Passive Sign Convention

A Complete Exam Revision Guide

Voltage Polarity • Current Direction • Power Signs

When (and why) currents and voltages go negative

This guide is built around the single question that trips up most students:

Is this element absorbing power or supplying it  and what

does a minus sign actually mean?
Master the convention, and every power, KVL, and KCL sign error
disappears.

Undergraduate Electrical Engineering

Circuit Analysis
Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

Contents

1 Fundamental Concepts 2
1.1 What is the Passive Sign Convention? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Why does PSC exist? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Physical meaning of positive and negative power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Absorbing vs. delivering power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Voltage and Current Reference Directions 3

2.1 Choosing arbitrary reference directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Why references can be chosen freely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 What a negative current means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 What a negative voltage means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Identifying PSC 4
3.1 Is this element following PSC? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Visual decision process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Exam checklist for PSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Current Direction and Voltage Polarity 5

4.1 The relationship between current and polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Conventional current and PSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Electron ow vs. conventional current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5 Power Calculations 6
5.1 The three power formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2 When power is positive (absorbed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3 When power is negative (supplied) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.4 Physical interpretation summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6 Voltage Rise and Voltage Drop 7

6.1 Voltage drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.2 Voltage rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.3 Relation to polarity markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.4 Relation to KVL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.5 Relation to PSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

7 The Sign Convention Decision Tree 8

8 Common Exam Mistakes 8

8.1 Most common PSC mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.2 Most common KVL sign errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8.3 Most common power-sign errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8.4 Quick tricks: absorbed vs. supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

9 Worked Examples 9
9.1 Example 1  Resistor following PSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.2 Example 2  Resistor NOT following PSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.3 Example 3  Voltage source SUPPLYING power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.4 Example 4  Voltage source ABSORBING power (being charged) . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.5 Example 5  Current source SUPPLYING power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.6 Example 6  Current source ABSORBING power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
9.7 Example 7  Mixed circuit with KVL and KCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
9.8 Example 8  Current comes out negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

9.9 Example 9  Voltage comes out negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

10 Exam Cheat Sheet (One Page) 12

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

1. Fundamental Concepts
1.1 What is the Passive Sign Convention?
The Passive Sign Convention (PSC) is a bookkeeping rule for how we label the voltage across an
element and the current through it, so that the sign of the computed power tells us unambiguously
whether the element is taking energy out of the circuit or putting energy in.

Denition  Passive Sign Convention

An element is labelled according to the PSC when the reference current arrow points into
the terminal marked with the + sign of the reference voltage.
Equivalently: current enters the positive terminal and exits the negative terminal.

When this labelling is used, the power absorbed by the element is simply

p = vi

A positive result means the element absorbs power; a negative result means it supplies power.

The phrase passive is historical: it is the convention you would naturally use for a passive
element (a resistor), where current really does ow from high potential to low potential through the
element. We then apply the same labelling rule to every element  sources included  so that one
formula, p = vi, works everywhere.

i
+
+
v
i v
−
−
i
PSC followed PSC NOT followed
i enters + terminal i enters − terminal
p = vi = absorbed p = vi = supplied

1.2 Why does PSC exist?

Without a xed convention, every problem would require a fresh argument about what a positive
power means. PSC removes that ambiguity:

ˆ One universal formula. You compute p = vi the same way for resistors, sources, capacitors
 everything. No special cases.

ˆ Self-checking via conservation. P If every element is labelled in PSC and you sum all the
powers, the total must be zero: pk = 0. This is energy conservation (Tellegen's theorem) and
is a free exam check.

ˆ The sign carries the physics. You never have to remember is this one a source or a load?
The arithmetic answers it for you.

Why one convention beats memorising cases

Think of a bank account. Dene deposit = positive once, and you never again have to ask
whether a transaction is income or spending  the sign of the number tells you. PSC denes
absorbed = positive once, for all elements.

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

1.3 Physical meaning of positive and negative power

Sign of p = vi Element is Physical meaning

Energy ows from the circuit into the element.

ABSORBED
p>0 It heats up (resistor), charges (battery being
(consuming)
charged), or stores energy (capacitor/inductor).

Energy ows from the element into the rest of

SUPPLIED
p<0 the circuit. The element is acting as a source for
(delivering)
that instant.

No net energy transfer at that instant (e.g. ideal

p=0 neither
switch open, or current/voltage is zero).

