2 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

Chapter Topics:

• Basic ladder logic symbols

• Ladder logic diagram
• Ladder logic evaluation
• Converting relay logic to ladder logic

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand basic ladder logic symbols
• Write ladder logic for simple applications
• Translate relay ladder logic into PLC ladder logic

Scenario: A program with a long scan time may not detect short-duration events.
A manufacturer of small gasoline engines had an intermittent problem on the final
assembly line. Sometimes, a defective engine would not be automatically removed from the
line for repair at a “kick-out” station. If an operator noticed a problem with an engine, he/she
inserted a bolt into a certain hole in the engine carrier. A proximity sensor before the
kick-out station sensed the presence of the bolt, and the PLC activated a hydraulic solenoid
to push the carrier (and engine) off the main conveyor and into the repair area. A view of this
station is shown in Figure 2.1. Further investigation revealed that the duration of the on
pulse of the proximity sensor was approximately 3/4 seconds. One PLC controlled all of the
stations on the assembly line and its ladder logic program was quite large. As indicated in
the PLC status, the time to scan the ladder logic program was slightly less than 1 second.
Hence, it was very likely that a pulse from the proximity sensor could be undetected by the
PLC processor. The proximity sensor could be off at the start of the ladder scan, generate an
on pulse from a passing bolt in the carrier, and be off at the start of the next ladder scan.
Solution: Logic to examine the proximity sensor is placed in a ladder logic routine that is
executed every ½ second. If the proximity sensor is detected to be on, an internal coil is
turned on for at least 1.5 seconds. The main PLC program is changed to examine this
internal coil to determine when to activate the hydraulic solenoid and push a carrier off the
main conveyor.

23
24 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

Engine on Carrier
Bolt
Repair Area
Hydraulic Ram

Proximity sensor
Main conveyor belts
Note: Main conveyor is
moving out of page

Figure 2.1. Kick-out station.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Now that the PLC has been introduced, let us move on to programming the PLC. The
first, and still most popular programming language, is ladder logic. Using examples, the
language is developed from the electromechanical relay system-wiring diagram. After
describing the basic symbols for the various processors covered by this text, they are
combined into a ladder diagram. The subsequent section details the process of scanning a
program and accessing the physical inputs and outputs. Programming with the normally
closed contact is given particular attention because it is often misapplied by novice
programmers. To solidify these concepts, the start/stop of a physical device is considered.
Start/stop is a very common PLC application and occurs in many other contexts. An
optional section on relay to PLC ladder logic conversion concludes the chapter.

2.2 SIMPLE LADDER LOGIC

Ladder logic is the primary programming language of programmable logic controllers.
Since the PLC was developed to replace relay logic control systems, it was only natural that
the initial language closely resembles the diagrams used to document the relay logic. By
using this approach, the engineers and technicians using the early PLCs did not need
retraining to understand the program. To introduce ladder logic programming simple switch
circuits are converted to relay logic and then to PLC ladder logic.
In all of the ladder logic examples used in this chapter, tags (symbols) are used for all
inputs, outputs, and internal memory in the examples to avoid having to deal with
input/output addressing. This addressing, treated in Chapter 3, is generally different for
each PLC manufacturer.
Example 2.1. OR Circuit. Two switches labeled A and B are wired in parallel controlling a
lamp as shown in Figure 2.2a. Implement this function as PLC ladder logic where the two
switches are separate inputs.
Solution. The switch circuit action is described as, “The lamp is on when switch A is on
(closed) or switch B is on (closed).” All possible combinations of the two switches and the
consequent lamp action is shown as a truth table in Figure 2.2b.
To implement this function using relays, the switches A and B are not connected to the
lamp directly, but are connected to relay coils labeled AR and BR whose normally-open
 2.2 SIMPLE LADDER LOGIC 25

120 V A B Lamp
A
off off off
Lamp off on on
B on off on
Neutral on on on

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2. Parallel switch circuit: (a) switch circuit; (b) truth table.

