductor | Direct/Indirect bandgap

L02 · Introduction to Energy Bands

KEY CONCEPTS
• Isolated atoms have discrete energy levels; in a crystal (periodic lattice), these split into energy bands.
• Valence band (VB): highest filled band at 0 K. Conduction band (CB): lowest empty band at 0 K.
• Energy band gap (Eg): forbidden energy gap between VB and CB.
• Metals: VB and CB overlap (no gap). Insulators: very large Eg (>5 eV). Semiconductors: moderate Eg
(~0.1–3 eV).
• Si: Eg = 1.12 eV, Ge: 0.66 eV, GaAs: 1.42 eV, GaN: 3.4 eV.
• Crystalline = periodic atomic arrangement; only crystalline materials have well-defined band gaps.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Si bandgap: Eg = 1.12 eV at 300 K
■ GaAs bandgap: Eg = 1.42 eV at 300 K

KEY TERMS: Valence band | Conduction band | Energy band gap (Eg) | Forbidden gap

L03 · Fundamentals of Band Structure

KEY CONCEPTS
• E-k diagram (dispersion relation): plots energy E vs wavevector k in reciprocal (k) space.
• Reciprocal space / Brillouin zone: the first Brillouin zone spans -π/a to +π/a.
• Effective mass m*: inversely proportional to curvature of E-k diagram — m* = ■²/(d²E/dk²).
• Light holes and heavy holes arise from different curvatures of valence band branches.
• Direct bandgap (GaAs): CB minimum and VB maximum at same k — efficient light emission.
• Indirect bandgap (Si, Ge): CB minimum and VB maximum at different k — phonon needed for transition.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ m* = ■² / (d²E/dk²)
■ k (wavevector) = 2π/λ
■ E = ■²k²/(2m*) (parabolic approx.)

KEY TERMS: E-k diagram | Effective mass (m*) | Brillouin zone | Direct/Indirect bandgap | Phonon
 L04 · Band Structure & Fermi-Dirac Distribution
KEY CONCEPTS
• Fermi-Dirac distribution f(E) gives probability that an energy state E is occupied at temperature T.
• At T = 0 K: f(E) = 1 for E < EF, f(E) = 0 for E > EF (step function).
• At T > 0 K: thermal smearing occurs over ~kBT around EF.
• Fermi level (EF): energy at which f(E) = 0.5.
• For intrinsic semiconductor, EF lies approximately at mid-gap.
• Boltzmann approximation valid when (E – EF) >> kBT (non-degenerate condition).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ f(E) = 1 / [1 + exp((E – EF)/kBT)]
■ kBT ≈ 0.026 eV at 300 K
■ Boltzmann approx: f(E) ≈ exp(–(E–EF)/kBT)

KEY TERMS: Fermi-Dirac distribution | Fermi level (EF) | Boltzmann approximation | kBT (thermal
energy)

L05 · Density of States

KEY CONCEPTS
• Density of States (DOS) g(E): number of available energy states per unit energy per unit volume.
• In 3D, DOS near band edges has a parabolic (√E) dependence.
• Effective density of states in CB: NC; in VB: NV.
• Carrier concentration = DOS × Fermi-Dirac distribution (integrated over energy).
• For 2D (quantum well): DOS is step-function. For 1D (nanowire): DOS is 1/√E. For 0D (dot): delta function.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ g(E) = (4π(2m*)^(3/2) / h³) × √(E – Ec)
■ NC = 2(2πm*e·kBT/h²)^(3/2)
■ NV = 2(2πm*h·kBT/h²)^(3/2)

KEY TERMS: Density of States (DOS) | NC (effective DOS in CB) | NV (effective DOS in VB) | Quantum
confinement
 WEEK 2 | CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS & DOPING

L06 · Doping & Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

KEY CONCEPTS
• Intrinsic carrier concentration ni: electron/hole pairs thermally generated. Very sensitive to temperature.
• Si at 300 K: ni ≈ 1.5×10¹■ cm■³ (extremely pure = insulating without doping).
• Donor (n-type doping): Group V elements (P, As, Sb) — donate electrons to CB.
• Acceptor (p-type doping): Group III elements (B, Al, Ga) — create holes in VB.
• Charge neutrality: ND■ + p = NA■ + n.
• ni² = n·p = NC·NV·exp(–Eg/kBT) — law of mass action.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ ni² = NC·NV·exp(–Eg/kBT)
■ ni(Si) ≈ 1.5×10¹■ cm■³ at 300 K
■ n·p = ni²

