Chapter 5 Life Processes

Living organisms are well-organised structures that are prone to breaking down due to environmental
effects. To remain alive, living creatures must constantly repair and maintain their structures, which
necessitates molecular movement.
Definition of Life Processes
The processes which together perform this maintenance job are life processes.
These maintenance functions are continuous, even when an organism is not actively doing anything,
and require energy. This energy is obtained from outside the organism's body.
Essential Life Processes
 Nutrition: The process of transferring a source of energy (food) from outside the body to the
inside. Since life on Earth relies on carbon-based molecules, most food sources are carbon-
based. Organisms use different nutritional processes based on the complexity of these carbon
sources.
 Respiration: The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body and using it to break
down food sources for cellular needs. This involves a series of chemical reactions, often
oxidizing-reducing reactions, to convert varied external energy sources into a uniform usable
form.
 Transportation: In multi-cellular organisms, specialized tissues are responsible for the uptake
of food and oxygen. Since not all cells are in direct contact with the environment, a
transportation system is needed to carry food and oxygen from the point of uptake to all parts
of the body.
 Excretion: Chemical reactions that generate energy also produce waste by-products that are
useless or harmful to cells. These waste products must be removed from the body and
discarded outside. In multi-cellular organisms, a specialized tissue for excretion develops,
requiring the transportation system to carry waste to this excretory tissue.
Organism Complexity and Life Processes
 Single-celled organisms: Do not require specific organs for food intake, gas exchange, or
waste removal because their entire surface is in direct contact with the environment, allowing
simple diffusion to meet their needs.
 Multi-cellular organisms: Due to increased body size and complex body design, simple
diffusion is insufficient. Specialized tissues and systems (like transportation and excretory
systems) are necessary to meet the requirements of all cells.
NUTRITION
Types of Nutrition
Organisms fulfill their energy and material requirements in different ways:
 Autotrophs: Organisms that use simple food material from inorganic sources like carbon
dioxide and water. Examples include green plants and some bacteria.
 Heterotrophs: Organisms that utilize complex substances, which must be broken down into
simpler ones using enzymes before they can be used for upkeep and growth. Heterotrophs,
such as animals and fungi, depend directly or indirectly on autotrophs for survival. The energy
derived from food can be stored, for example, as starch in plants or glycogen in humans.
 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. The following
events occur during this process:
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
These steps do not necessarily occur immediately one after the other. For example, desert plants take
up carbon dioxide at night to prepare an intermediate product, which is then acted upon by energy
absorbed by chlorophyll during the day.
Role of Chlorophyll
Green dots observed in a cross-section of a leaf under a microscope are
cell organelles called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