(NO) contacts control a relay coil, LR, whose contacts control the lamp, Figure 2.3a. The
switches, A and B, are the inputs to the circuit. When either switch A or B is closed, the
corresponding relay coil AR or BR is energized, closing a contact and supplying power to
the LR relay coil. The LR coil is energized, closing its contact and supplying power to the
lamp.
The output (lamp in this case) is driven by the LR relay to provide voltage isolation
from the relays implementing the logic. The switches, A and B, control relay coils (AR and
BR) to isolate the inputs from the logic. Also, with this arrangement, the one switch
connection to an input relay can be used multiple times in the logic. A typical industrial
control relay can have up to 12 poles, or sets of contacts, per coil. For example, if the AR
relay has six poles (only one shown in Figure 2.3a), then the other five poles are available
for use in the relay logic without requiring five other connections to switch A.
Before the PLC was developed, engineers had already developed a graphical electrical
circuit shorthand notation for the relay circuit of Figure 2.3a. This notation was called a
relay ladder logic diagram, shown in Figure 2.3b. The switches are shown as their usual
symbol, the circles indicate the relay coils, and the NO relay contacts are shown as the
vertical parallel bars.
The PLC ladder logic notation (Figure 2.3c) is shortened from the relay wiring diagram
to show only the third line, the relay contacts and the coil of the output relay. The PLC
ladder logic notation assumes that the inputs (switches in this example) are connected to
discrete input channels (equivalent to the relay coils AR and BR in Figure 2.3b). Also, the
actual output (lamp) is connected to a discrete output channel (equivalent to the normally
open contacts of LR in Figure 2.3b) controlled by the coil. The label shown above a contact
symbol is not the contact label, but the control for the coil that drives the contact. Also, the
output for the rung occurs on the extreme right side of the rung and power is assumed to
flow from left to right. The PLC ladder logic rung is interpreted as: “When input (switch) A
is on OR input (switch) B is on then the lamp is on,” which is the same as the statement
describing the switch circuit in Figure 2.2a.
Notice that the original description of the switch circuit in Figure 2.2a,
The lamp is on when switch A is on or switch B is on.
translates into a relay circuit described as
A parallel connection of normally-open contacts,
which describes the PLC ladder logic in Figure 2.3c.
 26 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

120 V
120 V
120 V
A B Lamp

AR BR LR
Neutral

(a)

120v Neutral
A AR

B BR

AR LR

BR

Lamp
LR
W

(b)

120v Neutral
A Lamp

(c)

Figure 2.3. Parallel switch relay and ladder logic circuits: (a) equivalent relay
circuit; (b) equivalent relay ladder logic circuit; (c) equivalent PLC ladder logic.

Example 2.2. AND Circuit. Two switches labeled A and B are wired in series controlling a
lamp as shown in Figure 2.4a. Implement this function as PLC ladder logic where the two
switches are separate inputs.
 2.2 SIMPLE LADDER LOGIC 27

A B Lamp
120 V off off off
A B off on off
Lamp
on off off
Neutral on on on
(a) (b)

Figure 2.4. Series switch circuit: (a) switch circuit; (b) truth table.

Solution. The switch circuit action is described as, “The lamp is on when switch A is on
(closed) and switch B is on (closed).” All possible combinations of the two switches and the
consequent lamp action is shown as a truth table in Figure 2.4b. To implement this function
using relays, the only change from Example 2.1 is to wire the normally-open contacts of
control relays AR and BR in series to control the light, Figure 2.5a. The wiring of switches
A and B and the wiring of the lamp do not change. The relay circuit diagram, shown in
Figure 2.5b is different from Figure 2.3b only in the third line. As for example 2.1, the PLC
ladder logic notation (Figure 2.5c) is shortened from the relay wiring diagram to show only
the third line, the relay contacts and the coil of the output relay. The PLC ladder logic rung is
interpreted as: “When input (switch) A is on AND input (switch) B is on then the lamp is
on.”
Notice that the original description of the switch circuit in Figure 2.4a,
The lamp is on when switch A is on and switch B is on.
translates into a relay circuit described as
A series connection of normally-open contacts,
which describes the PLC ladder logic in Figure 2.5c.
Example 2.3. As a third example, consider the implementation of a logical NOT function.
Suppose a lamp needs to be turned on when switch A is on (closed) and switch B is off
(open). Implement this function as PLC ladder logic where the two switches are separate
inputs.
Solution. Figure 2.6 shows the truth table, relay implementation and ladder logic for this
example. The only difference between the relay implementation in Figure 2.6b and Figure
2.5a is the wiring of the relay BR contacts. The logical NOT for switch B is accomplished
with the normally closed (NC) contact of relay BR. The PLC ladder logic rung in Figure
2.6c is different from Figure 2.5c only in the second contact symbol. The PLC ladder logic
is interpreted as: “When input (switch) A is on (closed) and input (switch) B is off (open)
then the lamp is on.” This particular example is impossible to implement with a
combination of only two normally open switches and no relays.
Notice that the original description of the Example 2.3,
The lamp is on when switch A is on and switch B is off.
translates into a relay circuit described as
A series connection of a normally-open contact and a normally-closed contact,
which describes the PLC ladder logic in Figure 2.6c.
Summarizing these three examples, one should notice that key words in the description
of the operation translate into certain aspects of the solution:
28 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