1.4 Absorbing vs. delivering power

These two phrases describe the same physical situation seen from two sides :

The complementary pair

pabsorbed = v i ⇐⇒ psupplied = −v i
If an element absorbs +5 W, it equivalently supplies −5 W. If an element absorbs −5 W, it
equivalently supplies +5 W.

! The most common confusion of all

A negative absorbed power is NOT an error and does NOT mean no power. pabs = −5 W
means the element is delivering 5W to the circuit. A battery powering a phone has pabs < 0;
that is exactly what a working source looks like.

2. Voltage and Current Reference Directions

2.1 Choosing arbitrary reference directions
Before you know the actual answer, you do not know which way current really ows or which
terminal is really at higher potential. So you guess: you draw an arrow for current and a +/− pair
for voltage. These are reference (assumed) directions, not claims about reality.

How to assign references  the practical recipe

1. For each element, draw a current arrow in any direction you like.
2. Place the voltage + and − so that the element follows PSC (current arrow enters the +
terminal). Doing this consistently means you can always use p = vi for absorbed.
3. For sources, the polarity is usually xed for you by the symbol  so let the current arrow
be the thing you choose.

2.2 Why references can be chosen freely

The physics of the circuit (the real currents and voltages) is xed by the components and connections.
Your labels are just a coordinate system. Choosing the wrong direction does not change the answer
 it only ips the sign of the number you compute. The product vi, and therefore the conclusion
absorbed or supplied, comes out correct regardless, provided you keep v and i consistent with each
other.

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

Reference directions are like choosing which way is positive

On a number line you can call right positive or left positive. A car moving left is +30 in one
choice and −30 in the other  but it is the same car at the same speed. Reference directions
are that choice for current and voltage.

2.3 What a negative current means

Negative current

A computed current of i = −2 A means the actual current is 2 A owing in the direction opposite
to your reference arrow. The magnitude is real; only the direction guess was backwards.

2.4 What a negative voltage means

Negative voltage

A computed voltage of v = −3 V means the terminal you labelled  + is actually 3 V lower than
the terminal you labelled  −. The true polarity is the reverse of your reference markings.

The golden mantra

A minus sign means my guess was backwards  never that I am wrong.

3. Identifying PSC
3.1 Is this element following PSC?
Look at one terminal only: the one marked +. Then ask a single yes/no question.

The one-question test

Does the current reference arrow point INTO the + terminal?

YES ⇒ PSC is followed ⇒ use p = vi for absorbed power directly.
NO ⇒ PSC is violated ⇒ use p = −vi for absorbed power (or ip a reference rst).

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

3.2 Visual decision process

Look at the element's
+ voltage terminal

Current arrow
yes no
points into
the + terminal?

PSC FOLLOWED PSC NOT followed

pabs = +vi pabs = −vi

yes Is pabs no
positive?

Element absorbs Element supplies

|p| watts |p| watts

3.3 Exam checklist for PSC

Tick this for every element before computing power

□ I have a clear current arrow on the element.

□ I have clear + and − voltage marks on the element.

□ I checked: does the arrow enter the + terminal?

□ If yes: I will use p = vi for absorbed power.

□ If no: I will use p = −vi for absorbed power.

□ After computing, I will read the sign: + = absorbs, − = supplies.

□ (Optional self-check) Sum of all absorbed powers = 0.

4. Current Direction and Voltage Polarity

4.1 The relationship between current and polarity
Inside a passive element such as a resistor, conventional current always ows from the higher-
potential terminal to the lower-potential terminal  i.e. it ows downhill in voltage. That is
precisely the PSC picture: current enters the + terminal, leaves the − terminal.

+ R −
i

v
current ows + → −Rthrough the resistor

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

For a source, the current may ow the other way  from − to + internally  because the source
is pushing charge uphill. That is what makes its power negative (supplying) under PSC.

Two faces of the same rule

ˆ Current enters + (downhill through element) ⇒ ABSORBED (resistor-like).

ˆ Current exits + / enters − (uphill through element) ⇒ SUPPLIED (source-like).

4.2 Conventional current and PSC

Conventional current is dened as the direction of ow of positive charge. All of PSC, KVL,
KCL, and p = vi are written in terms of conventional current. Throughout circuit analysis exams,
current means conventional current unless stated otherwise.

