1.

Introduction- Elementary Programming Principles

Elementary Programming Principles

Introduction
Programming is the art of designing computer programs. When designing these
programs, there are a number of procedural steps that need to be observed and laid
down. Previously, systems used to operate by plugging and unplugging wires on the
switch board which was more of a physical adventure than automated. However, with
programming devices, systems got automated due to software advancements and
creations and that is how digital technology came into being courtesy of programming.
Computer Programming
Computers work by running a set of instructions called Programs (software or codes).
Programming involves creation of computer programs to solve a particular task. When
creating computer programs, one is likely to use programming languages which create a
platform to create programs. A programming language is a special set of symbols that
can be translated into machine readable form by the computer when arranged in a
particular sequence or order. Each language has a special sequence or order of writing
characters usually referred to as syntax.
Brief History of Programming Languages
Evolution of programming languages
- Years 50: Creation of high-level languages (closer to humans).
-Years 60: Expansion of specialized languages. Forth. Simula I. Lisp, Cobol. Trying
unsuccessfully to impose general languages: Algol, PL / 1.
-Years 70: Duel between structured programming with Pascal and efficiency of C
language. Basic generalized on personal computers from 1977, until the late 80s.
-Years 80: Experimentating other ways including objects. ML. Smalltalk. On
computers, we now use C, Pascal, Basic compiled.
-Years 90: Generalization of object-oriented programming with the performance of
microcomputers. Java, Perl, Python languages in addition to microphones.
-2000s: Internet Programming (and future innovations, see end of text).
-Years 2010: Concurrency and asynchronicity. JavaScript and Go languages among
others help to create online fluid applications.

First language
Ada Lovelace and Babbage and its nephew were writing programs for the project of
"difference engine", and then the "analytical engine".
In 1945, the German K. Zuse, inventor of the Z3 computer would have defined an
evolved language for this engine (with arrays and records). Few documents of the
epoch about this language exist.
Follow this web address to learn more about evolution of programming languages:
[Link]
Description of terms used in Programming
Source Program
This is the program code that the programmer enters in the program editor window
that is not yet translated into machine readable form. The source program is usually
created using a particular programming language like Pascal, C, C++, Visual Basic,
Java e.t.c.
Object Code
This is program code that is in machine readable form. A source code that is not in
machine readable form must be translated into object code.
Translators
This refers to language processors such as assemblers, interpreters and compilers that
convert the source program into object code.
Assemblers
An assembler translates assembly language into machine language that the computer
can understand and execute.
Interpreter
An interpreter translates the source program line-by-line, allowing the CPU to execute
one line before translating the next. The translated line is not stored in the computer
memory. It means that every time, the program is needed for execution, it has to be
translated. This method of translating programs was very common in early computers
that did not have enough memory to store the object code as a file that can be
executed later.
Compiler
A compiler translates the entire source program into object code. The object code file
can be made into full executable program by carrying out another process known as
linking which joins object code to all the other files that are needed for the execution
of the program. After the linking process, an executable file (application file) is
generated. This file is stored on a storage media such as a disk with a name that has a
unique extension (.EXE).
Differences between interpreters and compilers
Interpreters
Compilers
 1. Translates the source program one statement at a time
Translates the entire source code at once before execution
2. Translates the program each time it is run hence slower than compiling
Compiled program (object code) can be saved on a storage media and run as required,
hence executes faster than interpreted programs
3. Interpreted object code takes less memory compared to compiled program
Compiled programs require more memory as the object file are larger.

2. Levels of Programming Languages- Low Level Languages

Levels of Programming languages

Programming languages are categorized into two levels namely:
1. Low- Level Languages
2. High-Level Languages
Low- Level Languages
A low-level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no
abstraction from a computer's instruction set architecture. Generally this refers to
either machine code or assembly language. The word "low" refers to the small or
nonexistent amount of abstraction between the language and machine language;
because of this, low-level languages are sometimes described as being "close to the
hardware".
Low-level languages can be converted to machine code without using a compiler or
interpreter, and the resulting code runs directly on the processor. A program written
in a low-level language can be made to run very quickly, and with a very small memory
footprint; an equivalent program in a high-level language will be more heavyweight.
Low-level languages are simple, but are considered difficult to use, due to the
numerous technical details which must be remembered.
There are two languages used in low level languages namely:
a) Machine language (First generation language)
b) Assembly Language (Second generation language)
Machine language (First generation language)
Sometimes referred to as machine code or object code, machine language is a collection
of binary digits or bits that the computer reads and interprets. Machine language is
the only language a computer is capable of understanding.
Instructions are written using binary logic
They require many lines of logic to accomplish a task
This very code is hard for humans to understand unless he/she is equipped with
special knowledge in machine level programming
Different CPUs have different machine codes this is in reference to the coding
schemes we learned earlier like ASCII and EBCDIC
These programs are easy to execute by the CPU but hard to understand by
humans
Advantage Machine Language:
The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no
translation program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages Machine Language:

1. It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know
details of hardware to write program.
2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results
in program errors.
3. It is difficult to debug the program.
Example:

Machine Instruction Machine Operation

00000000 Stop Program
00000001 Turn bulb fully on
00000010 Turn bulb fully off
00000100 Dim bulb by 10%
00001000 Brighten bulb by 10%
00010000 If bulb is fully on, skip over next instruction
00100000 If bulb is fully off, skip over next instruction
01000000 Go to start of program (address 0)
Assembly Language
Sometimes referred to as assembly or ASL, assembly language is a low-level
programming language used to interface with computer hardware.
They were developed to overcome the difficulties of understanding and using
machine languages
 It attempted to make computer languages readable
This language allowed programmers to write programs as a set of symbolic
operation codes called Mnemonics- this is a shortened two or three letter words.
Programs written in assembly language require an assembler in order convert
them into machine language that the computer can understand.
Assembly language is machine dependent- this means, a program written for
one computer cannot be used on another.
The following disadvantages are observed with the assembly languages.
1. It is time consuming for an assembler to write and then test the program.
2. Assembly language programs are not portable.
3. It is necessary to remember the registers of CPU and mnemonic instructions by
the programmer.
4. Several mnemonic instructions are needed to write in assembly language than
a single line in high-level language. Thus, assembly language programs are
longer than the high language programs.

Example:

MOV r0, #0C ;load base address of string into r0

LOAD: MOV r1,(r0) ;load contents into r1
CALL PRINT ; call a print routine to print the character in r1
INC r0 ;point to next character
JMP LOAD ;load next character

High level languages

● These languages are close to human languages such that humans can read and
understand easily than low level languages
● These languages are machine independent this means that they are not
subject to hardware models and configurations
● These languages are classified into five groups namely:
I. Third generation languages (3GLs)
II. Fourth Generation Languages (4GLS)
III. Fifth generation Languages (5GLs)
IV. Object Oriented Languages (OOPs)
 V. Web scripting Languages
Third generation languages (3GLs)
● These languages are also called procedural or structured languages; this means
that these are languages that make it possible to break a program into
components called modules each performing a particular task. This is referred
to as structured programming
● In structured programming
i. Large programs can be broken down into smaller sub programs each
performing a single task
ii. Use of a few simple control structures in problem solving. These control
structures include sequence, selection and iteration
● Structured programming languages are flexible, easier to read and modify
Examples:
Pascal: was initially developed for teaching structured languages
Fortran: (FORmula TRANslator) this language was developed for mathematicians,
scientists and engineers. It involves writing programs with mathematical expressions.
COBOL: (common business oriented language); this language was developed to solve
business problems e.g. developing data processing applications such as computer –
based inventory control systems.
Basic: (Beginners All- Purpose Symbolic Instructional Code); this language was
developed to initially enable students learn programming. This is a simple general
purpose language used for developing business and educational applications. This was
the first high level language that was available for microcomputer users.
C: This is a programming language mainly used for developing system software such as
the operating system. It is one of the most popular and powerful high – level
languages in the business world because of its ability to provide the programmer with
powerful features of low level languages and at the same time easily understandable
as a high level language.
ADA: this is a language named after the first lady programmer. Ada Lovelace. Ada is
suitable for developing military, industrial and real-time systems
Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)
Fourth generation languages make programming an even easier task than the third
generation language because they present the programmer with more programming
tools which include: Command buttons, forms, textboxes, Combo boxes etc.
Here, selects graphical objects on the screen called controls then uses them to create
designs on a base form. The programmer may also use an application generator works
behind the scenes to generate the necessary code, hence the programmer is freed
from tedious work of writing the code.
Examples of fourth generation languages
Visual Basic, Delphi Pascal and Visual COBOL
Fifth Generation Languages (5 GLs)
These languages are designed to depict human-like intelligence.
With these languages, the programmer only worries about what problem needs to be
solved and what conditions need to be met without worrying about how to implement an
algorithm to solve them.
Examples:
PROLOG, Mercury, Lisp and OCCAM
Object-Oriented Programming Languages (OOPs)
The concept behind OOPs is to look at a program as having various objects interacting to
make up a whole. Each object has specific data values that are unique to it (called
state) and a set of the things it can accomplish called (functions or behavior). This
process of having data and functions that operate on the data within an object is
called encapsulation. Several objects can then be linked to form a complete program.
Examples:
C++, Java and SmallTalk
Web Scripting Languages
The World Wide Web has thrown up a number of new scripting languages specifically
designed for web page design. It has also seen an upsurge in popularity of some older
languages originally designed for other purposes but which happen to be well-suited
for web applications. The following identifies some of the major scripting languages
associated with Web page design:
Examples:
● HTML (HyperText Markup Language). All web pages are written using HTML
(although some of the scripting languages listed below may also be used to
provide more versatility). HTML is not really a programing language. It is
essentially a set of tags which can be embedded within Ascii text to control how
the text should be displayed when viewed in a web browser.