120 V 120 V
120 V
A B Lamp

AR BR LR
Neutral
(a)

120v Neutral

A AR

B BR

AR BR LR

LR Lamp
W

(b)

120v Neutral
A B Lamp

(c)

Figure 2.5. Series switch relay and ladder logic circuits: (a) equivalent relay circuit; (b)
equivalent relay ladder logic circuit; (c) equivalent PLC ladder logic.

and à series connection of contacts

or à parallel connection of contacts
on à normally-open contact
off à normally-closed contact
These concepts are key to being able to understand and write ladder logic. To many
people these concepts appear strange and foreign at first. However, they will become more
natural as one works problems. Ladder logic is a very visual and graphical language. It is
very different from textual languages like C++, Fortran, Basic, and Java. In contrast, one
can become proficient at ladder logic much quicker than with textual languages.
 2.3 BASIC LADDER LOGIC SYMBOLS 29

A B Lamp
off off off
off on off
on off on
on on off

(a)

120 V 120 V
120 V
A B Lamp

AR BR LR
Neutral
(b)

120v Neutral
A B Lamp

(c)

Figure 2.6. NOT function ladder logic circuits; (a) truth table; (b) equivalent relay
circuit; (c) equivalent PLC ladder logic.

NAND and NOR logic functions are left as exercises for the interested reader. More
information about the conversion between relay ladder logic and PLC ladder logic appears
in section 2.8.

2.3 BASIC LADDER LOGIC SYMBOLS

At this point, one should start interpreting ladder logic directly and not think of its
implementation with relays. As introduced by the examples in the previous section, the
basic ladder logic symbols are

Normally open (NO) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is on (closed).

Normally closed (NC) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is off (open).
30 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

Output or coil. If any left-to-right path of contacts passes power, the

output is energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of
contacts passing power, the output is de-energized.

These symbols are ladder logic instructions that are scanned (executed) by the PLC.
In order to avoid confusion, the contact symbols should be equated with certain concepts
as follows:

= on = Closed = True = 1

= off = Open = False = 0

This crucial point will be repeated later when the use of the NC contact is clarified.
Figure 2.7 is an example ladder logic diagram with the basic instructions. The first line
(also called a rung) that determines output labeled Out1 is interpreted as follows: Out1 is
on if inputs A, B, and C are all on, or if inputs A and C are on and input D is off. Notice
that for Out1 to be on there must be a continuous electrical path through the contacts.
Every PLC manufacturer uses the instruction symbols shown in the previous
paragraph. There are other contact and coil instruction symbols, but there is no universal
graphic representation for these other instructions among PLC vendors. The IEC 61131-3
standard has the most contact and coil instructions and many manufacturers do not
implement the full set of instructions.
The industry trend is toward using the IEC 61131-3 (formerly IEC 1131-3) standard,
and so it will be the primary language of this text. Since IEC 61131-3 is only a voluntary
standard, individual manufacturers have some freedom in the implementation. Therefore,
the Allen-Bradley ControlLogix, Modicon, and Siemens S7 implementations of the
61131-3 standard are covered. Because of their widespread use, Allen-Bradley
PLC-5/SLC-500 and GE Fanuc PLC languages are also covered.