4.3 Electron ow vs. conventional current

Property Conventional current Electron ow

Charge carrier modelled positive charge negative electrons

Direction +→− (external circuit) −→+ (external circuit)

Used in circuit theory? Yes  always Rarely (physics context)

Relation They point in opposite directions

Don't let electrons confuse your exam

Electrons physically drift opposite to conventional current, but you never use electron ow in
circuit equations. Whenever you write i, p = vi, KVL or KCL, you are using conventional
current. Mentioning electrons in an exam answer almost always introduces a sign mistake 
ignore them.

5. Power Calculations
5.1 The three power formulas
Power formulas

p = vi general  any element, requires PSC for absorbed

2
p=i R resistor only  substitute v = iR
v2
p= resistor only  substitute i = v/R
R

Derivation of the resistor forms. For a resistor obeying Ohm's law v = iR in PSC:

v v2
p = v i = (iR) i = i2 R, p = vi = v = .
R R

! Why i2 R and v 2 /R are always positive

Because i2 ≥ 0 and v2 ≥ 0 and R > 0, these two forms are always non-negative. A real resistor
can only absorb power  it can never supply it. So if a calculation hands you a resistor
supplying power, you have made an error. Use this as a sanity check.

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

5.2 When power is positive (absorbed)

Under PSC, p = vi > 0 whenever v and i have the same sign (both positive or both negative). The
element is taking energy in.

5.3 When power is negative (supplied)

Under PSC, p = vi < 0 whenever v and i have opposite signs. The element is delivering energy.

v i p = vi Interpretation (PSC)

+ + + ABSORBED

− − + ABSORBED

+ − − SUPPLIED

− + − SUPPLIED

5.4 Physical interpretation summary

ˆ p = i2 R: energy dissipated as heat in a resistor. Always lost from the circuit.
ˆ p = v 2 /R: same dissipation, expressed via the voltage across it.
ˆ p = vi > 0: this element is a net consumer right now.
ˆ p = vi < 0: this element is a net source right now (battery discharging, active source driving the
circuit).

6. Voltage Rise and Voltage Drop

6.1 Voltage drop
A voltage drop occurs when you traverse an element from its + terminal to its − terminal  you
move to a lower potential. Conventionally counted as a positive drop (you lose potential).

6.2 Voltage rise

A voltage rise occurs when you traverse an element from its − terminal to its + terminal  you
move to a higher potential. Counted as a positive rise (you gain potential).

+ +
Going + → −: Going − → +:
R
walk this way
voltage drop = +v R
walk this way
voltage rise = +v
− −

6.3 Relation to polarity markings

Rise vs. drop is entirely determined by the +/− marks and your direction of travel  not by whether
the element is a source or a resistor. Same element, opposite walking directions, give a drop one
way and a rise the other.

6.4 Relation to KVL

Kirchho 's Voltage Law: the algebraic sum of voltages around any closed loop is zero. The
cleanest bookkeeping:

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

KVL sign rule (terminal-rst method)

Walk around the loop. For each element, write down the sign of the terminal you meet rst:
ˆ − terminal
Meet the rst (a rise) ⇒ write +v .
ˆ Meet the + terminal rst (a drop) ⇒ write −v .
Set the sum = 0.

6.5 Relation to PSC

PSC and KVL are independent labelling questions but they share the same +/− marks. PSC uses
the marks together with the current arrow to decide power. KVL uses the marks together with
your walking direction to decide rise/drop. The same diagram serves both  which is exactly why
a consistent PSC labelling makes KVL painless.

7. The Sign Convention Decision Tree

A single procedure that takes you from a blank schematic to a fully signed answer.

Master procedure

Step 1  Assign current directions. Pick any direction for each branch current. In series
branches the same current ows through every element. Don't agonise; a wrong guess just ips
a sign later.

Step 2  Assign voltage polarities. For each passive element, place + where the current
arrow enters (this enforces PSC automatically). For sources, the symbol xes the polarity;
accept it.

Step 3  Check PSC per element. Arrow into +? PSC holds, absorbed power = +vi.
Arrow into −? PSC violated, absorbed power = −vi.
Step 4  Solve the circuit (Ohm, KVL, KCL, nodal/mesh) to get numerical v and i.
Step 5  Determine absorbed vs. supplied. Compute pabs using the formula chosen in
Step 3. pabs > 0 ⇒ absorbs; pabs < 0 ⇒ supplies.

Step 6  Interpret negatives. A negative current or voltage simply means the real direc-
tion/polarity is opposite to your reference. It is
Pnot a mistake. (It would only be a mistake if a
pure resistor came out supplying power, or if pabs ̸= 0.)

Mistake or just a ipped reference?  the litmus test

A negative answer is a genuine error only if it is physically impossible :

ˆ A resistor (p = i2 R) coming out negative. Impossible ⇒ error.
ˆ
P
Total absorbed power p ̸= 0. Violates conservation ⇒ error.
Otherwise, a negative number is just a reversed reference and is perfectly ne.

8. Common Exam Mistakes

8.1 Most common PSC mistakes
! PSC pitfalls

1. Using p = vi when the arrow enters the − terminal (PSC violated)  gives the wrong sign.
2. Assuming sources always supply  a battery being charged absorbs ; check the numbers.
3. Re-labelling the polarity halfway through a problem, breaking v i consistency.
4. Treating a negative current as no current or an error.

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

8.2 Most common KVL sign errors

! KVL pitfalls

1. Inconsistent traversal  changing walking direction partway round the loop.

2. Forgetting that meeting + rst is a −v term (a drop), and − rst is +v (a rise).
3. Dropping the sign of a source's EMF based on intuition rather than its +/− marks.
4. Mixing the sum of drops = sum of rises form with the sum = 0 form and double-counting
signs.

8.3 Most common power-sign errors

! Power pitfalls

1. Reporting |vi| and guessing absorbed/supplied instead of keeping the sign.

2. Letting a resistor come out with negative power and not noticing the impossibility.
3. Forgetting the minus when PSC is violated: pabs = −vi.
4. Confusing  pabsorbed = −5 W with  psupplied = −5 W (they are opposite!).

8.4 Quick tricks: absorbed vs. supplied

Fast classication

ˆ Same-sign trick: v and i same sign ⇒ absorbs; opposite signs ⇒ supplies (PSC labelling
assumed).
ˆ Resistor trick: resistors only absorb. Full stop.
ˆ Current-into-plus trick: if real current enters the real +, P
it absorbs.
ˆ Conservation trick: compute all but one power, then use p = 0 to get the last one and
to check your work.

9. Worked Examples
9.1 Example 1  Resistor following PSC
+ R = 4Ω −
i

Given i = +2 A entering the + terminal (PSC holds). Then v = iR = 2(4) = 8 V.

pabs = vi = (8)(2) = +16 W ⇒ ABSORBED.
Check: p = i2 R = 22 (4) = 16 W. ✓ A resistor absorbs, as expected.

9.2 Example 2  Resistor NOT following PSC

i
+ R = 4Ω −

Here the current arrow enters the − terminal, so PSC is violated. Suppose v = +8 V and i = +2 A
as labelled. Absorbed power must use the minus:

pabs = −vi = −(8)(2) = −16 W.

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

A negative absorbed power would mean supplying  but a resistor cannot supply! The resolution:
with this labelling the true current is −2 A relative to a PSC arrow, so physically it still dissipates
i2 R = 16 W. Lesson: relabel to PSC, or remember to apply the minus. Either way the resistor
absorbs 16 W.

9.3 Example 3  Voltage source SUPPLYING power

+
i
Vs = 12 V R = 6Ω

The source drives current i = Vs /R = 12/6 = 2 A. Conventional current leaves the source's +
terminal (enters −), so PSC is violated for the source. Absorbed:

pabs,source = −Vs i = −(12)(2) = −24 W ⇒ psupplied = +24 W.

The resistor absorbs i2 R = 22 (6) = 24 W. Conservation: −24 + 24 = 0. ✓

9.4 Example 4  Voltage source ABSORBING power (being charged)

+
i
Vb = 12 V Vch = 20 V

A 20 V charger overpowers a 12 V battery (assume a small 2 Ω line so i = (20 − 12)/2 = 4 A) pushing

current into the battery's + terminal  PSC holds for the battery being charged:

pabs,battery = Vb i = (12)(4) = +48 W ⇒ ABSORBED.

A source can absorb! This is exactly what charging means.

9.5 Example 5  Current source SUPPLYING power

+

Is = 3 A R = 4Ω

The source forces 3 A through R, so v = Is R = 3(4) = 12 V appears across it (and across the source).
The current leaves the source's + terminal ⇒ PSC violated ⇒

pabs,source = −v Is = −(12)(3) = −36 W ⇒ psupplied = +36 W.

Resistor absorbs Is2 R = 9(4) = 36 W. Conservation holds. ✓

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

9.6 Example 6  Current source ABSORBING power

A current source absorbs when an external circuit forces a voltage across it whose polarity makes
current enter its + terminal. Suppose a 3 A source sits in a branch where a stronger voltage source
establishes v = 10 V across it with the current entering the + terminal (PSC holds):

pabs = v Is = (10)(3) = +30 W ⇒ ABSORBED.

This happens when the current source is ghting a dominant source and ends up taking energy in
 common in multi-source problems.

9.7 Example 7  Mixed circuit with KVL and KCL

R1 = 2 Ω
+
v1
Vs = 10 V v2 R2 = 3 Ω

i −

Single loop, so one current i (clockwise). KVL (walk clockwise from bottom-left, − rst on the
source is a rise ⇒ +Vs ; resistors are drops ⇒ −v1 , −v2 ):

+Vs − v1 − v2 = 0 ⇒ 10 − 2i − 3i = 0 ⇒ i = 2 A.

Then v1 = 4 V, v2 = 6 V. Powers (all in PSC for resistors): pR1 = i2 R1 = 8 W, pR2 = i2 R2 =

12 W. Source: current exits its +, PSC violated, pabs = −Vs i = −20 W ⇒ supplies 20 W. Check:
8 + 12 − 20 = 0. ✓

9.8 Example 8  Current comes out negative

R = 3Ω
i
+

Vs = 6 V

Suppose  against the real ow  you guessed the current arrow on R pointing right-to-left (call
it i). Solving KVL with that reference yields i = −2 A.

Interpretation: the actual current is 2A owing left-to-right,

i.e. opposite to your arrow. The magnitude 2 A is correct; only the guessed direction was backwards.
Power is unaected: pR = i2 R = (−2)2 (3) = 12 W absorbed. No mistake was made.

9.9 Example 9  Voltage comes out negative

+

Is = 2 A vR Ri= 5 Ω

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

You label the resistor + at the top but the current i (set by Is ) −
actually ows upward into the
terminal. With this labelling the current enters −, so relative to your marksvR = −iR = −(2)(5) =
−10 V. The minus tells you the bottom 2
terminal is really the +. The resistor still absorbs i R = 20 W.
Again, a negative voltage is just a ipped reference  not an error.

The pattern across Examples 8 and 9

Negative current ⇒ real direction is reversed. Negative voltage ⇒ real polarity is reversed. In
both cases the magnitudes and the absorbed/supplied conclusion remain correct.

10. Exam Cheat Sheet (One Page)

PSC  Everything on One Page

Core denition
PSC = current reference arrow enters the + voltage terminal. Then pabs = vi . If arrow
enters − instead: pabs = −vi.
Power-sign rules
ˆ pabs > 0 ⇒ ABSORBED (load-like)
ˆ pabs < 0 ⇒ SUPPLIED (source-like)
ˆ p supplied = − pabsorbed

ˆ
P
all elements
pabs = 0 (conservation check)
Polarity & current rules
ˆ Resistor: current ows +→− through it; always absorbs.
ˆ Source supplying: current exits its + terminal.
ˆ Source absorbing (charging): current enters its + terminal.
ˆ Negativei = real current opposite to arrow.
ˆ Negativev = real polarity opposite to +/− marks.
Resistor power (always ≥ 0)
v2
p = vi = i2 R =
R
KVL sign rule (walk the loop, terminal met rst):
− ⇒ +v (rise); + rst ⇒ −v (drop);
rst sum = 0.
P P
KCL: iin = iout at every node.
Memory tricks
ˆ  Into plus = absorbs  (current into + terminal).
ˆ  Same signs absorb, opposite signs supply  (v, i).
ˆ  Minus means my guess was backwards, not wrong.
ˆ  Resistors can only ever absorb.
Error vs. ipped reference
P
Genuine error only if: a resistor shows negative power, OR p ̸= 0. Otherwise a negative
number is just a reversed reference  keep going.

6-step solving routine

→ (2) assign polarities in PSC → (3) check PSC per element → (4) solve
(1) assign currents
(Ohm/KVL/KCL) → (5) sign of pabs gives absorb/supply → (6) interpret any negatives as
ipped references.

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Passive Sign Convention Circuit Analysis Revision Notes

Final 10-second exam check

Before you write the nal answer for any element: (a) Did current enter + or −? (b)
Apply +vi or −vi accordingly. (c) Sign tells absorb/supply. (d) Do all powers sum
to zero?

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