● DHTML (Dynmaic HTML). DHTML is not a language at all. Rather it is a name

applied to various technologies (e.g. Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), Document
Object Model (DOM) and scripting languages such as JavaScript) used to
supplement HTML to provide web pages with dynamic content. DHTML does not
depend upon plug-ins and should in theory run on any HTML 4 compatible browser.
Processing is client-side.

● JavaScript. Although it shares some similarities with Java, JavaScript is not a

subset of Java. Java and JavaScript were developed independently. JavaScript
(originally called LiveScript) is a scripting language developed by Netscape for
enhancing web pages. It was probably renamed JavaScript to cash in on the
popularity of Java. This has unfortunately resulted in a lot of confusion as
Java may also be used to enhance webpages. JavaScript is primarily used for
client-side processing.

● JScript is a Microsoft version of JavaScript. JScript is generally used for client-

side processing, but it may also be used for server-side processing. Active Server
Pages, for example, may be set-up to run JScript rather than VBScript.

● VBScript is a subset of Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). VBScript is an

interpreter language, whereas VB can be compiled. VBScript is often used for
server-side scripting and is the default language for Active Server Pages (ASP).
It may also be used fot client-side scripting (although it is currently only
supported by Internet Explorer).

● Perl (Practical Extraction and Report Language) is a powerful text processing

language developed by Larry Wall. It originated on Unix platforms, but
interpreters are now available for Windows and Macintosh. Scripts can be easily
ported between platforms. Although CGI scripts can be written in other
languages (e.g. C or Visual Basic), Perl is often the language of choice for CGI
(Common Gateway Interface) scripts. Although useful for web applications, Perl
is an extremely versatile language and may also be used for a multitude of non-
web related purposes.

● PerlScript is a subset of Perl. It may be used for ActiveX and Active Server
Pages.

● Tcl (Tool Command Language) - sometimes pronounced tickle - was developed

by John Ousterhout. Like Perl it may be used for CGI scripting or for writing
applications. It may be also used to write client-side scripts which run on the
user's browser.
 ● PHP was created in 1994 by Rasmus Lerdorf to add dynamic content to an
HTML page. PHP initially stood for 'Personal Home Page', but now it is generally
translated as 'PHP Hypertext Preprocessor'. The PHP code is embedded within
the HTML code between special tags. When the page is accessed the server
processes the PHP code and then sends the output from the script as HTML code
to the client.

● CFML (ColdFusion Markup Language) is a tag-based scripting language

developed by Allaire (now merged with Macromedia) as part of the ColdFusion
system for dynamic web page creation and database access. The CFML
commands are embedded in HTML files. The results of database queries are
converted into HTML by the server.

● Ajax is an abbreviation for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. It is not a

language as such, but a group of interrelated client-side web development
techniques used to create interactive web applications.

Advantages and disadvantages of low-level and high level languages

Advantages of low level languages
● The CPU understands machine language directly without translation
● The processor executes them faster because complex instructions already
broken down into smaller simpler ones
● Low level languages are stable and hardly crash or break down once written
Disadvantages of low level languages
● They are difficult and cumbersome to use and learn
● They require highly trained experts both to develop and maintain programs
● Removing errors (debugging) In a low level language programs is difficult
● Low level programs are machine dependent i.e. they are not transferable from
one hardware or software platform to another. Thus, they are not portable
Advantages of high level languages
● High level languages are portable i.e. they are transferable from one
computer to another
 ● They are user friendly and easy to use and learn
● Are more flexible. Thus, enhancing creativity and increasing productivity
● Are easier to debug (correct errors)
Disadvantages of high level languages
● Due to large volume of code involved when generating, these programs are
slower in processing
● They have to be interpreted or compiled to machine readable form before the
computer can execute them.
● They require large computer memory to run it

Topical questions
1. Define the term computer program
2. What is programming?
3. State three advantages of high level languages over low level languages
4. List four examples of high level languages and for each, state its most
appropriate application area
5. Why is an executable file unique when compared to any other file?
6. Differentiate between a compiler and an interpreter. Why did early
computers work well with interpreters?
7. List the various examples of programming languages per generation
8. Write the following in full:
A) HTML
B) OOP
9. Distinguish between source program and object code in programming
10. State one advantage of machinery language over the other languages
11. Define the term encapsulation as used in object oriented programming
languages
12. Distinguish between:
a) Low level and high level languages
b) Assembly and machine languages
c) Third generation and forth generation languages
d) Object Oriented Languages and Web Scripting Languages
13. Explore necessary advantages and disadvantages of low level and high level
 languages stating two examples of each.

Program Development

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Development of programs is the art of preparing and designing necessary
structures to come up with computer instructions that can be used to accomplish a
task in the computer. There are six procedural steps involved in program
development namely:
1> Problem recognition
2> Problem definition
3> Program design
4> Program coding
5> Program testing and debugging
6> Implementation and maintenance
There should be some kind of uniformity and relevance in execution from one
stage to another and in every stage, documentation is necessary. The diagram
below elaborates this.
Problem Recognition
● This is the understanding and interpretation of a particular problem. To
understand these problems, you need to highlight key words like: what needs to be
computed, saved, compared, sorted, input etc.
● To understand these problems, the programmer should:
 A> Talk to users in order to assess their situations
B> Understand problems that need solutions
C> Siege an opportunity to develop the new system
D> Study the new directive given by the management requiring a
change in the status quo
E> Make a formal presentation of the system being designed
Problem Definition
● This is also referred to as problem analysis.
● Here the programmer tries to determine or define the likely input, processing
activities and the expected output using the keyword outlined at the problem
recognition stage.
● Finally, the boundaries of the expected program will have been established. In
case several methods are identified that can be used to solve the same problem,
then the best alternative should be chosen.
Program design
● This is the actual processing of the program or problem solving logic called the
algorithm.
● An algorithm refers to a definite number of logical steps that a program follows
in order to solve a problem. It is the programmer who will usually come up with the
algorithm after carefully analyzing the requirements specifications.
● Most programs are not holistic, rather monolithic which means they are made up
of several units called modules which work together to form the whole.
● In modular programming, each module performs a specific task. This approach
makes a program flexible, easier to read and carry out error correction.
● This stage enables the programmer to come up with models of the expected
program. The models show the flow of events and data throughout the entire
program from the time data is input to the time the program gives out expected
information.
Program Coding
● This is the art of converting a program design into an equivalent program.
● This is possible by coding the program with the use of a specific programming
language like: Java, Pascal, C++, Visual basic etc.
● To code these programs, one needs a translator which converts source program
into object code like assemblers, interpreters and compilers
Program testing and debugging
 ● This stage involves removing errors from the program (debugging) and execution
to test its integrity.
● There are two possible errors to debug:
1> Syntax error
These are errors that originate from improper use of language syntax
(grammar, spelling, spacing, punctuation and skipping syntax) syntax-
is the set of rules that defines the combinations of symbols that are
considered to be a correctly structured document or fragment in that
language.
For example: in most programming languages, declaration lines end with
a semi-colon, failure to insert a semi-colon can result into a syntax
error
Consider this PHP code:
<?php
echo "My first PHP script!";
?>
If words like “echo” is misspelled like “icho” or “?” is missing at the start
line or end line or quotations are missing in the statement “My first PHP
script!" can lead to syntax error
2> Logical errors
o They are not detectable by the translator. The program runs but gives wrong
output or halts during execution
Example: consider the PHP code above
The user may mistakenly alter the statement i.e. instead of typing echo "My
first PHP script!" he/she types echo "My second PHP script!"
The code will execute but the output will be wrong. Therefore, logical errors are done due
to entry of logical parameters

Methods of error detection

- There are several methods of testing the program for errors. These
include:
1> Desk checking (dry-run)
This involves going through the program while still on paper before
entering it in the program editor. This helps the programmer to detect
the most obvious syntax and logical errors
2> Using debugging utilities
 This involves entering the program in the program editor and trying to
run debugging utilities to correct syntax errors
3> Using test data
The programmer enters various data variations and extremes including
data with errors to test whether the system will grind to halt
Implementation and maintenance
Implementation
- This is the actual delivery and installation of the new program to be ready
for use.
Review and maintenance
Proper training and post implementation support of users will always reduce the
chances of having those entering invalid data that can crash the program.
Program documentation
● This is writing of formal support materials explaining how the program was
developed
● Documentation can be used by users, installed by operators and modified by
programmers
● All stages of the program development should be documented in order to help
during future modification of the program.
● Documentation is either internal or external
● Internal documentation: is written as program comments that cannot be
executed by the program editor. They help programmers to understand the source
code
● External documentation: refers to reference materials such as user manuals
printed as booklets. User manuals are common examples of external
documentation.
● There are three target groups of external documentation namely:
1. User oriented documentation: these type enables the user to learn how to use
the program as quickly as possible and with little help from the program developer
2. Operator oriented documentation: it is meant for computer operators such as
the technical staff. It helps them to install and maintain the program
3. Programmer oriented documentation: it is a detailed documentation written for
skilled programmers. This documentation provides necessary technical
information to help in future modification of the program. In this type of
documentation, all stages of the program development should be documented
 because:
● There may come a need to revise or modify the program
● Other programmers may think of ways of improving your program.

Summary (modern):
Six Steps of PDLC
STEP
PROCEDURE
DESCRIPTION
1
Analyze the problem
Precisely define the problem to be solved, and write program specifications – descriptions
of the program’s inputs, processing, outputs, and user interface.
2
Design the program
Develop a detailed logic plan using a tool such as pseudo code, flowcharts, object
structure diagrams, or event diagrams to group the program’s activities into modules;
devise a method of solution or algorithm for each module; and test the solution
algorithms.
3
Code the program
Translate the design into an application using a programming language or application
development tool by creating the user interface and writing code; include internal
documentation – comments and remarks within the code that explain the purpose of
code statements.
4
Test and debug the program
Test the program, finding and correcting errors (debugging) until it is error free and
contains enough safeguards to ensure the desired results.
5
Formalize the solution
Review and, if necessary, revise internal documentation; formalize and complete end-
user (external) documentation
6
Maintain the program
Provide education and support to end users; correct any unanticipated errors that
emerge and identify user-requested modifications (enhancements). Once errors or
enhancements are identified, the program development life cycle begins again at Step 1.

Trial Questions
1. Give one advantage of compiling a program rather than interpreting it
2. Outline at least six stages of program development in their respective order
3. Highlight two disadvantages of monolithic programs
4. State two advantages of modular programming
5. In what stage of the development does program documentation justify your
answer
6. Differentiate between a flowchart and pseudo code
7. What is a program bug?
8. Explain why it is important to test a program before implementing it.

5. Development of Algorithm- pseudocodes

Development of Algorithm

Development of algorithms
Development of algorithms can be defined as logical steps that a program follows in
order to solve a problem.
Various tools are used to depict algorithms. They include:
- Decision trees
- Decision tables
- Flowcharts and
- Pseudo codes
Pseudo codes
A pseudo code is a set of statements written in a human readable language but
expressing the processing logic of a program.
- Pseudo codes are not executable by the computer
Guidelines for designing a good pseudo code
To design a good pseudocode, proceed as follows
 1. The statement must be short, clear and readable
2. The statements must not have more than one meaning i.e. should be
unambiguous
3. The pseudo code lines should be clearly outlined and indented clearly
4. A pseudo code should show clearly the start and stop of executable statements
and the control structures (to be discussed later in the section)
5. The input, output and processing statements should be clearly stated, using
keywords such as
Several keywords are often used to indicate common input, output, and
processing operations.
Input: READ, OBTAIN, GET
Output: PRINT, DISPLAY, SHOW
Compute: COMPUTE, CALCULATE, DETERMINE
Initialize: SET, INIT
Add one: INCREMENT, BUMP

Example:
Write a pseudo code that can be used to prompt the user to enter the diameter of a
circle which will be used to calculate the perimeter and area of the circle
Answers
Start
PRINT “enter diameter parameter”
READ D
PERIMETER = 22/7*D
AREA = 22/7*D/2*D/2
PRINT PERIMETER
PRINT AREA
Stop
Trial Questions
1. Write a pseudo code that can be used to prompt the user to enter two
numbers, calculate the sum and average of the two numbers and then display
the output on the screen
2. Write a structured algorithm that would prompt the user to enter the
length and width of a rectangle, calculate the area and perimeter then display
the result
 3. Write a pseudo code for a program that can be used to classify people
according to the age limit. If a person is more than 20 years; output “adult” else
output “young person”
4. What factors do you consider when designing a good pseudo code
5. What is the importance of writing algorithms

5.1-FlowChart

Flow Charts
Flow charts are used to represent any well defined sequence of activities. they are used
to convey in diagrammatic form, the logic, processing operations and flow of control
required of a computer program

Uses Of Flowcharts
Flowcharts are used by programmers to:
1. To plan the structure of a program before it is written
2. To describe the structure of a program after it has been written
Flowchart Symbols
Flowchart symbols are combined with short text clues which are a form of shorthand
understood by programmers. Below is a list of symbols:

Symbol

Meaning

1- Start/Stop
Ellipse: denotes the beginning and end of the program algorithm

2- Input/Output

Parallelogram: used to denote an input or output operation. For example, READ A, B,

PRINT SUM

3- Process

Rectangle: Indicates that a processing or data transformation is taking place. For

example SUM = A+B

4- Decision

Rhombus: Used to specify a condition. A condition must evaluate to a Boolean value

(true or false) for the program to execute the next instructions

5- Connector

Circle: Used as a connecting point or interface for arrows coming from different
directions

6- Arrow

Arrow: Used to indicate the direction of flow of the program logic

Guidelines for Drawing a Flowchart

 1. there should be only one entry/starting point and one exit point of the
program algorithm - except for decisions and connectors
2. Use the correct symbol at each stage in the flowchart
3. The logical flow should be clearly shown using arrows.
4. Use connectors to reduce the number of flow-lines
5. Add notes if necessary, but don't clutter the diagram
6. Lines should ideally be vertical or horizontal

6. Program Control Structures

Program Control Structures

Introduction:
program control structures are blocks of statements that determine how statements
are to be executed, in structured programming languages, there are three control
structures namely; sequence, selection and iteration (looping)

Subpage Listing
● 1. Sequence
● 2. Selection
o Selection Examples
o Selection Questions
● Iteration (Looping)
o The FOR Loop Examples
o The FOR Loop Questions
● Review Questions
1. Sequence
posted Jan 6, 2015, 11:59 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated Jan 6, 2015, 12:19 PM ]

Sequence
In this structure, the computer reads instructions from a program file starting from
the first top line and proceeding downwards one -by -one to the end. This is called
sequential programming execution i.e.

In sequential program execution, the computer perform tasks that are arranged
sequentially one after another.

Just like in a school system, a std5 student must first pass ECD, std 1 - 4 before std 5 in
that sequence.

2. Selection
posted Jan 6, 2015, 12:36 PM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 6, 2015, 11:07 AM ]

Selection
In selection control, execution of statements depends on a condition which is either a
true or false

There are four types of selection controls. Namely:

1. IF.....THEN
2. IF.....THEN.....ELSE
3. NESTED IF
4. CASE SECTION
IF....THEN
The IF....THEN selection is used if only one option is available. All other options are
ignored

Format:

IF <condition> THEN

Statements;

ENDIF

Flowchart Sample

IF....THEN....ELSE
This type of selection is suitable where there are two available options

General Format
IF <condition> THEN
Statements;
ELSE
Statements;
EndIF
Flowchart Sample

Nested IF Selection
This type of selection is used where two or more options have to be considered to make a
selection.
General Format
IF <condition> THEN
statements
ELSE
IF <condition> THEN
statements
ELSE
IF<condition> THEN
Statements
ELSE
Statements
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF

Flowchart Sample

CASE Construct
This is an alternative to the Nested IF especially where there are several options to
choose from. Its preferred because it reduces the many lines of code. However, the
boolean expression for the case selection can only be expressed using integers and
alphabetic characters only. The General format should be
CASE integer OF or
CASE Char OF

Example:
Case x of

label 1: statement 1
label 2: statement 2
label 3: statement 3
.
.
.
label n: statement n-1

Else

statement

Endcase

Iteration (Looping)

Iteration (Looping)
1.
Introduction
Iteration is also referred to as looping or repetition. Its designed to execute the same
block of code again and again until a certain condition is fulfilled.

