Chapter Two

Steady State Single Phase AC Circuit Analysis

2.1. Sinusoidal terminologies

2.2. Phasor representation of sinusoids and arithmetic
2.3. Impedance and admittance
2.4. Series and parallel RC, RL and RLC circuits

Introduction to Ac generator

Electricity is produced by generators at power stations and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National grid system) to industry and for domestic use. It is easier
and cheaper to generate alternating current (AC) than direct current (DC) and ac is more
conveniently distributed than dc. Since its voltage can be readily altered using transformers.

One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular velocity in a fixed
magnetic field. The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut (Faraday’s law), and its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move
through the field. Since the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary
with time.

For example, in fig 2.1 in (a), since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field, no flux lines are
being cut and the induced volt- age at this instant (and hence the current) is zero. (This is defined
as the 00 position of the coil.) As the coil rotates from the 00 position, coil sides AA’ and BB’ cut
across flux lines; hence, voltage builds, reaching a peak when flux is cut at the maximum rate in
the 900position as in (b). Note the polarity of the voltage and the direction of current. As the coil
rotates further, voltage decreases, reaching zero at the 1800 position when the coil sides again move
parallel to the field as in (c). At this point, the coil has gone through a half-revolution.

During the second half-revolution, coil sides cut flux in directions opposite to that which they did
in the first half revolution; hence, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. As indicated in (d),
voltage reaches a peak at the2700 point, and, since the polarity of the voltage has changed, so has
the direction of current. When the coil reaches the 3600 positions, voltage is again zero and the
cycle starts over. Figure 2.2 shows one cycle of the resulting wave form. Since the coil rotates

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continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive, periodic wave form (a waveform that
continually repeats itself after the same time interval).

Fig 2.1 Generating an AC voltage.

Fig 2.2 Coil voltage versus angular position

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2.1. Sinusoidal terminologies
Period (T): the time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called the period of
the waveform.

Frequency: the number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency of the waveform
and measured in hertz (Hz).

1ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒(𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻) = 1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

The Period and frequency of a sin wave can be related by the following equation:

1 1
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑇

Example1. Two sources have frequencies f1 and f2 respectively. If f2=2f1 and T2 is 20ms,
determine f1, f2, and T1?

1 1
𝑓𝑓2 = = = 50𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑇𝑇2 20𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑓𝑓2 50𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑓𝑓1 = = = 25𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
2 2

1 1
𝑇𝑇1 = = = 40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓1 25𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

Exercise. An alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8ms. What is its frequency?

Instantaneous value: the magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted by lower case
letters (e1,e2,i1,i2…)

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Peak value: the maximum instantaneous value of a waveform as measured from the zero-volt
level.

Peak-to-peak value: the full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the waveform, that
is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.

Average (mean) value:

Because a sine wave is symmetrical, its area below the horizontal axis is the same as its area above
the axis; thus, over a complete cycle the average value is zero. The average of half a sine wave,
however, is not zero.

Therefore, the average value of sin wave is the average value measured over a half cycle.

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

π
Area = � A msinαdα
0

= -Am(cosπ-cos00)

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 =-Am [-1-(+1)] =-Am (-2)

Area=2Am

Since we know the area under the positive pulse, we can easily determine the average value the
positive region of a sine wave:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ

2𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚
=
𝜋𝜋

Average value=0.637Am

Equation of sinusoidal waveform

The basic mathematical formula for the sinusoidal waveform is:

𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Where e is instantaneous voltage, Em is the maximum coil voltage and α is the instantaneous
angular position of the coil.

Angular Velocity (ω) the rate at which the generator coil rotates is called its angular velocity.

𝛼𝛼
𝜔𝜔 =
𝑡𝑡
Where, α is angular distance and t is time

α = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

In practice, ω is usually expressed in radians per second, where radians and degrees are related by
the identity. 2𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 3600

Relationship between ω,T and f

One cycle of sine wave may be represented as either 𝛼𝛼 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 or t=Ts. Substituting these in to
𝛼𝛼 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 you get 2π=ωt transposing yields

𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)

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 Thus,
2𝜋𝜋
𝜔𝜔 =
𝑇𝑇

Recall f=1/T Hz. Substituting this it to in the above equation you get

𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)

𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 but 𝛼𝛼 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

Combining these equations yields

𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Similarly,
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Substitute 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 to the above equation yields

𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

The general expression for an alternating voltage is

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃)

2.2. Phasor representation of sinusoids and arithmetic

The instantaneous levels of alternating current and voltage are vector quantities, since these levels
are continuously changing, an ac waveform must be represented by rotating vector or phasor.

A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis can be used to represent sinusoidally
varying quantities. The sinusoidal output voltage from the simple generator can be represented by
the phasor diagram.