A B C Out1

E F K Out2

G H

Figure 2.7. Ladder logic diagram with basic instructions.

 2.3 BASIC LADDER LOGIC SYMBOLS 31

For the remainder of the book, the languages will be presented in the following order:
IEC 61131-3 standard
Modicon Concept (IEC compliant)
Allen-Bradley ControlLogix (IEC compliant)
Allen-Bradley PLC-5/SLC-500 (not IEC compliant)
Siemens S7 (IEC compliant)
GE Fanuc (not IEC compliant)
The Modicon Concept ladder logic is presented first because it is closest to the IEC 61131-3
standard. The Allen-Bradley processors are presented next because of their widespread use
in North America.

2.3.1 IEC 61131-3

The basic ladder logic contact symbols are

Normally open (NO) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is on (closed).

Normally closed (NC) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is off (open).

Positive transition sensing contact. If conditions before this instruction

P change from off to on, this instruction passes power for only one scan
(until rung is scanned again).
Negative transition sensing contact. If conditions before this instruction
N change from on to off, this instruction passes power for only one scan
(until rung is scanned again).

The basic ladder logic coil (output) symbols are

Output or coil. If any left-to-right path of instructions passes power, the

( ) output is energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of
instructions passing power, the output is de-energized.
Negated coil. If any left-to-right path of inputs passes power, the output
( ) is de-energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of instructions
passing power, the output is energized.

(S ) Set coil. If any rung path passes power, output is energized and remains
energized, even when no rung path passes power.

(R) Reset coil. If any rung path passes power, output is de-energized and
remains de-energized, even when no rung path passes power.
32 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

(P) Positive transition sensing coil. If conditions before this instruction

change from off to on, coil is turned on for one scan.

( N) Negative transition sensing coil. If conditions before this instruction

change from on to off, coil is turned on for one scan.

( M) Retentive memory coil. Like the ordinary coil, except the value of the
output is retained even when the PLC is stopped or power fails.

(SM) Set retentive memory coil. Like the set coil, except the value of the output
is retained even when the PLC is stopped or power fails.

(RM) Reset retentive memory coil. Like the reset coil, except the value of the
output is retained even when the PLC is stopped or power fails.

Comments about the basic instructions

1. The transition sensing contacts and coils are useful for initialization and detecting
input transitions, for example, a push button press.
2. The set and reset coils are used in conjunction with each other. Figure 2.8 is a short
example using these two coils in conjunction to control a lamp.
3. The retentive memory coil instructions are used in a situation where the state of the
output must be retained when the PLC is stopped or power fails. Normally, PLC
outputs are turned off when the PLC is stopped or power fails. Depending on the
system, it may be important that the state of an output be retained in order for the
system to operate safely through a power failure of the PLC processor or when the
PLC is stopped. For certain PLC manufacturers, this function is provided as part of
the discrete output module.
4. The author discourages use of the negated coil for the following reason. In most
systems the safe position is one in which the output from the PLC is off. Generally,
contacts (often called permissives) are placed in series with the coil, indicating
multiple conditions must be satisfied before the output is allowed to be energized.
With the negated coil the rung conditions must be satisfied to turn off the output
which is opposite to most safety concepts.

A Lamp
(S ) A turns on Lamp

B Lamp B turns off Lamp

(R)
Figure 2.8. Set and reset coil example.
 2.3 BASIC LADDER LOGIC SYMBOLS 33

2.3.2 Modicon Quantum/Momentum

Using the Concept programming software, the Modicon Quantum and Momentum
PLC processors may be programmed in ladder logic compatible with the older 984-series
processors, or with IEC 61131-3 compliant ladder logic. The IEC 61131-3 compliant ladder
logic instructions are described here. The Modicon IEC basic ladder logic contact symbols
are the same as described in section 2.3.1.
The Modicon IEC basic ladder logic coil symbols are similar to those described in
section 2.3.1, except that Modicon does not support the following:
Retentive memory coil
Set retentive memory coil
Reset retentive memory coil
The instructions are:

Output or coil. If any left-to-right path of instructions passes power, the

output is energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of
instructions passing power, the output is de-energized.

