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CHAPTER 1 : REAL NUMBERS

“ The essence of mathematics is not

to make simple things complicated,
to make complcated things simple.”
Stanley Phillip Gudder.

1 Introduction
Real Numbers form the foundation of Mathematical Analysis, providing a vast array of Mathematical concepts
and applications. They are defined as the set that includes the natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, and
irrational numbers.
In this chapter, we present several fundamental properties of real numbers, including the absolute value, the
integer part, interval, the density of Q in R, and basic algebraic identities.

2 Basic definitions
1. Natural numbers The set of numbers {0, 1, 2, . . .}, is called natural numbers and it is denoted by N.
That is,
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} .

2. Integer numbers The set of numbers {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}, is called integers numbers and it is
denoted by Z. That is,
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} .

3. Rational numbers All numbers of the form ab , where a and b are integers and b 6= 0, are called rational
numbers. This set is denoted by Q. That is,
na o
Q= / a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0 .
b
a
To express a rational number b as a decimal, we divide the denominator b into the numerator a. The
resulting decimal either terminates or repeats. For example:
5 43 3
= 2.5, = 5.373, = 0.6;
2 8 5
are terminating decimals;
1 15 ¯ 1
= 0.333333 . . . = 0, 3̄, = 0.363636 . . . = 0, 36, = 0.333333 . . . = 0, 3̄
3 11 3
are repeating decimals.
The converse is also true; namely, every terminating or repeating decimal represents a rational number.
For example:

4. Irrational numbers A number is called irrational if its decimal expansion neither terminates nor repeats.
For example:
√
π = 3.141592653 · · · , 2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

5. Real numbers The set which contains both rational and irrational numbers is called the real numbers
and is denoted by R.

1
3 Some properties of the Set of Real Numbers
3.1 The absolute value of a real number
Definition 1. The absolute value of a real number x is defined by
(
x if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x if x < 0.

3.1.1 Properties of absolute value

1). ∀x, y ∈ R, |xy| = |x| |y| ; 6). ∀x ∈ R, |x| = 0 ⇔ x = 0;

x |x|
2). ∀x, y ∈ R, = , y 6= 0; 7). ∀x ∈ R, − |x| ≤ x ≤ |x| ;
y |y|
√ 2
3). ∀x ∈ R, x2 = |x| ; 8). ∀x ∈ R, x2 = |x| = x2 ;
4). ∀x ∈ R, ∀a ∈ R+ , |x| ≤ a ⇔ −a ≤ x ≤ a; 9). ∀x, y ∈ R, |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| , Triangle inequality;
+
5). ∀x ∈ R, ∀a ∈ R , |x| ≥ a ⇔ ((x ≥ a) ∨ (x ≤ −a)) ; 10). ∀x, y ∈ R, ||x| − |y|| ≤ |, x − y| , Triangle inequality.

Proof. We will prove the last three properties.

1. For (8), on the one hand, we observe that

2
x2 = |x.x| = |x| |x| = |x| .

On the other hand, by the definition of the absolute value, we have

x2 = x2 , ( since x2 > 0).

Combining these observations, it follows that

2
|x| = x2 = x2 .

2. For (9), for any x, y ∈ R, we have the inequalities

− | x |≤ x ≤| x | and − | y |≤ y ≤| y | .

Adding these inequalities term-by-term, we obtain

− (| x | + | y |) ≤ x + y ≤| x | + | x |,

thus
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| .

3. For (10), by triangle inequality, we have

| x |=| x − y + y |≤| x − y | + | y |, (1)

| y |=| y − x + x |≤| y − x | + | x | . (2)

From inequality (1), we obtain

| x | − | y |≤| x − y | . (3)
From inequality (2), we find
| x | − | y |≥ − | x − y | . (4)
Combining (3) and (4), we obtain

− | x − y |≤| x | − | y |≤| x − y |⇔ || x | − | y || ≤| x − y | .

2
 Second proof (Using algebraic identities), we compute
q
2
| x − y | = (x − y)
p
= x2 + y 2 − 2xy
q q
2 2 2
p
≥ x2 + y 2 − 2 |x| |x| = |x| + |y| − 2 |x| |y| = (|x| − |y|) = ||x| − |y|| .

Hence
| x − y |≥ ||x| − |y|| .

Remark 1. Porperties 1 and 9 can be generalizeed as follows:

Let n ∈ N, and let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ R. Then
n
X n
X n
Y n
Y
xk ≤ |xk | ; xi = |xi | .
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

Example 1. Solve in R the following equation

|x − 1| + |x − 2| = 5. (5)

First, we need to eliminate the absolute value in equation (5) by using the defintion of absolute value, so we
constract the following singn table

−∞ 1 2 +∞
|x − 1| −x + 1 x−1 x−1
|x − 2| −x + 2 −x + 2 x−2
|x − 1| + |x − 2| = 5 −2x + 3 = 5 1=5 2x − 3 = 5

We consider the following cases:

i). Case 1: x ∈ ]−∞, 1[, in this interval, we have

−2x + 3 = 5 ⇒ x = −1,

since −1 ∈ ]−∞, +1[, this is a valid solution on this interval. Thus,

S1 = {−1} .

ii). Case 2: x ∈ [1, 2[, in this interval, we have

1 = 5,
which is false. Hence, there is no solution in this interval. Thus,

S2 = ∅.

iii). Case 3: x ∈ [2, +∞[, in this interval, we have

−2x − 3 = 5 ⇒ x = 4,

since 4 ∈ [2, +∞[, this is valid solution on this interval. Thus,

S3 = {−1} .

The solution set is:

S = S1 ∪ S2 ∪ S3 = {1, 2} .

3
Exercise 1. Try to solve this exercise on your own before consulting the solution

1. Prove properties 1 to 7 of the absolute value.

2. Solve the following equations:

i). |x + 1| + |x − 2| + |x − 5| = 7;
ii). |x| − |x − 1| + 3 |x − 2| − 2 |x − 3| = x + 1.

3. Solve the following inequations:

i). x2 − x − |x| < 1;

5x + 2 3
ii). ≥ 2, x 6= .
2x − 3 2

4. For any real numbers x, y, show that

2 2 2 2
i). |x + y| + |x − y| = 2 |x| + 2 |y| ;
a+b b−a
ii). a < x < b ⇔ x − < ;
2 2

5. Show that for any two real numbers a and b

1
i). max(a, b) = (a + b + |a − b|);
2
1
ii). min(a, b) = (a + b − |a − b|).
2

3.2 The integer part of a real number

Definition 2. For a real number x ∈ R there is a unique integer n ∈ Z such that

n ≤ x < n + 1.

This integer n is called the integer part of x or the floor of x. It is denoted by n = [x], that is

[x] ≤ x < [x] + 1.

In other words, [x] is the greatest integer less than or equal to x, and is given by

[x] = max {n ∈ Z, n ≤ x} .

Example 2. We have the following evaluations

[π] = 3, [2, 99] = 2, [−π] = −4, [−4] = −4.

3.2.1 Properties of the integer part of a real number



[nx]
∗
1). ∀x ∈ Z, [x] = x; 5). ∀x ∈ R, ∀x ∈ N , = [x] ;
n
2). ∀x, y ∈ R x ≤ y ⇒ [x] ≤ [y] ; 6). ∀x, y ∈ R+ , [x.y] ≤ [x] . [y] ;
3). ∀x ∈ R, ∀k ∈ Z, [x + k] = [x] + k; 7). ∀x ∈ R, x − 1 < [x] ≤ x;
4). [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1; 8). ∀x, y ∈ R [x + y] − [x] − [y] ∈ {0, 1} .

Proof. We will prove the last two properties.

4
 1. For (7), we begin by recalling the defintion of integer part of a real number. For all x ∈ R, the following
inequality holds:
[x] ≤ x < [x] + 1. (6)
Subtracting 1 from each side of the strict equality x < [x] + 1, we obtain
x − 1 < [x] . (7)
Combining inequalities (6) and (7), we deduce the following doube inequality
x − 1 < [x] ≤ x.

2. For (8), according to definition of the integer part of a real number, we have
∀x ∈ R, x − 1 < [x] ≤ x, (8)
∀x ∈ R, y − 1 < [y] ≤ y, (9)
∀x, y ∈ R, x + y − 1 < [x + y] ≤ x + y. (10)
By multiplying both sides of the inequalities (8) and (9) by - 1, we get
− x ≤ − [x] < −x + 1, (11)
− y ≤ − [y] < −y + 1. (12)
Adding inequalities (12), (11) and (10), we obtain
−1 < [x + y] − [x] − [y] < +2.
Note that the expression [x + y] − [x] − [y] ∈ Z, then, the only iinteger between −1 and 2 are 0 and 1.
Therefor, we conclude
[x + y] − [x] − [y] ∈ {0, 1} .

Exercise 2. Try to solve this exercise on your own before consulting the solution
1. Prove properties 1 to 6 of the integer part of a real number.

2. Let f be the function defined on R by:

f (x) = [10x] .
Prove that
1
f (x) = f (y) ⇒ |x − y| < .
10
3. Let f be the function defined on R by:
f (x) = [2x] − 2 [x] .
i). Does the equality [2x] = 2 [x] hold in general.
ii). Compute f (x) for x ∈ [0, 21 [, then for x ∈ [ 12 , 1[.
iii). Show that the function f is periodic.
iv). Deduce a simple expression for f (x), and sketch its graph.

4. Prove that  
1
∀x ∈ R, [x] + x + = [2x] .
2
5. Let n be a positive integer. Prove that for any real number x,
   
1 n−1
[nx] = [x] + x + + ··· + x + .
n n
6. Solve in R the equation
[x [x]] = 1.

5
3.3 Interval
As we have seen, Mathematical Analysis often studies subsets of R that have elements between two fxed
numbers. These subsets are called intervals
Definition 3. An interval is a subset I of R such that
∀a, b ∈ I ∀x ∈ R (a ≤ x ≤ b =⇒ x ∈ I) .
Example 3.
1. I = [1, 2] and J = [4, 5] , are intervals, but D = I ∪ J = [1, 2] ∪ [4, 5] is not, because for x ∈ I ⊂ D
and y ∈ J ⊂ D, ∃z = 3, x < z = 3 < y then 3 ∈ / D.

2. I = [1, 6[ ∩ Q, it is not an interval.

3. N, Z and Q are not intervals.

3.4 Different types of intervals

1. Empty interval: ∅, {}

2. Degenerate interval: [a, a] = {a} .

3. Closed interval: [a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x et x ≤ b}

4. Open interval: ]a, b[= {x ∈ R | a < x et x < b}

5. Half-open intervals

i). Left-closed, right-open interval: [a, b[= {x ∈ R | a ≤ x et x < b}

ii). Left-open, right-closed interval: ]a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x et x ≤ b}

6. Unbounded Intervals:

i). Left-bounded, closed and right-unbounded: [a, +∞[= {x ∈ R | a ≤ x}

ii). Left-bounded, open and right-unbounded: ]a, +∞[= {x ∈ R | a < x }
iii). Left-unbounded and right-bounded, open: ] − ∞, b[= {x ∈ R | x < b}
iv). Left-unbounded and right-bounded, closed: ] − ∞, b] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ b}
v). Unbounded interval at both ends: ]−∞, +∞[ = R.

3.5 Density of Q in R
Definition 4. Let A ⊂ R. We say A is dense in R if, between any two distinct real numbers, there exixts an
element of A.
Theorem 1. The rational numbers are dense in the reals ; that is, if a and b are real numbers with a < b, there
is a rational number p/q such that a < p/q < b.
Exercise 3. If a and b are two rational numbers, a < b, prove then that there exists an element c ∈ Q, such
that a < c < b.
Solution 1. We have
a+b
a < b ⇒ a + a < a + b ⇒ 2a < a + b ⇒ a < (13)
2
Also
a+b
a < b ⇒ a + b < b + b ⇒ a + b < 2b ⇒ <b (14)
2
Combining (13) and 14,
a+b
a =< c = =< b.
2

6
3.6 Upper and lower bounds, maximum and minimum, supremum and infimum
3.6.1 Upper and Lower Bounds

Definition 5. Let A be a non-empty subset of R.

i) The real number M is called an upper bound of A if a ≤ M for every a ∈ A. In this case, A is said to
be bounded above by M , i.e.
∃M ∈ R, ∀a ∈ A a ≤ M.

ii) The real number m is called a lower bound of A if a ≥ m for every a ∈ A. In this case, A is said to be
bounded below by m, i.e.
∃m ∈ R, ∀a ∈ A a ≥ m.

If A is bounded above and below, then A is said to be bounded, i.e.

∃(M, m) ∈ R2 , ∀x ∈ A m ≤ x ≤ M.

Example 4.

1. The subsets Q and Z of R are neither bounded above nor bounded below.

2. The subset N of R is bounded below but not above.

3. The set {2, 3, 4, 5} is bounded above by 5 and also bounded above by 6, 7, 8, etc. It is bounded below by
2 and also bounded below by −1, −2 − 3, etc. Therefore, {2, 3, 4, 5} is bounded as well.

Remark 2.

i) The upper and lower bounds of a set A of R are not unique. Indeed, in R the set E = [2, 3[ has an infnite
number of lower and upper bounds.

ii) The upper and lower bounds of a set A can belong to A or not. Indeed, for the set A = {3, −2, 0, 1, 5, 7},
−4 and −3 are two lower bounds of A, 3 belonging to A and 6 not belonging to A.

3.6.2 Maximum and Minimum

Definition 6. Let A be a non-empty subset of R.

1. The real number M is called the maximum of A if M ∈ A and if M ≥ a for every a ∈ A. In this case,
we write M = max A, i.e.
(
∀a ∈ A a ≤ max A;
max A ∈ A.

2. The real number m is called the minimum of A if m ∈ A and if m ≤ a for every a ∈ A. In this case, we
write m = minA, i.e.
(
∀a ∈ A a ≤ min A;
min A ∈ A.

Example 5.

1. The close interval, we have: max[0, 1] = 1, min[0, 1] = 0.

2. The open interval ]0, 1[ has neither a minimum nor a maximum

3. The set n1 n ∈ N∗ has no minimum.



As observed above, a set may be bounded above and yet have no maximum, and it may be bounded below and
yet have no minimum. However, whenever they exist, the maximum and the minimum are unique.

7
3.7 Supremum and Infimum
Definition 7. Let A be a non-empty subset of R

i) If A is bounded above, the minimum upper bound of A is called the supremum and is denoted sup A. If
A is not bounded above, then we write sup A = +∞

ii) If A is bounded below, the maximum lower bound of A is called the infimum and is denoted inf A. If A
is not bounded below, then we write inf A = −∞.

In the literature, the supremum is also called least upper bound, abbreviated l.u.b., and the infimum is also
called greatest lower bound, abbreviated g.l.b.

Example 6. We have

sup[a, b] = b sup]a, b[= b sup]a, +∞[= +∞

max[a, b] = b max]a, b[ does not exist max]a, +∞[ does not exist.

Example 7. We have

inf[a, b] = a inf]a, b[= a inf] − ∞, a[= −∞

min[a, b] = a max]a, b[ does not exist max] − ∞, a[ does not exist.

3.8 Characterization of Supremum and Infimum

Proposition 1.

1. If a non-empty set A of real numbers is bounded above, then sup A is the unique real number M such
that (
∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M ;
sup A = M =
∀ε > 0, ∃xε ∈ A, M − ε < xε .

2. If a non-empty set A of real numbers is bounded below, then inf A is the unique real number m such that
(
∀x ∈ A x ≥ m;
inf A = m =
∀ε > 0, ∃xε ∈ A, m + ε > xε .

Example 8. Prove that

sup ([0, 2[) = 2.

Solution 2. Let show that sup ([0, 2[) = 2. Using the caracterisation of the least least upper bound (supre-
mum), we aim to show that 2 is the supremum of the set A = [0, 2[. That is, we must verify the following two
conditions:

∀x ∈ A, x ≤ 2; (15)
∀ε > 0, ∃xε ∈ A, 2 − ε < xε . (16)

1. Verification of the first condition (15):

This is immediate, since for all x ∈ [0, 2[, we have

0 ≤ x < 2 ⇒ x ≤ 2.

2. Let us now verify the second condition (16)

Let ε > 0, we have to find xε ∈ [0, 2[ such that: 2 − ε < xε , (xε exists in [0, 2[). We consider two cases:

i) Case 1: 2 − ε ∈ [0, 2[.

In this case? it’s enough to take any point xε ∈ R, such that 2 − ε ≤ xε < 2.

8
 ii) Case 2: 2 − ε ∈ ]−∞, 0[.
In this case, it’s enough to take any point xε ∈ R, such that 0 ≤ xε < 2.

Since both conditions (15) and (16) hold, we conclude that 2 is least upper bound of A. Therefore,

sup ([0, 2[) = 2.

Exercise 4. Let A ⊂ R the set defined by

 
6
A= 3− , n ∈ N, n ≥ 3 .
n−2

Prove the following:

i). A is not-empty.

ii). A is bounded.

iii). Determine inf A and min A.

iv). Determine sup A and max A, providing a complete proof.

Solution 3.

1. Non-emptiness of A :
We observe that A 6= ∅, because for example, when n = 4 ∈ N − {0, 1, 2}, we have
6
0=3− ∈ A.
4−2
Therefore A is not empty.

2. Boundedness of: A
We will show that A is bounded. Let n ∈ N with n ≥ 4, we have
1 6 6 6
n≥3⇒n−2≥1⇒0< ≤1⇒0< ≤ 6 ⇒ −6 ≤ − < 0 ⇒ −3 ≤ 3 − < 3.
n−2 n−2 n−2 n−2
Hence, for all x ∈ A,
−3 ≤ x < 3.
Thus, A is bounded below by −3 and bounded above by +3, so it is a bounded set.

3. Infimum and maximum of A

We compute
6
If n = 3, then x = 3 − = −3 ∈ A.
3−2
6
Since −3 ∈ A and for all n ≥ 3, x = 3 − ≥ −3, it follows that
3−2
min(A) = inf(A) = −3.

4. Suprimum and maximum of A :

Let us prove sup A = 3, using the caracterisation of the suprimum. We must verify the two following
condations:
6

∀n ∈ N − {0, 1, 2} , 3 − ≤ 3, (1)
(
∀x ∈ A, x ≤ 3,

sup(A) = 3 ⇔ ⇔ nε − 2
6
∀ε > 0 ∃xε ∈ A, 3 − ε < xε . ∀ε > 0, ∃nε ∈ N − {0, 1, 2} , 3 − ε < 3 −
 . (2)
nε − 2

9
 i) The first condition is already satisfied, since for all n ≥ 3,
6
3− < 3.
3−2
ii) Now consider the second condition, let ε > 0 be given, we have to find nε ∈ N−{0, 1, 2} , such that:
6 6 6 6
3− >3−ε⇔− > −ε ⇔ ε > ⇔ nε > + 2.
nε − 2 nε − 2 nε − 2 ε
 
6
It suffices to take nε = E + 2 + 1 ∈ N − {0, 1, 2} .
ε
Thus,
sup A = 3.
Therefore, sup A = 3 ∈
/ A, so
max A does not exist.

Exercise 5. Try to solve this exercise on your own before consulting the solution

1.

2.

3.

3.9 Algebraic identities

The following theorems collect some important algebraic identities.

Theorem 2 (Binomial Theorem for positive integer). If n is any positive integer, then
     
n n n−0 0 n n−1 1 n 0 n
(x + y) = x y + x y + ··· + x y , x, y ∈ R,
0 1 n
i,e.
n  
n
X n
(x + y) = xn−k y k .
k
k=0
This is called binimial theorem.

Here,      
n n n
, ,..., ,
0 1 n
are called binomial coefficients and
 
n n!
= , pour n ≥ k ≥ 0.
k (n − k)!k!
Theorem 3. For every n ∈ N∗ and a, b ∈ R, we have
n−1
X
xn − y n = (x − y) xn−1−k y k
k=0

= (x − y) xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 .

Example 9. For every n ≥ 1, we have

xn − 1 = (x − 1)(xn−1 + xn−2 + · · · + 1).

Remark 3. (xn + y n ), can be factored only if n is odd. For example:

x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 ).

10