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Fig 2.3 (a) phasor reperesentation of AC waveform (b) phasor diagrma

𝑽𝑽 = 𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 < 𝜃𝜃

Voltages and currents with phase shifts

If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t=0 it has a phase shift. Waveforms may be shifted to
the left or to the right.

Mathematical equation for a waveform shifted to left

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃)

Mathematical equation for waveform shifted to right

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃)

(a) 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃) (𝑏𝑏) 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃)

Fig 2.4 Phase shifted sine waves

Sometimes voltages and currents are expressed in terms of 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 rather than 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.a cosine wave
is a sine wave shifted by+900 , or alternatively, a sine wave I a cosine wave shifted by−900 .

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 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃) = sin (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 + 900 )

sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃) = cos (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 − 900 )

Phase difference
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different waveforms of the same
frequency. If the angular displacement between two wave forms is 00 the waveforms are said to be
in phase; otherwise, they are out of phase.

When describing a phase difference, select one waveform as reference. Other waveforms then lead,
lag, or are in phase with this reference.

a) In phase (b) out of phase (current leads) (c) out of phase (current lags)

Fig 2.5 illustrating phase difference

Effective value (rms)

An effective value is an equivalent dc value: it tells us how many volts or Amps of dc that a time-
varying waveform is equal to in terms of its ability to produce average power. A familiar example
of such a value is the value of the voltage at the wall outlet in your home.

The effective value of a sine wave can be determined using the circuits of fig 2.5

• Consider a sinusoidal varying current i(t). By definition, the effective value of i is that
value of dc current that produces the same average power.
Consider (b). Let the dc source be adjusted until its average power is the same as the average power
in (a). the resulting dc current is then the

• effective value of the current of(a).to determine this value, determine the average power
for both cases, then equate them.

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 (a) AC circuit

(b) DC circuit

Fig 2.6 determining the effective value of a sinusoidal ac.

First, consider the dc case. Since current is constant, power is constant and average power is

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅

Now consider the ac case. Power to the resistor at any value of time is P(t) i2R, where i is the
instantaneous value of current.

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎= (𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )2 𝑅𝑅 = (𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)2 𝑅𝑅 = (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)𝑅𝑅

But

1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = (1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) (trigonomeric identity)
2

Therefore
1
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼2 [ (1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)]𝑅𝑅
2

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼2
And 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
2 2

To get the average of P(t), note that the average of cos2ωt is zero and thus the last term of the
above equation drops off leaving

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 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅
2

Equating the average power delivered by the ac generator to that delivered by the dc source,

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = Pdc

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼2
R = Idc 2 R and Im = √2 Idc
2

or
Im
Idc = = 0.0707Im
√2

which,in words, states that the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is 1/√2 or
0.707 of its maximum value.

In summery,

𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) = 0.707𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 and

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.707𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚

Example 2. An alternating voltage is given by 𝑣𝑣 = 282.8𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠314𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉. find (a) the rms voltage (b)
average voltage(c) the frequency and (d) the instantaneous value of voltage at t=4ms.

The general expression for an alternating voltage is:

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃)

a. 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.707 ∗ 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 0.707 ∗ 282.8𝑉𝑉 = 200𝑉𝑉

b. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 0.637 ∗ 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 0.637 ∗ 282.8 = 180.14𝑉𝑉

c. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, 𝜔𝜔 = 314 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 314

314
𝑓𝑓 = = 50𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
2𝜋𝜋

d. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = 4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑣𝑣 = 282.8𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(314 ∗ 4 ∗ 10−3 ) = 268.9 𝑉𝑉

10 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

Example 3. An alternating voltage is given by 𝑣𝑣 = 75𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(200𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 300 ) 𝑉𝑉

Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value, (c) the rms value, (d) the periodic
time, (e) the frequency, (f) the phase angle relative to 75𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠200𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

Comparing 𝑣𝑣 = 75𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(200𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 300 ) 𝑉𝑉 with the general expression 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃) gives:

a. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 75 𝑉𝑉

b. 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 2 ∗ 75 = 150𝑉𝑉
c. 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 0.707 ∗ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 0.707 ∗ 75 = 150𝑉𝑉
d. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, 𝜔𝜔 = 200𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝑇𝑇 = = = 10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜔𝜔 200𝜋𝜋

1 1
e. 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, 𝑓𝑓 = = = 100𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑇𝑇 0.01

f. 𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜃𝜃 = 300 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 75𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠200𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

Exercise 1

1. If you double the rotational speed of an ac generator, what happens to the frequency and
period of the waveform?

2. A 10Hz sinusoidal current has a value of 5A at t=25ms. What is its value at t=75ms?

3. Determine the phase relationship between voltage and current given by the following
equations:

𝑣𝑣 = 50𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 200 ) 𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖 = 10cos (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 450 )𝐴𝐴

4. A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30A and a frequency of 60Hz. At time t=0, the
current is zero. Express the instantaneous current in the form 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.

5. An alternating voltage v has a periodic time of 20ms and a maximum value of 200V. When
time t=0, v=-75V. Deduce a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch one cycle of the voltage
showing important points.

6. An alternating voltage is represented by 𝑣𝑣 = 20𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(300𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 250 𝑉𝑉. find (a) the maximum
value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time (d) rms value (e) average value

11 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

2.3. Impedance and admittance
Impedance
Impedance is a term used to collectively determine how the resistance, capacitance, and inductance
“impede” the current in ac circuit. The symbol for impedance is the letter Z and the unit is the ohm
(Ω). Because impedance may be made up of any combination of resistance and reactance, it is
written as a vector quantity Z, the polar form impedance is written as:

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍 < 𝜙𝜙 (Ω)

The value Z is the magnitude(in ohms) of the impedance vector Z and is deteremined as:

𝑍𝑍 = �𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋 2 (Ω)

The corresponding angle of the impedance vector is determined as:

𝑋𝑋
𝜙𝜙 = ± tan−1 ( )
𝑅𝑅

The rectangular form of impedance is written as

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 ± 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 , Where R is resistance and X is reactance (XL or XC)

If we are given the polar form of the impedance, then we may determine the equivalent rectangular
expression from.

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 and 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

Fig 2.7 Impedance diagram

12 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

Resistive impedance ZR is a vector having a magnitude of R along the positive real axis, Inductive
impedance ZL is a vector having a magnitude of XL along the positive imaginary axis, while the
capacitive impedance Zc is a vector having a magnitude of Xc along the negative imaginary axis.
Mathematically, each of the vector impedance is written as follows

𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅 < 00 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗0 = 𝑅𝑅

𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 900 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐿𝐿

𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < −900 = 0 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = −𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋

Admittance
Admittance is defined as a vector quantity which is the reciprocal of the impedance Z.
Mathematically, admittance is expressed as:

1 1 1
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 = = = � � < −𝜃𝜃 = 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 − 𝜃𝜃 The unit of admittance is the Siemens(S).
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇<𝜃𝜃 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇

The admittance of resistor R is called conductance and is given a symbol YR.

1
𝑌𝑌𝑅𝑅 = = 𝐺𝐺 < 00 = 𝐺𝐺 + 𝑗𝑗0
𝑅𝑅<00

The admittance of a purely reactive component X is called susceptance of the component and is
assigned the symbol B. The unit for susceptance is Siemens (S).

In order to distinguish between inductive susceptance and capacitive susceptance, we use the
subscripts L and C respectively.

1 1
𝑌𝑌𝐿𝐿 = = < −900 = 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 < −900 = 0 − 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 900 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

1 1
𝑌𝑌𝐶𝐶 = 0
= < 900 = 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 < 900 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < −90 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶

13 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

 Fig 2.8 Admittance diagram

The total impedance (ZT) in parallel RLC circuit can be calculated as

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶

𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 = 𝑌𝑌𝑅𝑅 + 𝑌𝑌𝐿𝐿 + 𝑌𝑌𝐶𝐶

1
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 =
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇

The total current (iT)

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇 = = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇

2.4. Series and parallel RC, RL and RLC circuits

AC series circuit
When we examined dc circuits, we saw that the current everywhere in series circuit is a always
constant. This same applies when we have series elements with ac sources.

Further, we had seen that the total resistance of a dc series circuit consisting of n resistors was
determined as:
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 … … . . 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛

When working with ac circuits we no longer work with only resistance but also with capacitive
and inductive reactance.

14 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

 1. Series R-L circuit
RL circuit is the combination of resistive and inductive load.

Fig 2.9 RL circuit

In RL circuit the total impedance Z is

𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍 < tan−1 ( )
𝑅𝑅

Fig 2.10 (a) impedance diagram (b) phasor diagram

Voltage across resistor(R) and indictor (L) can be determined as

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

Thus, the total voltage (supply voltage, Vs)

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿

The total circuit current (i):

𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿

𝒊𝒊 = = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐
𝒁𝒁 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 <𝜙𝜙1 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑖 = = < 𝜙𝜙1 − 𝜙𝜙2
𝑍𝑍<𝜙𝜙2 𝑍𝑍

15 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

Example 4. A 4Ω resistor and a 9.55mH inductor are connected in series with 240 V, 50 Hz AC
source. Calculate (a) inductive reactance (b) the impedance, (c) the total current, and (d) draw
impedance and phasor diagram.

a. 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 2𝜋𝜋(50)(9.55 ∗ 10−3 ) = 3Ω

b. 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑍𝑍 = �𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 2 = √42 + 32 = 5Ω

𝑣𝑣 240𝑉𝑉
c. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑖𝑖 = = = 48𝐴𝐴
𝑧𝑧 5Ω
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 3
d. 𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 = tan−1 = 36.870 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 4

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑅𝑅 = 48 ∗ 4 = 192 < 0 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 48 ∗ 3 = 144𝑉𝑉 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 144 < 900 𝑉𝑉

Impedance diagram phasor diagram

Therefore, in the above example current lags voltage by 36.870

2. Series R-C circuit

Fig 2.11 RC circuit

In RC circuit the total impedance Z is written as

𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍 < tan−1 ( )
𝑅𝑅

16 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

 Fig 2.12 (a) Impedance diagram (b) phasor diagram

Voltage across resistor(R) and capacitor (C) can be determined as

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶

Thus, the total voltage (supply voltage, Vs)

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶

The total circuit current (IT):

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶

𝑖𝑖 = = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 <𝜙𝜙1 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑖 = = < 𝜙𝜙1 + 𝜙𝜙2
𝑍𝑍<−𝜙𝜙2 𝑍𝑍

Example 5. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45µF. calculate (a) the
impedance, (b) the current taken from a 240,50Hz supply. Find also the phase angle
between the supply voltage and the current.

1 1
a. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐 = = = 70.74 Ω
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋(50)(45∗10−6 )

b.𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑍𝑍 = �𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 2 = √252 + 70.742 = 75.03Ω

𝑉𝑉 240𝑉𝑉
c.𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑖𝑖 = = = 3.2𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍 75.03Ω

𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 70.74
Phase angle between the supply voltage and current 𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 = = 70.540 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙.
𝑅𝑅 25

I.e., current leads supply voltage by 70.540

17 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

3. Series RLC circuit

Fig 2.13 RLC circuit

In RLC circuit the total impedance Z written as

𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶

𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )

Fig 2.14 (a) Impedance diagram (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 > 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ) (b) impedance diagram (for𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )

Voltage across each circuit element

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑅𝑅 , 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
Where 𝑖𝑖 = And 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 − 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 )
𝑍𝑍

18 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

 Fig 2.15 (a) Phasor diagram (for𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 > 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ) (b) phasor diagram (for𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )

Example 6. A 5Ω resistor, 120mH inductor and 100µF capacitor are connected in series to a 300V,
50Hz AC supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing, (b) the phase difference between the supply
voltage and current, (c) the voltage across the circuit elements, and (d) draw the phasor and
impedance diagram.

𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 2𝜋𝜋(50)(120 ∗ 10−3 ) = 37.70Ω

1 1
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = = = 31.83Ω
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋(50)(100 ∗ 10−6 )

Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive

𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 37.7 − 31.83 = 5.87Ω

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑍𝑍 = �𝑅𝑅2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2 = �52 + 5.872 = 7.71Ω

𝑣𝑣 300
a. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖 = = = 38.91𝐴𝐴
𝑧𝑧 7.71
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿−𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 5.87
b. 𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = 49.580
𝑅𝑅 5

c. 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑅𝑅 = 38.91𝐴𝐴 ∗ 5Ω = 194.55𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 38.91 ∗ 37.7 = 1466.9𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 38.91 ∗ 31.83Ω = 1238.5V

19 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device

 Fig 2.16 Impedance triangle phasor diagram

Parallel RLC circuit

Fig 2.17 RLC circuit

Exercise 2
1. Calculate the current taken by 23µF capacitor when connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
2. A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible resistance. Calculate its inductive reactance
and the resulting current if connected to(a) a240 V,50Hz supply and (b) a 100 V,1kHz supply.

3. A coil of inductance 300mH and negligible resistance is connected in series with 100Ω resistor
to a 250V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the impedance of
the circuit, (c) the current in the circuit, (d) voltage across each component and (e) the circuit
phase phase angle.

4. A capacitor C is connected in series with a 40Ω resistor across a supply of frequency 60Hz. A
current of 3A flows and circuit impedance is 50Ω. Calculate (a) the value of capacitance, C, (b)
the supply voltage, (c) the phase angle between the supply voltage and current, (d) voltage across
the resistor and capacitor, and (e) draw phasor and impedance diagram.

5. A 40µF capacitor in series with a coil of resistance 8Ω and inductance 80mH is connected to a
200V, 100Hz supply. Calculate (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the phase
angle between voltage and current, (d) the voltage across the coil, and the resistor, (e) the voltage
across the capacitor, and (f) draw the phasor and impedance diagram.

20 | P a g e EPCE 2103 Basic Electricity and Electronics Device