Negated coil. If any left-to-right path of inputs passes power, the output
is de-energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of instructions
passing power, the output is energized.

S Set coil. If any rung path passes power, output is energized and remains
energized, even when no rung path passes power.

R Reset coil. If any rung path passes power, output is de-energized and
remains de-energized, even when no rung path passes power.

P Positive transition sensing coil. If conditions before this instruction

change from off to on, coil is turned on for one scan.

N Negative transition sensing coil. If conditions before this instruction

change from on to off, coil is turned on for one scan.

2.3.3 Allen-Bradley ControlLogix and PLC-5/SLC-500

The Allen-Bradley PLC basic instructions are not as numerous as for the IEC 61131-3
basic instructions. In addition, for many of the instructions, a different symbol is used,
though the function is the same as an IEC 61131-3 instruction. The Allen-Bradley basic
ladder logic contact symbols are
34 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

Normally open (NO) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is on (closed). Allen-Bradley calls it XIC (eXamine If Closed).

Normally closed (NC) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is off (open). Allen-Bradley calls it XIO (eXamine If Open).

One-shot contact. If conditions before this instruction change from off to

ONS on, this instruction passes power for only one scan (ControlLogix and
PLC-5 only). It is analogous to the IEC positive transition sensing
contact except that this instruction follows the contact(s) whose
transition is being sensed.

One-shot rising contact. If conditions before this instruction change

OSR from off to on, this instruction passes power for only one scan (SLC-500
only). Must immediately precede an output coil. It is analogous to the
IEC positive transition sensing contact except that this instruction
follows the contact(s) whose transition is being sensed.

For the Allen-Bradley PLCs, the basic ladder logic coil (output) symbols are

Output or coil. If any left-to-right path of instructions passes power, the

output is energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of
instructions passing power, the output is de-energized. Allen-Bradley
calls it OTE (OuTput Energize).

Latch coil. If any rung path passes power, output is energized and
L remains energized, even when no rung path passes power. It is analogous
to the IEC set coil instruction. Allen-Bradley calls it OTL (OuTput
Latch).

Unlatch coil. If any rung path passes power, output is de-energized and
U remains de-energized, even when no rung path passes power. It is
analogous to the IEC reset coil instruction. Allen-Bradley calls it OTU
(OuTput Unlatch).

OSR One shot rising output. If conditions before this instruction change from
One Shot Rising (OB)
Bit Address B3/25 (SB) off to on, the specified bit is turned on for one scan (ControlLogix and
Source Bit 2
Dest O:11 enhanced PLC-5 only). This is more appropriately a function block
instruction because of its appearance. It is analogous to the IEC positive
transition sensing coil instruction.
 2.3 BASIC LADDER LOGIC SYMBOLS 35

OSF One shot falling output. If conditions before this instruction change from
One Shot Falling (OB)
Bit Address B3/2 (SB) on to off, the specified bit is turned on for one scan (ControlLogix and
Source Bit 12
Dest O:20 enhanced PLC-5 only). This is more appropriately a function block
instruction because of its appearance. It is analogous to the IEC negative
transition sensing coil instruction.

There are no retentive memory coil instructions. The retentive function is handled in
the discrete output modules.

2.3.4 Siemens S7

The three types of S7 processors (S7-200, S7-300, and S7-400) have the same basic
instructions. The only exception is the midline output coil that is not valid for the S7-200
processors. The basic ladder logic contact symbols are

Normally open (NO) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is on (closed).

Normally closed (NC) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is off (open).

Positive transition sensing contact. If conditions before this instruction

(P) change from off to on, this instruction passes power for only one scan
(until rung is scanned again). For the S7-200 processors, this contact
uses vertical bars, rather than parentheses.

Negative transition sensing contact. If conditions before this instruction

(N) change from on to off, this instruction passes power for only one scan
(until rung is scanned again). For the S7-200 processors, this contact
uses vertical bars, rather than parentheses.