The three main looping controls are:-

1. The WHILE Loop

2. The REPEAT....UNTIL Loop
3. The FOR Loop
The WHILE Loop
The "WHILE" loop is used if a condition has to be met before the statements within the
loop are executed.
General Format

WHILE condition DO

statement

ENDWHILE

The REPEAT....UNTIL loop

The REPEAT....UNTIL loop allows the statements within it to be executed at least once
since the condition is tested at the end of the loop.

General Format

REPEAT

statements

UNTIL <condition>
The FOR Loop
The FOR loop is used in circumstances where the execution of the chosen statements
has to be repeated a predetermined number of times.

General Format

//pseudocode for 'FOR" loop that counts from the lower limit

FOR loop variable = lower limit to upper limit DO

statements

ENDFOR
//pseudocode for a 'FOR' loop that counts from the upper limit down to lower limit

FOR loop variable = upper limit DOWN TO lower limit DO

statements;

ENDFOR

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
1. What is a system?
posted May 2, 2015, 8:35 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 2, 2015, 8:38 AM ]

What is a system?
A system is a set of organized components which interact in a given environment and
within a specified boundary to achieve collective goals and objectives that are emergent

Example of a system is a computer system. i.e.

2. Description of a System
posted May 2, 2015, 8:56 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 2, 2015, 8:56 AM ]
A system can either be described as either:
1. Soft System or
2. Hard System
Soft System
A system is described as soft because of the following characteristics:
1. Boundaries keep on changing
2. Goals and Objectives usually conflict due to human factors like
attitudes and preferences
3. Exact measures of performance cannot be clearly captured
Hard Systems
A system is said to be hard because of the following characteristics:
1. Goals and objectives can clearly be defined
2. Outcomes of the systems processes are predictable and can be modeled
accurately
3. Characteristics of Systems
posted May 2, 2015, 9:44 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 2, 2015, 9:55 AM ]

All systems have some similar characteristics as illustrated below:

1. Holistic thinking
A system is considered as a whole because many entities will work together to make a
complex whole

example:
a human body is a complex whole made up of small entities like cells, chromosomes,
enzymes, water, bones etc.

2. Subsystems
A system is made up of different components (subsystems)

example:
a human body system is made up of other sub-systems like; circulatory system,
digestive system, neural systems etc.

3. Boundary and Environment

Each system has a space (boundary) within which the components operate. A system has
two types of entities namely: internal and external entities. An internal entity
operates from within the system boundary like the liver of a human body however,
external entities operate from outside the boundary but are part of the system i.e.
Food and Air in a human body

4. Purpose
The purpose of each system is to perform a particular task or achieve a goal.

Example:
The purpose of a human body system is to support life

5. Process
A system has the obligation to transform or process data from one state to another

Example:
In a human digestive system, food as transformed into nutrients like proteins and
vitamins while the remaining is discharged as waste

6. System Entropy
The word entropy means decay. Systems decay over time.
example:
A human body eventually dies after a period of time when subsystems cannot support
it anymore
7. Inputs and Outputs
A system communicates with environment by receiving inputs and giving outputs
example:
In a human body system, it takes food as an input and gives output through excretory
process
8: Open VS Closed Systems
A system can be described as either open or closed. An open system receives input and
gives output while a closed system does not.
9. Control
A system adapts to changes in the environment in order to give the expected output or
to perform to the expected level. This is possible through the feedback which can be
used to influence inputs
example:
If a human body is ill, the brain system sends a feedback (pain) this feedback will
influence the person to seek medical care.
4. Information System

4. Information System

● An Information System is a man-made system that facilitates an

organization’s operational functions and supports management decision making
by providing information that managers can use to plan and control the
activities of the firm.
● is the collection of technical and human resources that provide the storage,
computing, distribution, and communication for the information required by all
or some part of an enterprise.
● Management Information System (MIS) is a planned system of collecting,
storing, and disseminating data in the form of information needed to carry out
the functions of management.
Purpose of information Systems
1. Supporting information processing ~ by enhancing tasks such as data
collection, processing and communication
2. Helping in decision making ~ by collecting operational data, analyzing it and
generating reports that can be used to support the decision making processing
3. Enable sharing of information
Why develop new information systems?
1. New opportunities ~ a chance to improve quality of internal processes and
services delivery in the organisation
2. Problems ~ Need to solve problems at hand
 3. Directives ~ Change in policy or rules buy the company or Government
Role of a System analyst
A systems analyst is an IT professional who specializes in analyzing, designing and
implementing information systems. System analysts assess the suitability of
information systems in terms of their intended outcomes and liaise with end users,
software vendors and programmers in order to achieve these outcomes.

1. Examine existing IT systems and business models;

2. Analyses systems requirements;
3. Implement, configure and test feasible solutions.
4. Liaise and report to internal and external clients and stakeholders, including
colleagues and developers.
5. Is involved throughout the development process. The analyst acts as liaison
between the client and the developers.
6. Conduct a cost analysis and agree the time frame to implement the proposed
solution. They specify and shape the system requirements and operations, the
user interface and output and present the proposal to the client.
7. Is the overall project manager of the information system being implemented

5. Theories of Development

Subpage Listing
● 1. Introduction on theories of system
development
● 2. Stages of system Development

1. Introduction on theories of system development

The aim of all these theories and methods is to identify business requirements and to
develop information systems that effectively meet them
Some of these theories include:
1. Traditional approach
2. Rapid Application Development (RAD)
3. The structured approach
1. Traditional Approach
It relies mostly on the skills and experience of individual staff members carrying out
the project. There are no formal procedures followed and therefore the success of the
system is dependent on individual effort. In this approach, the manual system is
replaced with a computerised one without change in overall structure of the former
system, hence the weaknesses of the former system are not addressed and are carried
forward to the new system.
2. Rapid Application Development (RAD)
RAD is also known as prototyping. A prototype is a sample used to test a concept or a
process
this is a concept that products can be developed faster and of higher quality through:
● Gathering requirements using workshops or focus groups
● Prototyping and early, reiterative user testing of designs
● The re-use of software components
● A rigidly paced schedule that defers design improvements to the next
product version
● Less formality in reviews and other team communication
Advantages of the RAD model:
1. Reduced development time.
2. Increases re-usability of components
3. Quick initial reviews occur
4. Encourages customer feedback
5. Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.
Disadvantages of RAD model:
1. Depends on strong team and individual performances for
identifying business requirements.
2. Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD
3. Requires highly skilled developers/designers.
4. High dependency on modeling skills
5. Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of modeling and automated
code generation is very high.
3. The Structured Approach
Structured approach involves a set of stages that should be followed when developing a
system. Each stage is documented in specifying the activities that should be carried out.
2. Stages of system Development

There are seven stages in system development lifecycle namely:

Problem recognition and definition
In this phase, the system analyst seeks answers to these two questions
[Link] the proposed system worthy pursuing?
[Link] the proposed project worthy looking at?
● Problem definition is performed by the senior members of the team
with inputs from the customer, the sales department, market surveys and
domain experts in the industry. This information is then used to plan the
basic project approach and to conduct product feasibility study in the
economical, operational, and technical areas. The scope of the project,
constraints, budget and schedule is defined here
● Problem definition is also called problem analysis; its the process of
identifying the problem and finding out any constraints that may limit
the solution
● A feasibility study (preliminary investigation) is conducted at this
stage; Feasibility study is an evaluation and analysis of the potential of a
proposed project. It is based on extensive investigation and research to
support the process of decision making.
o Operational feasibility; establishes the extent to which the
users are comfortable or happy with the proposed or new system
o Schedule feasibility; establishes whether the development of
the proposed system will be accomplished within the available time
 o Technical feasibility; establishes whether the technology
available is sufficient or can be upgraded for the new system. It also
seeks to find out whether the staff have relevant technical skills to
develop and use the new system
o Economic feasibility; establishes whether developing the new
system is cost effective by analyzing all the costs and benefits of
the proposed system.
● After feasibility study has been conducted, a documentation is
prepared to cover all the activities that took place.
Information Gathering