KEY TERMS: ni (intrinsic concentration) | Donor / Acceptor | n-type / p-type | Law of mass action

L07 · Equilibrium Carrier Concentration

KEY CONCEPTS
• In n-type: n ≈ ND (majority); p = ni²/n (minority).
• In p-type: p ≈ NA (majority); n = ni²/p (minority).
• Fermi level shifts up toward CB for n-type; shifts down toward VB for p-type.
• n = NC·exp(–(Ec – EF)/kBT); p = NV·exp(–(EF – Ev)/kBT).
• Heavily doped → degenerate semiconductor → Fermi level inside band.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ n = ni·exp((EF – Ei)/kBT)
■ p = ni·exp((Ei – EF)/kBT)
■ EF – Ei = kBT·ln(ND/ni) [n-type]

KEY TERMS: Majority/Minority carriers | Quasi-Fermi level | Degenerate semiconductor

L08 · Temperature-Dependence of Carrier Concentration

KEY CONCEPTS
• Three regimes: Freeze-out (T very low, donors not ionized), Extrinsic (n ≈ ND), Intrinsic (n ≈ ni > ND).
• Extrinsic region (useful operating range): n ≈ ND, nearly independent of T.
• At high T: ni dominates → device loses semiconductor properties.
• Si devices usable up to ~150°C; SiC/GaN usable up to ~400°C due to larger Eg.
• Fermi level moves toward mid-gap as T increases (both n- and p-type).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ n ≈ ND in extrinsic range
■ ni = √(NC·NV)·exp(–Eg/2kBT)

KEY TERMS: Freeze-out | Extrinsic region | Intrinsic region | High-temperature limit

 L09 · High Doping Effects & Incomplete Ionization
KEY CONCEPTS
• At low temperatures, donors/acceptors may not be fully ionized (incomplete ionization).
• Ionization energy ED (donor below CB): ~45 meV for P in Si.
• At very high doping: band narrowing — effective bandgap reduces (BGN effect).
• BGN increases ni effectively → affects minority carrier injection in BJTs and solar cells.
• Degenerately doped (n+ or p+): Fermi level inside band — Boltzmann approximation fails.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ ND■ = ND / [1 + 2·exp((EF – ED)/kBT)]
■ BGN: ∆Eg ≈ 3×10■■ × ND^(1/3) eV (empirical)

KEY TERMS: Incomplete ionization | Band gap narrowing (BGN) | Ionization energy | Degeneracy
 WEEK 3 | TRANSPORT: DRIFT, DIFFUSION & CONTINUITY

L10 · Carrier Scattering & Mobility

KEY CONCEPTS
• Carriers scatter due to: lattice vibrations (phonons) and ionized impurities.
• Mobility µ = q·τ/m* (τ = mean scattering time). Higher µ → faster device.
• Phonon scattering ↑ with T; impurity scattering ↓ with T.
• Total mobility: 1/µtotal = 1/µphonon + 1/µimpurity (Matthiessen's rule).
• µe(Si) ≈ 1400 cm²/V·s; µh(Si) ≈ 450 cm²/V·s at 300 K.
• GaAs: µe ≈ 8500 cm²/V·s (much higher → faster RF devices).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ µ = qτ/m*
■ J_drift = qnµE (electrons)
■ 1/µtotal = 1/µL + 1/µI (Matthiessen's rule)

KEY TERMS: Mobility (µ) | Scattering time (τ) | Matthiessen's rule | Hall effect

L11 · Low/High-Field Transport & Diffusion

KEY CONCEPTS
• Low-field: drift velocity vd = µE (linear; Ohm's law applies).
• High-field: velocity saturation — vd saturates at vsat (~10■ cm/s in Si) due to increased scattering.
• Negative differential resistance (NDR) in GaAs at high fields (Gunn effect).
• Diffusion: carriers move from high to low concentration regions.
• Diffusion current: Jn = qDn·(dn/dx); Jp = –qDp·(dp/dx).
• Einstein relation: D/µ = kBT/q (diffusivity linked to mobility).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ vd = µ·E (low field)
■ Jn_diff = q·Dn·(dn/dx)
■ Dn/µn = kBT/q = VT (Einstein relation)
■ VT = kBT/q ≈ 26 mV at 300 K

KEY TERMS: Velocity saturation | Diffusion current | Einstein relation | Thermal voltage VT

L12–13 · Drift-Diffusion, Traps & Continuity Equation

KEY CONCEPTS
• Total current = drift + diffusion: Jn = q·µn·n·E + q·Dn·(dn/dx).
• Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination: occurs via trap levels (mid-gap states).
• Net recombination rate U = (np – ni²) / [τp(n+n■) + τn(p+p■)].
• Continuity equation: ∂n/∂t = (1/q)·(∂Jn/∂x) + Gn – Rn.
• Minority carrier diffusion length: Ln = √(Dn·τn).
• In quasi-neutral region, minority carriers decay exponentially with characteristic length Ln or Lp.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Jn = qµnnE + qDn(dn/dx)
 ■ U_SRH = (np – ni²) / [τp(n+ni) + τn(p+ni)]
■ ∂n/∂t = (1/q)(∂Jn/∂x) + G – R
■ Ln = √(Dn·τn)

KEY TERMS: SRH recombination | Trap level | Continuity equation | Diffusion length (Ln, Lp)

L14 · Intro to p-n Junction

KEY CONCEPTS
• A p-n junction is formed when p-type and n-type regions are in contact.
• Depletion region (space-charge region): ionized donors (+) on n-side, ionized acceptors (–) on p-side.
• Built-in potential (Vbi): contact potential due to Fermi-level alignment.
• Electric field in depletion region points from n to p side, opposing carrier diffusion.
• At equilibrium: drift current = diffusion current for both electrons and holes.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Vbi = (kBT/q)·ln(NA·ND/ni²)
■ Si p-n with NA=ND=10¹■: Vbi ≈ 0.72 V

KEY TERMS: Depletion region | Built-in potential (Vbi) | Space-charge region | Equilibrium
 WEEK 4 | P-N JUNCTION: EQUILIBRIUM & BIAS

L15–16 · p-n Junction Under Equilibrium

KEY CONCEPTS
• Depletion approximation: assumes abrupt transition between depleted and neutral regions.
• Depletion width on n-side: xn; on p-side: xp. Total: W = xn + xp.
• Charge neutrality: NA·xp = ND·xn.
• Peak electric field at junction: Emax = qND·xn/εs = qNA·xp/εs.
• Energy band diagram: Fermi levels align; bands bend by qVbi.
• W ∝ 1/√(doping) — higher doping = narrower depletion region.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ xn = √(2εsVbi·NA / (q·ND·(NA+ND)))
■ W = √(2εs·Vbi·(NA+ND)/(q·NA·ND))
■ Emax = 2Vbi / W

KEY TERMS: Depletion approximation | Depletion width W | xn, xp | Electric field profile

L17–18 · p-n Junction Under Bias

KEY CONCEPTS
• Forward bias (+ on p): reduces barrier → exponential increase in current.
• Reverse bias (+ on n): increases barrier → very small (saturation) current.
• Minority carrier injection under forward bias causes excess carriers at edges of depletion region.
• Ideal diode equation (Shockley equation): I = I0[exp(V/VT) – 1].
• I0 (saturation current) = Aqni²(Dp/(LpND) + Dn/(LnNA)).
• Ideality factor n=1 (diffusion) or n=2 (recombination).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ I = I0[exp(qV/nkBT) – 1]
■ I0 = Aqni²[Dp/(LpND) + Dn/(LnNA)]
■ W(V) = W0·√(1 – V/Vbi) (reverse bias: V < 0)

KEY TERMS: Shockley equation | Saturation current I0 | Forward/Reverse bias | Ideality factor

L19 · Generation-Recombination Currents

KEY CONCEPTS
• In reverse bias, depletion region acts as generation zone (G-R current).
• G-R current ∝ ni (not ni²) → more significant in wide-bandgap semiconductors.
• At low forward bias: recombination current dominates (n=2 ideality).
• At higher forward bias: diffusion current dominates (n=1 ideality).
• Series resistance and high-level injection cause deviation at large forward currents.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Igen = qni·W/(2τ0)
■ Total I = Idiff + IG-R
KEY TERMS: Generation current | Recombination current | Ideality factor | High-level injection
 WEEK 5 | JUNCTION APPLICATIONS & SCHOTTKY

L20 · Applications of p-n Junctions

KEY CONCEPTS
• Rectifier diode: converts AC to DC using forward/reverse characteristics.
• Zener diode: operates in reverse breakdown for voltage regulation.
• LED: radiative recombination of injected minority carriers in direct-bandgap material.
• Photodiode: reverse-biased junction detects photons → generates photocurrent.
• Solar cell: photovoltaic effect — photogenerated carriers separated by junction field.
• Varactor: voltage-controlled capacitance using junction depletion width.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Cj = εs·A/W ∝ 1/√(Vbi–V)
■ Cj0 = εs·A/W0 (zero-bias capacitance)

KEY TERMS: Rectifier | Zener diode | Varactor | Photovoltaic effect

L21 · Junction Breakdown & C-V Profiling

KEY CONCEPTS
• Avalanche breakdown: hot carriers gain enough energy to impact-ionize → carrier multiplication.
• Zener breakdown: quantum tunneling across thin depletion region (high doping, Vbr < 5V).
• Breakdown voltage VBR ∝ Eg^(3/2) / NB (higher Eg → higher breakdown).
• C-V profiling: measure junction capacitance vs. voltage to extract doping profile.
• 1/C² vs V gives a straight line for uniform doping; slope gives ND.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ 1/Cj² = 2(Vbi–V)/(qεsNA) [one-sided junction]
■ NA(x) = –(2/qεsA²) / d(1/C²)/dV

KEY TERMS: Avalanche breakdown | Zener breakdown | C-V profiling | Impact ionization

L22–24 · Schottky Junction

KEY CONCEPTS
• Metal-semiconductor junction. Schottky barrier height φB = φm – χs (n-type).
• φm = metal work function; χs = semiconductor electron affinity.
• Rectifying (Schottky) contact: φm > φs for n-type; φm < φs for p-type.
• Ohmic contact: no rectification — formed when φm < φs for n-type.
• Schottky diode: majority carrier device — very fast switching (no minority carrier storage).
• Forward voltage ~0.3 V (lower than p-n junction ~0.7 V) for Si Schottky.
• Image force lowering (Schottky effect): lowers effective barrier at high fields.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ φB = φm – χs (n-type Schottky)
■ I = A*·T²·exp(–qφB/kBT)·[exp(qV/kBT) – 1]
■ A* = Richardson constant
KEY TERMS: Schottky barrier (φB) | Work function (φm) | Electron affinity (χs) | Ohmic contact |
Richardson constant
 WEEK 6 | BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

L25–28 · BJT Basics & Operation

KEY CONCEPTS
• BJT: three-region device — Emitter (E), Base (B), Collector (C). Types: NPN, PNP.
• Two back-to-back p-n junctions. Active mode: E-B forward biased, C-B reverse biased.
• Minority carrier injection from E into B → diffuse across thin base → collected at C.
• Common-emitter current gain β = IC/IB (typically 50–200).
• Common-base current gain α = IC/IE; β = α/(1–α).
• Base transport factor: αT = IC_injected / IE_injected ≈ 1 – W_B²/(2Ln²).
• Emitter injection efficiency γ = IE_electrons / IE_total ≈ 1 (for heavily doped emitter).
• IC ≈ IS·exp(VBE/VT) (exponential relationship).
• Four regions: Cutoff, Active, Saturation, Reverse-active.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ β = IC / IB
■ α = IC / IE = β/(β+1)
■ IC = IS·exp(VBE/VT)
■ IS = AqDnni² / (WB·NB)
■ αT ≈ 1 – WB²/(2Ln²)

KEY TERMS: Emitter injection efficiency γ | Base transport factor αT | Current gain β, α |
Saturation/Active/Cutoff

L29 · Delays in BJT

KEY CONCEPTS
• Total delay (switching time) = τE + τB + τC + τdepletion.
• τB (base transit time) = WB²/(2Dn) — most critical; minimize by thin base.
• τC (collector depletion transit time) = WCdepl/(2vsat).
• fT (unity gain frequency) = 1/(2π·τtotal) — key figure of merit.
• Early effect: collector depletion region widens with VCE → modulates effective base width.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ τB = WB² / (2Dn)
■ fT = 1 / (2π(τE + τB + τC))
■ VA (Early voltage): IC(1 + VCE/VA)

KEY TERMS: Transit time | fT (cutoff frequency) | Early effect | Early voltage VA
 WEEK 7 | MOS STRUCTURE & THRESHOLD VOLTAGE

L30 · MOS: Introduction

KEY CONCEPTS
• MOS = Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor capacitor. Gate (M) | SiO■ (O) | Si (S).
• Three regimes with gate voltage: Accumulation, Depletion, Inversion.
• Accumulation (VG < VFB): majority carriers pile up at interface.
• Depletion (VFB < VG < VT): majority carriers pushed away; depletion region forms.
• Inversion (VG > VT): minority carriers form inversion layer (channel).
• Flat-band voltage VFB: voltage needed to eliminate band bending.
• Fixed oxide charge Qf, interface trap charge Dit affect VFB.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ VFB = φms – Qf/Cox
■ Cox = εox / tox

KEY TERMS: Accumulation / Depletion / Inversion | Flat-band voltage VFB | Interface traps (Dit) | Oxide
capacitance Cox

L31–32 · MOS C-V & Threshold Voltage

KEY CONCEPTS
• C-V curve: high-freq. cap. drops in depletion, reaches minimum at inversion (Cmin).
• Threshold voltage VT: gate voltage at onset of strong inversion.
• φs = 2φF at threshold (surface potential equals twice Fermi potential).
• Maximum depletion width: Wdm = √(4εsφF / qNA).
• VT = VFB + 2φF + Qd_max/Cox.
• NMOS: VT > 0 (n-channel); PMOS: VT < 0 (p-channel).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ VT = VFB + 2φF + √(2εsqNA·2φF)/Cox
■ φF = (kBT/q)·ln(NA/ni)
■ Wdm = √(2εs·2φF / qNA)
■ Qd_max = –qNA·Wdm

KEY TERMS: Threshold voltage VT | Fermi potential φF | Inversion layer | Maximum depletion width
Wdm

L33 · MOS C-V in Detail

KEY CONCEPTS
• Low-frequency C-V: inversion charge can respond → capacitance returns to Cox in inversion.
• High-frequency C-V: inversion charge cannot respond → stays at Cmin.
• Deep depletion: very fast voltage sweep → depletion extends beyond Wdm.
• Interface trap density Dit measured from stretch-out of C-V curve.
• Equivalent circuit: Cox in series with depletion capacitance Cd.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
 ■ 1/C = 1/Cox + 1/Cd
■ Cd = εs / Wd

KEY TERMS: Low-freq. vs High-freq. C-V | Deep depletion | Dit (interface trap density) | Stretch-out
 WEEK 8 | MOSFET: OPERATION & SHORT-CHANNEL
EFFECTS

L34–35 · MOSFET Introduction & I-V Characteristics

KEY CONCEPTS
• MOSFET: 4-terminal device — Gate (G), Source (S), Drain (D), Bulk (B).
• VGS > VT: inversion channel formed; current flows from Drain to Source.
• Gradual Channel Approximation (GCA): assumes gradual variation along channel.
• Linear (triode) region: VDS < VGS – VT → channel exists along full length.
• Saturation region: VDS ≥ VGS – VT (pinch-off at drain) → ID,sat independent of VDS.
• Transconductance gm = ∂ID/∂VGS = µnCox(W/L)(VGS–VT).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ ID = µnCox(W/L)[(VGS–VT)VDS – VDS²/2] (linear)
■ ID,sat = µnCox(W/2L)(VGS–VT)² (saturation)
■ gm = µnCox(W/L)(VGS–VT) (saturation)
■ fT = gm/(2πCgs)

KEY TERMS: Gradual Channel Approx. | Pinch-off | Transconductance gm | W/L ratio

L36 · Substrate Bias & Subthreshold Conduction

KEY CONCEPTS
• Body effect (substrate bias): VT increases when VSB > 0 (reverse body bias).
• Body-effect coefficient γ = √(2qεsNA)/Cox.
• Subthreshold region (VGS < VT): weak inversion — exponential ID vs VGS.
• Subthreshold swing S = (kBT/q)·ln(10)·(1 + Cd/Cox) ≈ 60 mV/dec at 300 K.
• S = 60 mV/dec is the fundamental lower limit — key challenge for low-power design.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ VT(VSB) = VT0 + γ(√(2φF+VSB) – √(2φF))
■ S = (kBT/q)·ln(10)·(1+Cd/Cox) ≥ 60 mV/dec
■ ID ∝ exp(VGS/S) [subthreshold]

KEY TERMS: Body effect | Subthreshold swing S | Subthreshold current | 60 mV/decade limit

L37 · Short-Channel Effects (SCE)

KEY CONCEPTS
• Short-channel: L comparable to depletion widths → 2D electrostatics matter.
• VT roll-off: VT decreases as L shrinks (drain field affects channel).
• DIBL (Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering): drain voltage lowers source barrier → more leakage.
• Hot carrier effects: high field near drain → impact ionization, oxide damage.
• Velocity saturation: at short L, carriers reach vsat before pinch-off.
• Punch-through: depletion regions of source and drain touch → loss of gate control.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
 ■ DIBL: ∆VT = –σ·VDS (σ = DIBL coefficient ~10–100 mV/V)
■ ID,sat ≈ WCox·vsat·(VGS–VT) (velocity-saturated regime)

KEY TERMS: VT roll-off | DIBL | Hot carriers | Punch-through | Velocity saturation

 WEEK 9 | COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS &
HETEROJUNCTIONS

L38–41 · Compound Semiconductors & Heterojunctions

KEY CONCEPTS
• Compound semiconductors: binary (GaAs, InP), ternary (AlGaAs, InGaAs), quaternary (InGaAsP).
• Heterojunction: junction between two different bandgap materials.
• Band alignment types: Type I (straddling), Type II (staggered), Type III (broken gap).
• Anderson's rule: vacuum level alignment → ∆Ec = χ1 – χ2 (conduction band offset).
• 2DEG (2D Electron Gas): electrons accumulate at AlGaAs/GaAs interface with no impurity scattering → very
high mobility.
• Lattice matching: critical for epitaxial growth without defects. AlGaAs nearly lattice-matched to GaAs.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ ∆Ec = χ1 – χ2 (Anderson's rule)
■ ∆Ev = Eg2 – Eg1 – ∆Ec
■ Eg(AlxGa1-xAs) = 1.42 + 1.247x eV

KEY TERMS: Heterojunction | Band offset ∆Ec, ∆Ev | 2DEG | Lattice matching | Anderson's rule

L42 · Heterojunction Transistors (HBT & HEMT)

KEY CONCEPTS
• HBT (Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor): wide-bandgap emitter → very high injection efficiency γ ≈ 1.
• HBT advantage: can dope base heavily (low resistance) without sacrificing β.
• HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor): 2DEG channel from AlGaAs/GaAs interface.
• HEMT: carriers separated from dopants → no ionized impurity scattering → fT > 500 GHz possible.
• Used in: LNAs, power amplifiers, satellite communications, radar.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ γ_HBT ≈ 1 – exp(–∆Eg/kBT) (much better than homoJunction BJT)

KEY TERMS: HBT | HEMT | 2DEG channel | Modulation doping

L43 · III-Nitrides (GaN)

KEY CONCEPTS
• GaN: wide bandgap 3.4 eV, high breakdown field (~3 MV/cm), high electron velocity.
• AlGaN/GaN HEMT: polarization-induced 2DEG (no intentional doping needed).
• Two types of polarization: spontaneous (Psp) and piezoelectric (Ppe).
• Applications: high-power RF (base stations), power electronics (EV chargers, inverters), blue/green LEDs.
• Challenges: substrate choice (sapphire, SiC, Si), defect density, thermal management.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ 2DEG density ns ∝ σpol (polarization sheet charge)
■ GaN: Ec_breakdown ≈ 3.3 MV/cm vs Si ≈ 0.3 MV/cm

KEY TERMS: Polarization (spontaneous + piezoelectric) | AlGaN/GaN HEMT | Wide bandgap (WBG)
 WEEK 10 | SOLAR CELLS & PHOTODETECTORS

L44–46 · Solar Cells

KEY CONCEPTS
• Photovoltaic effect: photon absorbed → electron-hole pair generated → separated by p-n junction field.
• Short-circuit current ISC: proportional to incident light intensity and quantum efficiency.
• Open-circuit voltage VOC: increases logarithmically with ISC.
• Fill factor FF = Pmax/(ISC·VOC) — measure of I-V curve squareness (ideal ~0.8).
• Efficiency η = Pmax/Pin = FF·ISC·VOC/Pin.
• Shockley-Queisser (SQ) limit: theoretical max efficiency for single-junction = ~33% for Eg ≈ 1.3 eV.
• Losses: thermalization, transmission, recombination.
• Tandem (multi-junction) cells can exceed SQ limit per junction.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ I = ISC – I0[exp(qV/kBT) – 1]
■ VOC = (kBT/q)·ln(ISC/I0 + 1)
■ η = FF·ISC·VOC / Pin
■ SQ limit: ηmax ≈ 33% at Eg ≈ 1.34 eV

KEY TERMS: ISC | VOC | Fill factor FF | Shockley-Queisser limit | Quantum efficiency

L47–49 · Photodetectors
KEY CONCEPTS
• Photodetector: converts optical signal to electrical signal.
• Responsivity R = Iph/Pin [A/W] — key figure of merit.
• Quantum efficiency η = (# electron-hole pairs) / (# incident photons).
• Bandwidth (f3dB) limited by RC time constant and transit time.
• Types: p-n photodiode, p-i-n diode (faster, thicker absorption layer), APD (avalanche for gain).
• p-i-n: intrinsic region depleted by reverse bias → increases absorption width and reduces capacitance.
• APD (Avalanche Photodiode): internal gain M via impact ionization; trade-off with excess noise.
• Dark current: leakage without illumination — key noise source.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ R = ηq/(hν) = ηqλ/(hc)
■ Gain-bandwidth product: M·f3dB = constant
■ f3dB = 1/(2π·τtransit) or 1/(2πRC)

KEY TERMS: Responsivity | Dark current | p-i-n diode | APD (Avalanche Photodiode) | Bandwidth
 WEEK 11 | RECOMBINATION, LEDS

L50 · Basics of Recombination

KEY CONCEPTS
• Recombination types: Radiative (photon emitted), SRH (via trap), Auger (energy to third carrier).
• Radiative recombination rate B·n·p (B = bimolecular coefficient).
• SRH dominates in indirect-gap semiconductors (Si, Ge). Radiative dominates in direct-gap (GaAs, GaN).
• Auger recombination: important at very high carrier density (solar cells, lasers).
• External quantum efficiency = internal QE × extraction efficiency.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Rrad = B·n·p
■ τrad = 1/(B·(n0+p0+∆n)) (low injection: 1/(B·ND))
■ Auger: RAUG = Cn·n²·p + Cp·n·p²

KEY TERMS: Radiative recombination | SRH | Auger recombination | Bimolecular coefficient B

L51–53 · LEDs
KEY CONCEPTS
• LED (Light Emitting Diode): forward-biased direct-bandgap p-n junction → radiative recombination →
photons.
• Emission wavelength: λ = hc/Eg.
• Internal QE ηi = Rrad/(Rrad + Rnon-rad) — need high Rrad.
• Light extraction efficiency ηext: critical challenge — total internal reflection limits extraction.
• Critical angle θc = arcsin(1/n) (Snell's law) — only ~1/(4n²) fraction escapes.
• Techniques to improve extraction: surface texturing, photonic crystals, flip-chip, lens.
• Color mixing for white light: blue LED + phosphor (YAG:Ce) or RGB combination.
• Photometry: luminous efficacy [lm/W]; CRI (color rendering index).

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ λ = hc/Eg = 1240/Eg(eV) nm
■ θc = arcsin(1/n) (critical angle)
■ ηext ≈ 1/(4n²) (planar surface)
■ ηEQE = ηi × ηext

KEY TERMS: Internal QE | Extraction efficiency | Total internal reflection | EQE | CRI | Luminous efficacy
 WEEK 12 | ADVANCED DEVICES & FABRICATION

L54–56 · Power, RF & Memory Transistors

KEY CONCEPTS
• Power transistors: VDMOS, IGBT, GaN HEMT. Need high breakdown, low on-resistance.
• Ron × BV² = constant for given material (Johnson-Ragone limit).
• SiC and GaN outperform Si by >100× in power figure of merit.
• IGBT = MOSFET gate + BJT conduction → used in inverters, EV drives.
• RF transistors: need high fT, fmax. GaAs HBT, GaN HEMT, InP HEMT.
• Memory: DRAM (1T-1C, volatile), Flash (floating gate FET, non-volatile).
• Flash: charge stored on floating gate → shifts VT → encodes 0 or 1.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Ron × BV² ≥ 4 / (µn·ε·Ec³) (material limit)
■ fmax = √(fT / (8πRg·Cgd)) (max oscillation frequency)

KEY TERMS: VDMOS | IGBT | Power figure of merit | fmax | Floating gate | Flash memory

L57–58 · Microelectronic Fabrication

KEY CONCEPTS
• Wafer preparation: Czochralski growth (single crystal Si ingot) → slicing → polishing.
• Oxidation: thermal SiO2 (Deal-Grove model). Used as gate oxide, isolation, masking.
• Lithography: pattern transfer from mask to wafer using UV/EUV photoresist.
• Etching: wet (isotropic) or dry/RIE (anisotropic) — dry preferred for fine features.
• Doping: ion implantation (precise control of dose and depth) + anneal to activate.
• Deposition: CVD (polysilicon, SiO2, Si3N4), PVD/sputtering (metals), ALD (gate dielectric).
• CMOS flow: well formation → gate stack → source/drain implant → contacts → metallization.

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
■ Deal-Grove: x_ox² + A·x_ox = B(t + τ)
■ Ion implant: Gaussian profile centered at Rp (projected range)

KEY TERMS: Czochralski | Lithography | Ion implantation | CVD/PVD/ALD | RIE | CMOS process flow

L59 · Course Summary & Key Takeaways

KEY CONCEPTS
• Semiconductors are defined by tunable conductivity and moderate bandgap.
• Band structure + Fermi-Dirac → carrier concentration → transport → devices.
• p-n junction is the fundamental building block of all semiconductor devices.
• BJT: minority carrier device; MOSFET: majority carrier (field-effect) device.
• Scaling challenges: short-channel effects in MOSFET; need new materials (GaN, SiC, InGaAs).
• Applications: computing, communication, energy (solar/LED/power), sensing.
KEY TERMS: Scaling | Materials beyond Si | System-level integration
 QUICK FORMULA REFERENCE

CARRIER CONCENTRATION
n·p = ni² (law of mass action)

ni² = NC·NV·exp(–Eg/kBT)

n = ni·exp((EF–Ei)/kBT)

NC = 2(2πm*e·kBT/h²)^(3/2)

TRANSPORT
J = q(nµnE + pµpE) + q(Dn∇n – Dp∇p)

Dn/µn = kBT/q = VT ≈ 26 mV (Einstein relation)

Ln = √(Dn·τn) (diffusion length)

P-N JUNCTION
Vbi = (kBT/q)·ln(NAND/ni²)

W = √(2εsVbi(NA+ND)/(qNAND))

I = I0[exp(qV/nkBT) – 1] (diode equation)

Cj = εsA/W (junction capacitance)

SCHOTTKY
φB = φm – χs (n-type)

I = A*T²·exp(–qφB/kBT)·[exp(qV/kBT)–1]

BJT
IC = IS·exp(VBE/VT)

β = IC/IB; α = IC/IE = β/(β+1)

fT = 1/(2π·(τE+τB+τC))

τB = WB²/(2Dn)

MOS/MOSFET
VT = VFB + 2φF + Qd/Cox

Cox = εox/tox

ID,sat = µCox(W/2L)(VGS–VT)²

gm = µCox(W/L)(VGS–VT)

S = (kBT/q)·ln10·(1+Cd/Cox) ≥ 60 mV/dec

SOLAR CELL & LED

VOC = (kBT/q)·ln(ISC/I0+1)

η = FF·ISC·VOC/Pin

λ(nm) = 1240/Eg(eV)

ηext ≈ 1/(4n²) (planar LED)