Invert power flow. If any left-to-right path of inputs before this contact
NOT passes power, the power flow to succeeding elements is interrupted
(turned off). If no left-to-right path of inputs before this contact passes
power, the power flow to succeeding elements is turned on.

The basic ladder logic coil (output) symbols are

Output or coil. If any left-to-right path of instructions passes power, the

( ) output is energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of
instructions passing power, the output is de-energized.

(#) Midline output coil. Output coil in middle of rung. Other logic can occur
to the right of this coil. Not valid for the S7-200 processors.
36 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

(S) Set coil. If any rung path passes power, output is energized and remains
energized, even when no rung path passes power.

(R ) Reset coil. If any rung path passes power, output is de-energized and
remains de-energized, even when no rung path passes power.

2.3.5 GE Fanuc

For the GE Fanuc PLCs, the basic ladder logic contact symbols are

Normally open (NO) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is on (closed).

Normally closed (NC) contact. Passes power (on) if coil driving the
contact is off (open).

Positive transition sensing contact. If conditions before this contact

change from off to on, power is passed for one scan (until rung is
scanned again). Valid for 90-70 processors only.

Negative transition sensing contact. If conditions before this contact

change from on to off, power is passed for one scan (until rung is
scanned again). Valid for 90-70 processors only.

The basic ladder logic coil (output) symbols are

Output or coil. If any left-to-right path of instructions passes power, the

( ) output is energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of
instructions passing power, the output is de-energized.

Negated coil. If any left-to-right path of inputs passes power, the output
( ) is de-energized. If there is no continuous left-to-right path of instructions
passing power, the output is energized.

(S) Set coil. If any rung path passes power, output is energized and remains
energized, even when no rung path passes power.

(R ) Reset coil. If any rung path passes power, output is de-energized and
remains de-energized, even when no rung path passes power.
 2.4 LADDER LOGIC DIAGRAM 37

( ) Positive transition sensing coil. If conditions before this instruction

change from off to on, coil is turned on for one scan.

( ) Negative transition sensing coil. If conditions before this instruction

change from on to off, coil is turned on for one scan.

( M) Retentive memory coil. Like the ordinary coil, except the value of the
output is retained even when the PLC is stopped or power fails.

(/M) Negated retentive memory coil. Like the negated coil, except the value of
the output is retained even when the PLC is stopped or power fails.

(SM) Set retentive memory coil. Like the set coil, except the value of the output
is retained even when the PLC is stopped or power fails.

(RM) Reset retentive memory coil. Like the reset coil, except the value of the
output is retained even when the PLC is stopped or power fails.

A continuation coil and contact are used to handle ladder rungs with more than 10
columns:

Continuation coil. If any left-to-right path of instructions passes power,

( ) the next continuation contact is turned on. If there is no continuous
left-to-right path of instructions passing power, the next continuation
contact is turned off.

Continuation contact. Passes power (on) if preceding continuation coil

is on.

2.4 LADDER LOGIC DIAGRAM

An example PLC ladder logic diagram appears in Figure 2.9. The vertical lines on the
left and right are called the power rails. The contacts are arranged horizontally between the
power rails, hence the term rung. The ladder diagram in Figure 2.9 has three rungs. The
arrangement is similar to a ladder one uses to climb onto a roof. In addition, Figure 2.9
shows an example diagram like one would see if monitoring the running program in the
PLC. The thick lines indicate continuity and the state (on/off) of the inputs and outputs is
shown next to the tag. Regardless of the contact symbol, if the contact is closed (continuity
through it), it is shown as thick lines. If the contact is open, it is shown as thin lines. In a
relay ladder diagram, power flows from left to right. In PLC ladder logic, there is no real
power flow, but there still must be a continuous path through closed contacts in order to
energize an output. In Figure 2.9 the output on the first rung is off because the contact for C
is open, blocking continuity through the D and E contacts. Also notice that the E input is off,
38 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

Input (condition) Output

Instructions Instructions

A off B on C off Out1 off

( )
D on E off

F on E off K on Out2 on
( )
H on

E off Out3 off

( )
H on Out4 off
( )
Function Function
Block Block
Instruction Instruction

Continuous path for logic continuity

Power flows

Figure 2.9. Sample ladder logic diagram.