Carbon Dioxide Uptake

Plants obtain carbon dioxide through stomata, which are tiny pores on the surface of leaves. Massive
amounts of gaseous exchange occur through these pores for
photosynthesis. Exchange of gases also occurs across the surface of stems,
roots, and leaves. Plants close these pores when carbon dioxide is not
needed to prevent large amounts of water loss.
The opening and closing of the stomatal pore is a function of the guard
cells. Guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the pore to
open. Similarly, the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.
Other Raw Materials
Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the roots in
terrestrial plants. Other essential materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and magnesium are also
taken up from the soil. Nitrogen is crucial for the synthesis of proteins and other compounds and is
taken up as inorganic nitrates or nitrites, or as organic compounds prepared by bacteria from
atmospheric nitrogen.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
Heterotrophic nutrition describes organisms that obtain nutrition by consuming other organisms or
organic matter. The form of nutrition varies based on the type and availability of food material and
how it is obtained.
 Some organisms break down food material outside the body and then absorb it, such as fungi
(bread moulds, yeast, mushrooms).(Saprotrophs)
 Others take in whole material and break it down inside their bodies. (Holozoic organisms)
 Some organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing them. This parasitic
nutritive strategy is used by organisms like cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches, and tape-
worms. (Parasites)
How Organisms Obtain Their Nutrition
Digestive systems differ among organisms based on the food and its acquisition method.
 In single-celled organisms, food may be taken in by the entire surface.
 As organism complexity increases, different parts become specialized for different functions.
Nutrition in Amoeba
Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like
extensions of the cell surface pseudopodia, which
fuse over the food particle to form a food-vacuole.
Inside the food-vacuole, complex substances are
broken down into simpler ones that diffuse into the
cytoplasm. Undigested material is moved to the cell
surface and expelled.
Nutrition in Paramoecium
Paramoecium, another unicellular organism, has a definite shape and takes food in at a specific spot.
Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia, which cover the entire cell surface.
Nutrition in Human Beings
The alimentary canal is a long tube extending from the
mouth to the anus, with various specialized parts
performing different functions.
Mouth
Food is crushed by teeth and wetted to ensure smooth
passage. Saliva, a fluid secreted by the salivary glands, is
mixed with food. Saliva contains an enzyme called
salivary amylase that breaks down starch (a complex
molecule) into simple sugar.
Oesophagus
From the mouth, food moves to the stomach through the
food-pipe or oesophagus. The lining of the canal has
muscles that contract rhythmically in peristaltic
movements to push food forward. These movements
occur all along the gut.
Stomach
The stomach is a large organ that expands when food
enters. Its muscular walls mix food with digestive juices.
Digestion in the stomach is managed by gastric glands in
the stomach wall, which release:
 Hydrochloric acid: Creates an acidic medium that
facilitates the action of pepsin.
 Pepsin: A protein-digesting enzyme.
 Mucus: Protects the inner lining of the stomach from the acid under normal conditions.
The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle that releases it in small amounts
into the small intestine.
Small Intestine
The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, extensively coiled into a compact space.
Its length varies among animals; herbivores need a longer small intestine to digest cellulose, while
carnivores have shorter ones as meat is easier to digest.
It is the site of complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It receives secretions from the
liver and pancreas:
 Bile juice (from the liver): Makes acidic food alkaline for pancreatic enzymes to act and breaks
down large fat globules into smaller ones (emulsification of fats), increasing enzyme efficiency.
 Pancreatic juice (from the pancreas): Contains enzymes like trypsin for digesting proteins
and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.
 Intestinal juice (from small intestine walls): Contains enzymes that convert proteins to amino
acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi, which increase
the surface area for absorption of digested [Link] are richly supplied with blood vessels that
transport absorbed food to all body cells for energy, tissue building, and repair.
Large Intestine
Unabsorbed food is sent to the large intestine, where its walls absorb more water from the material.
The remaining waste material is removed from the body via the anus, regulated by the anal sphincter.
Dental Caries
Dental caries or tooth decay causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine. It begins when bacteria
acting on sugars produce acids that softens or demineralises the enamel. Masses of bacterial cells
together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. Saliva cannot reach the tooth
surface to neutralise the acid as plaque covers the teeth. Brushing the teeth after eating removes the
plaque before the bacteria produce acids. If untreated, microorganisms may invade the pulp, causing
inflammation and infection.
Respiration
Respiration is the process by which organisms break down glucose to release energy. This process can
occur through various pathways depending on the presence or absence of oxygen.
Pathways of Glucose Breakdown
 Aerobic Respiration: This process breaks up the three-carbon pyruvate molecule to give three
molecules of carbon dioxide. The other product is water. Since this process takes place in the
presence of air (oxygen), it is called aerobic respiration. The release of energy in this aerobic
process is a lot greater than in the anaerobic process (38 ATP)
 Anaerobic Respiration: This process breaks up the three-carbon pyruvate molecule to give
Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide along with energy. Since this process takes place in the
absence of air (oxygen), it is called anaerobic respiration. The release of energy in this aerobic
process is a lot greater than in the anaerobic process (2 ATP)
 Anaerobic Respiration (in muscle cells): Sometimes, when there is a lack of oxygen in our
muscle cells, another pathway for the break-down of pyruvate is taken. Here the pyruvate is
converted into lactic acid which is also a three-carbon molecule. This build-up of lactic acid in
our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps.
ATP: The Energy Currency
The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesise a molecule called
[Link] is the energy currency for most cellular processes. The energy released during the process of
respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Gas Exchange in Plants

Plants exchange gases through stomata, and large inter-cellular spaces ensure all cells are in contact
with air. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion.
 At night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the major exchange
activity.
 During the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis, so oxygen
release is the major event.
Gas Exchange in Animals
Animals have evolved different organs for the uptake of oxygen from the environment and for getting
rid of the carbon dioxide produced.
Aquatic vs. Terrestrial Respiration
 Aquatic organisms: Need to use oxygen dissolved in water. Since the amount of dissolved
oxygen is fairly low, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than in terrestrial
organisms.
 Terrestrial organisms: Breathe oxygen in the atmosphere. They use organs with structures
that increase the surface area in contact with the oxygen-rich atmosphere. This surface is very
fine and delicate, usually placed within the body, with passages for air and a mechanism for
moving air in and out.
Fish Respiration
Fishes take in water through their mouths and force it past the gills where the dissolved oxygen is
taken up by blood.
Human Respiratory System
Air Pathway
1. Air is taken into the body through the nostrils.
2. Air is filtered by fine hairs and mucus lining the
passage.
3. Air passes through the throat and into the lungs.
4. Rings of cartilage are present in the throat to ensure
the air-passage does not collapse.
5. Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller tubes
which finally terminate in balloon-like structures called
alveoli (singular–alveolus).
Alveoli and Gas Exchange
 The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can
take place. The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive
network of blood-vessels.
 When breathing in, ribs lift, diaphragm flattens, and the chest
cavity becomes larger, sucking air into the lungs and filling the
expanded alveoli.
  Blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and oxygen
in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all
cells.
 The lungs always contain a residual volume of air during the breathing cycle to ensure
sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and carbon dioxide to be released.
 The alveolar surface, if spread out, would cover about 80 m2, maximizing the area for gas
exchange.
Role of Cilia
 The upper part of the respiratory tract is provided with small hair-like structures called cilia.
 Cilia help to remove germs, dust, and other harmful particles from inhaled air.
Gas Transport
 For large animals, diffusion alone cannot deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. Respiratory
pigments take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues deficient in oxygen.
 In human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin, which has a very high affinity for
oxygen and is present in the red blood corpuscles.
 Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen and is mostly transported in the dissolved
form in blood.
Transportation
Transportation in Human Beings
The heart is a muscular organ, about the size of a fist, with
different chambers to prevent the mixing of oxygen-rich and
carbon dioxide-rich blood. This separation ensures a highly
efficient supply of oxygen to the body, which is crucial for
animals with high energy needs like birds and mammals.
Blood Circulation
 Oxygenated blood flow:
o From the lungs, it enters the thin-walled upper left chamber,
the left atrium, which relaxes to collect the blood.
o The left atrium then contracts, transferring blood to the left
ventricle, which relaxes to receive it.
o The muscular left ventricle contracts, pumping the blood out
to the rest of the body.
 De-oxygenated blood flow:
o From the body, it enters the upper right chamber, the right atrium, as it
relaxes.
o As the right atrium contracts, blood is transferred to the corresponding
lower chamber, the right ventricle, which dilates.
o The right ventricle then pumps this blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
 Ventricles have thicker muscular walls than atria because they pump blood
into various organs.
 Valves within the heart ensure that blood does not flow backwards when the
atria or ventricles contract.
 Double circulation: Blood goes through the heart twice during each cycle
in vertebrates (excluding fish). This is required to meet the energy
requirements of warm blooded animals to maintain their body temperature.
Variations in Circulation
 Amphibians and many reptiles have three-chambered hearts and tolerate some mixing of oxygenated
and de-oxygenated blood, as their body temperature depends on the environment.
 Fishes have only two chambers; blood is pumped to the gills for oxygenation and then passes directly
to the rest of the body. Blood goes only once through the heart in fish (single circulation).
Blood Pressure
The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure.
 This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.
 Systolic pressure: The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction).
Normal is about 120 mm of Hg.
 Diastolic pressure: Pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation). Normal is 80 mm of Hg.
 Hypertension (high blood pressure) is caused by the constriction of arterioles, increasing resistance to
blood flow, and can lead to artery rupture and internal bleeding.
 Blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer.

Blood Vessels
 Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart to various organs. They have thick, elastic walls because
blood emerges from the heart under high pressure.
 Veins: Collect blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart. They do not need thick walls
but have valves to ensure blood flows only in one direction.
 Capillaries: The smallest vessels, with walls that are one-cell thick. Exchange of material between the
blood and surrounding cells occurs across these thin walls. Capillaries join to form veins.

Maintenance by Platelets
 Platelet cells circulate in the blood and help to clot blood at points of injury, plugging leaks in the
system. This minimizes blood loss and maintains pressure within the pumping system.
Lymph
 Also known as tissue fluid, lymph is another fluid involved in transportation.
 It forms when plasma, proteins, and blood cells escape from the pores in capillary walls into
intercellular spaces.
 Lymph is similar to blood plasma but is colourless and contains less protein.
 It drains into lymphatic capillaries, which join to form larger lymph vessels that eventually open into
larger veins.
 Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from the intestine and drains excess fluid from extracellular
spaces back into the blood.

Transportation in Plants
Plants absorb raw materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, and other minerals from the soil through their
roots. For larger plants, simple diffusion is insufficient for transporting these materials and energy
stores.
Plant Transport Systems
Plants have two independently organized conducting tubes:
 Xylem: Moves water and minerals obtained from the soil.
 Phloem: Transports products of photosynthesis (energy stores) from the leaves, where they are
synthesized, to other parts of the plant.
Transport of Water (Xylem)
 Xylem tissue, consisting of vessels and tracheids in roots, stems, and leaves, forms a continuous
system of water-conducting channels.
 Root cells actively take up ions, creating a concentration difference that causes water to move into the
root from the soil.
 This creates a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards.

Transpiration:
The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.
 Evaporation of water from leaf cells creates a suction that pulls water from the xylem cells of roots.
 Transpiration aids in the absorption and upward movement of water and dissolved minerals, and helps
in temperature regulation.
 Root pressure is more significant at night, while the transpiration pull is the major driving force during
the day when stomata are open.

Transport of Food and Other Substances (Phloem)

 The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation.
 Translocation occurs in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells, moving substances
in both upward and downward directions.
 Besides photosynthetic products, phloem also transports amino acids and other substances to storage
organs (roots, fruits, seeds) and growing organs.
 Translocation in phloem utilizes energy (ATP).
 Material like sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue using ATP, which increases the osmotic pressure,
causing water to move into it. This pressure then moves the material to tissues with lower pressure,
allowing transport according to the plant's needs (e.g., sugar from roots to buds in spring).

Excretion

Excretion in Human Beings

In human beings, excretory products in the form of soluble nitrogen compounds are removed by the
nephrons in the kidneys. Each kidney contains large numbers of these filtration units. A capillary cluster
in the kidney is associated with the cup-shaped end of a coiled tube called Bowman’s capsule that
collects the filtrate.
Some substances in the
initial filtrate, such as
glucose, amino acids, salts,
and a major amount of
water, are selectively re-
absorbed as the urine
flows along the tube. The
amount of water re-
absorbed depends on the
body's excess water and
the amount of dissolved
waste to be excreted. The
urine forming in each
kidney eventually enters a
long tube, the ureter,
which connects the
kidneys with the urinary bladder.
Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to pass
it out through the urethra. The bladder is muscular and under nervous control, allowing for control over
urination.
Artificial Kidney (Hemodialysis)
Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Factors like infections, injury, or restricted blood flow can reduce
kidney activity, leading to the accumulation of poisonous wastes. In case of kidney failure, an artificial
kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood
through dialysis.
Artificial kidneys contain tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in a tank filled with dialysing
fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood but is devoid of nitrogenous wastes. The
patient’s blood passes through these tubes, and waste products from the blood diffuse into the dialysing
fluid. The purified blood is then pumped back into the patient. This process is similar to kidney function
but differs because there is no re-absorption involved. A healthy adult's initial filtrate is about 180 L daily,
but only a litre or two is actually excreted due to re-absorption in the kidney tubules.

Excretion in Plants
Plants use different strategies for excretion compared to animals. Oxygen, generated during
photosynthesis, can be considered a waste product. Plants deal with excess water through transpiration.
For other wastes, plants utilize tissues consisting of dead cells or can lose parts like leaves. Many plant
waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles or in leaves that fall off. Other waste products are stored as
resins and gums, especially in old xylem. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the surrounding
soil.