which means the NC contact in the first rung is closed and the NO contact in the second rung
is open.
Figure 2.9 also introduces the concept of function block instructions. Any instruction
that is not a contact or a coil is called a function block instruction because of its appearance
in the ladder diagram. The most common function block instructions are timer, counter,
comparison, and computation operations. More advanced function block instructions
include sequencer, shift register, and first-in first-out operations.
Some manufacturers group the instructions into two classes: input instructions and
output instructions. This distinction was made because in relay ladder logic, outputs were
never connected in series and always occurred on the extreme right hand side of the rung.
Contacts always appeared on the left side of coils and never on the right side. To turn on
multiple outputs simultaneously, coils are connected in parallel. This restriction was
relaxed in IEC 61131-3 and outputs may be connected in series. Also, contacts can occur on
the right side of a coil as long as a coil is the last element in the rung. Of the ladder logic
 2.4 LADDER LOGIC DIAGRAM 39

languages covered by this text, only the IEC 61131-3, Modicon Concept, and
Allen-Bradley ControlLogix allow coil instructions to be connected in series.
This text avoids using a series connection of coils for two reasons:
1. most PLCs do not allow it, and
2. it is counterintuitive to maintenance personnel who often interpret ladder logic in
the context of an electrical diagram.
Also, in IEC 61131-3, all function block instructions are input instructions because the
only output instructions are the coils. The Allen-Bradley PLC-5 and SLC-500 have function
block output instructions (e.g., timer, counter, and computation) which must be
remembered when constructing ladder logic programs for these PLCs.
Example 2.4. Draw a ladder diagram that will cause the output, pilot light PL2, to be on
when selector switch SS2 is closed, push-button PB4 is closed and limit switch LS3 is
open. (Note: no I/O addresses yet.)
Solution. The first question to answer is “What is the output?” The output is PL2, so the coil
labeled as PL2 is put on the right side of the rung. Secondly, consider the type of connection
of contacts to use. Since all three switches must be in a certain position to turn on the pilot
light, a series connection is needed. Thirdly, the type of contact is determined by the switch
position to turn on the pilot light:

SS2 closed à

PB4 closed à

LS3 open à

Putting all the pieces together, only one rung of ladder logic is needed, as shown in Figure
2.10.

Design Tip
The concept of placing the output on the rung first and then “looking back” to
determine the input conditions is very important. Because of the way the diagram is
configured, one has a tendency to consider the input conditions first and then
position the output coil as the last step. As will be shown later, the coil or negated
coil instruction referring to a particular output must only occur once in a ladder
program. Considering the output coil first and the conditions for which it is active
(on) will avoid repeating coils.

Example 2.5. Draw a ladder diagram that is equivalent to the digital logic diagram in Figure
2.11, which is the same as the following descriptions.

SS2 PB4 LS3 PL2

( )

Figure 2.10. Solution to Example 2.4.

40 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

A
B
C

D Y
E

Figure 2.11. Digital logic for Example 2.5.

In words:
Y is on when (A is on and B is on and C is off) or D is on or E is off.
Boolean logic equation:
Y= ABC+ D+ E
Solution. First, answer, “What is the output?” The output is Y, so the coil labeled as Y is put
on the right side of the rung. Secondly, consider the type of connection of contacts to use.
For this problem, there is more than one type of connection. The three inputs within the
parentheses (the AND gate in Figure 2.11) are connected with “and,” so a series connection
is required for these three contacts. The other two inputs (D and E) are connected with the
three series contacts by “or” (the OR gate inputs), so a parallel connection is required.
Thirdly, the type of contact is determined by the input state that turns on the output, Y:

A on à D on à

B on à E off à

C off à

Putting all the parts together, only one rung of ladder logic is needed, as shown in Figure
2.12.
Suppose one changes the D contact in Figure 2.12 to refer to Y, the output (shown as
Figure 2.13). Is this legitimate? Yes, it is legitimate, though probably not something one

A B C Y
( )
D

Figure 2.12. Solution to Example 2.5.

 2.4 LADDER LOGIC DIAGRAM 41

A B C Y
( )
Y

Figure 2.13. Output that appears as an input.

would want to do for this example. Even in relay ladder logic, it is legal and there is no
wiring short because the coil for relay Y and its NO contact are not connected. This concept
is called sealing or latching an output without using the set (or latch) coil instruction. In this
example, it is not a good idea because once Y is sealed on, there is no provision to turn it off.
Why?
There are some precautions to observe when programming in ladder logic:
1. DO NOT repeat normal output coils or negated coils that refer to the same tag. To
illustrate what happens when this is done, consider the ladder logic diagram in
Figure 2.14. This is the ladder of Figure 2.9, modified for this illustration. Note
that the coils for both the first and second rung refer to Out1. When the first rung of
the ladder is scanned, Out1 is turned on. However, when the second rung is
scanned, Out1 is turned off, overriding the logic in the first rung. If all of these
conditions are needed to turn on Out1, then they all should be placed in parallel, as
in Figure 2.15. In this illustration, it was obvious there is a problem. Normally,

A on B on C on Out1 on
( )
D on E on

F on E on K off Out1 off

( )
H on

E on Out3 off
( )
H on Out4 off
( )

Figure 2.14. Ladder with repeated output.

42 Basic Ladder Logic Programming

A on B on C on Out1 on
( )
D on E on

F on E on K off

H on

E on Out3 off
( )
H on Out4 off
( )

Figure 2.15. Repeated output corrected.

when this problem occurs, the rungs are not adjacent, and it is not so obvious.
Compounding the problem, not all PLC programming software checks for this
situation. Therefore, the best way to prevent this problem is to consider the output
coil first and then consider all of the conditions that drive that output.
2. Use the set (latch) coil and reset (unlatch) coil instructions together. If a set coil
refers to an output, there should also be a reset coil for that output. Also, for the
same reason that output coil and negated coil instructions should not be repeated,
do not mix the set/reset coils with the output coil and negated coil instructions that
refer to the same output.
3. Be careful when using the set/reset coil instructions to reference PLC physical
outputs. If the system involves safety and a set coil is used for a PLC physical
output, simply interrupting the condition on the set coil rung will not turn off the
physical output. All of the conditions that prevent the device from being turned on
must also appear on a rung with a reset coil output. For this reason, some
companies forbid the use of the set/reset coil instructions.
4. Reverse power flow in the contact matrix is not allowed. When electromechanical
relays are used to implement ladder logic, power can flow either way through the
contacts. For example, consider the ladder logic in Figure 2.16. If implemented
with electromechanical relays, power is allowed to flow right-to-left through the
contact for SS2. When solid state relays replaced electromechanical relays for
ladder logic, power can flow only one way (left-to-right) through the contacts.
This restriction was carried to PLC ladder logic. If the reverse power flow path is
truly needed, then insert it as a separate path, where the power flows from left to
right. The reverse power flow path in Figure 2.16 is added as a separate path in
Figure 2.17.
 2.5 PLC PROCCESSOR SCAN 43

LS1 SS1 PS1 PL1

( )
SS2 PS2

LS2 Reverse
Power Flow

Figure 2.16. Reverse power flow in ladder logic.

LS1 SS1 PS1 PL1

( )
SS2 PS2

LS2 SS2 SS1 PS1

LS2 PS2

Figure 2.17. Reverse power flow in ladder logic corrected.

2.5 PLC PROCCESSOR SCAN

Previously, the process that the PLC uses to scan the ladder logic has only been
implied. Now it will be discussed in detail. In addition to scanning the ladder logic, the PLC
processor must also read the state of its physical inputs and set the state of the physical
outputs. These three major tasks in a PLC processor scan are executed in the following
order:
Read the physical inputs
Scan the ladder logic program
Write the physical outputs
The processor repeats these tasks as long as it is running, as shown pictorially in Figure
2.18. The time required to complete these three tasks is defined as the scan time and is
typically 1 - 200 milliseconds, depending on the length of the ladder logic program. For
very large ladder logic programs, the scan time can be more than one second. When this
happens, the PLC program may miss transient events, especially if they are shorter than one
second. In this situation, the possible solutions are: