NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
Complete Study Notes
Section B
1. Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei with emission of
radiation and energy.
Types of Radioactive Decay
a) Alpha (α) Decay
• An alpha particle (42He) is emitted from the nucleus
• Mass number decreases by 4; atomic number decreases by 2
Example: 23892U → 23490Th + 42He + Energy
b) Beta (β■) Decay
• A neutron converts into a proton with emission of an electron and antineutrino
Example: 146C → 147N + β■ + ν■
c) Gamma (γ) Decay
• Excited nucleus emits high-energy gamma rays
• No change in atomic number or mass number
Example: 6027Co* → 6027Co + γ
2. Nuclear Fuel
Nuclear fuel is the material used to produce energy through fission.
Characteristics
• High fission probability
• High energy output
Examples
• Uranium-235
• Plutonium-239
• Uranium-233
Uses
• Power generation
• Research reactors
3. Moderator
A moderator slows down fast neutrons to thermal neutrons for efficient fission.
Properties
• Low neutron absorption
• High scattering ability
Common Moderators
• Heavy water
• Graphite
Function
Improves probability of chain reaction.
4. Coolant
Coolant removes heat from the reactor core.
Properties
• Good heat transfer
• Non-corrosive
Examples
• Water
• CO2
• Liquid sodium
Function
Transfers heat to steam generator.
5. Radioactive Decay Law
Let N = number of radioactive atoms at time t. Rate of decay is proportional to number of atoms present:
dN/dt = −λN
where λ = decay constant
Separating variables: dN/N = −λ dt
Integrating: ln N = −λt + C
At t = 0, N = N0 → ln N0 = C
N = N0 e−λt
• N0 = initial number of atoms
• N = remaining atoms after time t
This is the Radioactive Decay Law.
6. Chain Reaction
A chain reaction is a continuous, self-sustained nuclear fission process.
Principle
When a heavy nucleus like U-235 absorbs a neutron, it splits into smaller nuclei and releases energy and
more neutrons.
Process
• Neutron strikes U-235 nucleus
• Nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei
• 2 or 3 neutrons and energy are released
• Released neutrons cause further fission
• Reaction continues automatically
Types
• Controlled chain reaction → Nuclear reactor
• Uncontrolled chain reaction → Atomic bomb
Applications
• Power generation
• Nuclear weapons
7. Four-Factor Formula
Gives the neutron multiplication factor (k) in an infinite reactor:
k=ηfpε
Factors
• η (Reproduction factor): Number of fast neutrons produced per thermal neutron absorbed in fuel
• f (Thermal utilization factor): Fraction of thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel
• p (Resonance escape probability): Probability that neutrons escape resonance absorption
• ε (Fast fission factor): Accounts for additional neutrons produced by fast fission
Importance
• Determines reactor criticality
• Helps in reactor design
8. U-235 vs Pu-239 Comparison
Property U-235 Pu-239
Nature Naturally occurring Artificially produced
Source Uranium ore Produced from U-238
Fission Type Thermal neutron fission Thermal neutron fission
Efficiency Moderate High
9. Gamma Ray Interactions with Matter
Gamma rays interact with matter mainly by:
a) Photoelectric Effect
• Gamma photon transfers all energy to electron
• Electron is ejected
b) Compton Scattering
• Photon transfers part of energy to electron
• Scattered photon continues with lower energy
c) Pair Production
• High-energy gamma photon produces electron-positron pair
Effects
• Ionization
• Radiation damage
Shielding
Lead and concrete are commonly used.
Applications
• Cancer therapy
• Industrial radiography
10. Neutron Reactions
Neutron reactions occur when neutrons interact with nuclei.
a) Elastic Scattering
• Neutron collides without capture; kinetic energy is conserved
n+A→n+A
b) Inelastic Scattering
• Nucleus absorbs some energy and becomes excited
n + A → A* + n
c) Radiative Capture
• Nucleus captures neutron and emits gamma ray
n + A → A+1 + γ
d) Fission Reaction
• Heavy nucleus splits into smaller nuclei
235
U + n → Fission fragments + Energy
11. Radiation Shielding
Radiation shielding materials protect people and equipment from harmful radiation exposure.
Characteristics
• High density
• Durability
Common Shielding Materials
a) Lead
• High density
• Used against gamma rays and X-rays
b) Concrete
• Cheap and strong
• Used in reactor buildings
c) Water
• Good neutron absorber
• Used in reactors
Applications
• Nuclear reactors
• Hospitals
12. Construction and Working of Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device used to maintain a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction and produce heat
energy, which is converted into electrical energy.
Important Components
a) Nuclear Fuel
• Uranium-235 is used as nuclear fuel
• Fission of U-235 produces heat energy
b) Moderator
• Slows down fast neutrons produced during fission
• Graphite and heavy water are commonly used
c) Control Rods
• Absorb excess neutrons and control the reaction
• Made of boron or cadmium
d) Coolant
• Removes heat from the reactor core
• Water, heavy water, helium, and liquid sodium are used
e) Reflector
• Sends escaping neutrons back to the reactor core
• Improves reactor efficiency
f) Shielding
• Thick concrete or lead shielding prevents harmful radiation leakage
g) Cladding
• Fuel elements are covered with a protective coating called cladding
Working
• 1. Uranium-235 fuel undergoes nuclear fission when bombarded by neutrons
• 2. During fission, large heat energy and fast neutrons are released
• 3. Moderator slows down fast neutrons to continue the chain reaction effectively
• 4. Control rods absorb excess neutrons and maintain the reaction under control
• 5. Coolant absorbs heat from the reactor core and transfers it to the steam generator
• 6. In the steam generator, water is converted into steam
• 7. Steam is passed to the turbine
• 8. Turbine rotates the generator and electrical energy is produced
• 9. Exhaust steam is condensed in the condenser and reused
• 10. Shielding prevents harmful radiations from escaping into the atmosphere
13. PWR vs BWR vs FBR Comparison
Feature PWR BWR FBR
Fuel used Enriched U-235 Enriched U-235 U-235 and U-238
Moderator Light water Light water No moderator
Coolant Pressurized light water Light water Liquid sodium / Na-K alloy
Working Principle
Water under high pressure carries heat to steam
Watergenerator
boils directly inside reactorFast
coreneutrons convert U-238 into Pu-239
Steam Generation Separate steam generator Directly in reactor vessel Through heat exchanger
Operating Pressure Very high pressure Lower than PWR Low pressure
Efficiency Moderate Higher than PWR Very high
Control Stable and easy More safety precautions needed Difficult due to fast neutrons
Advantage Safe and stable operations Simple design, better efficiencyProduces more fuel than it consumes
Disadvantage High construction cost Possibility of turbine contamination Very costly and complex
14. Applications of Nuclear Technology
Nuclear technology refers to the use of radioactive substances and nuclear reactions for peaceful and
beneficial purposes.
a) Applications in Medicine
Diagnosis
• Radioisotopes detect diseases and study organ functioning
• Technetium-99m is widely used in scanning organs such as the heart, liver, and kidneys
Treatment of Diseases
• Radiation destroys harmful cells
• Cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy for cancer treatment
Medical Research
• Radioisotopes help researchers study body metabolism and blood circulation
b) Applications in Agriculture
Mutation Breeding
• Radiation helps develop high-yield and disease-resistant crop varieties
Pest Control
• Sterile insects produced using radiation help reduce harmful pests
Food Preservation
• Gamma rays preserve food and increase shelf life by killing bacteria and insects
c) Applications in Industry
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
• Gamma rays detect cracks and defects in metal structures and pipelines
Thickness Measurement
• Beta radiation measures the thickness of paper, plastic, and metal sheets
Power Generation
• Nuclear reactors generate electricity using nuclear fission
15. Radiation Protection and Safety Measures
Radiation protection is the process of reducing harmful effects of ionizing radiation on human beings and
the environment.
Principles of Radiation Protection
a) Time
• Exposure time to radiation should be minimized
• Less time = less radiation dose
b) Distance
• Greater distance from the radiation source reduces exposure
c) Shielding
• Protective materials are used to block radiation
• Lead, concrete, and water are commonly used as shields
Safety Measures
Protective Equipment
• Lead aprons, gloves, and goggles are used for protection
• Film badges or dosimeters measure radiation exposure
Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials
• Radioactive substances are stored in sealed containers
• Tongs and remote devices are used for handling
Monitoring Radiation
• Radiation levels are checked using Geiger-Muller counters and dosimeters
Controlled Areas
• Radiation zones must have warning signs and restricted entry
Proper Disposal of Waste
• Radioactive waste should be safely stored and disposed of to avoid environmental contamination
16. Waste Management of Radioactive Materials
Radioactive waste management is the safe handling, treatment, storage, and disposal of radioactive waste
produced from nuclear reactors, hospitals, and industries.
Types of Radioactive Waste
Type Description Example
Low-Level Waste (LLW) Contains low radioactivity Paper, clothes
Intermediate-Level Waste (ILW) Higher radioactivity; requires shielding during handling
Reactor components
High-Level Waste (HLW) Highly radioactive; produces heat Spent nuclear fuel
Steps in Radioactive Waste Management
• Collection and Segregation: Waste is collected and separated according to its radioactivity and
physical form.
• Treatment: Solid waste → compacted or incinerated; Liquid waste → filtered and chemically treated;
Gaseous waste → cleaned using filters and scrubbers.
• Conditioning: Waste is converted into a stable form using cementation or bituminization.
• Storage: High-level waste is stored in cooling pools or dry casks.
• Transportation: Waste is transported in sealed and shielded containers following safety regulations.
• Disposal: Near-surface disposal (low-level waste); Deep geological disposal (high-level waste).
Safety Measures
• Use of lead and concrete shielding
• Radiation monitoring
17. History and Development of Nuclear Energy
Early Discoveries (1890s–1930s)
• 1896: Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity
• Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered radium and polonium
• Ernest Rutherford explained the structure of the atom in 1911
• James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932
Discovery of Nuclear Fission (1938–1939)
• Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission in uranium in 1938
• Lise Meitner explained the fission process
• Showed that splitting atoms could release huge amounts of energy
First Nuclear Reactor (1942)
• Enrico Fermi built the first nuclear reactor called Chicago Pile-1 in the USA
• This was the first controlled nuclear chain reaction — the birth of practical nuclear energy
World War II and Atomic Bomb (1940s)
• The Manhattan Project developed the first atomic bomb
• In 1945, atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• Led to global awareness and regulation of nuclear energy
Development of Nuclear Power (1950s–1970s)
• In 1954, the first nuclear power plant was built at Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant
• In 1957, Shippingport Atomic Power Station became the first commercial nuclear power station
• Nuclear energy began to be used for electricity generation
Expansion and Safety Concerns
• Many countries developed nuclear power plants
• Accidents such as Three Mile Island and Chernobyl disaster led to stricter safety regulations
Modern Era (2000s–Present)
• Development of advanced reactors (Generation III & IV)
• Development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
• Research on nuclear fusion (e.g., ITER project)
18. Interaction of Radiation with Matter
a) Alpha (α) Particles
Alpha particles are helium nuclei with +2 charge and large mass.
Nature of Interaction
• Interact strongly with orbital electrons due to Coulomb force
• Produce heavy ionization and excitation of atoms
• Due to larger mass, paths are straight
Energy Loss Mechanisms
• Ionization — removing electrons from atoms
• Excitation — raising electrons to higher energy levels
Characteristics
• Very high ionizing power
• Very low penetrating power
Applications
• Smoke detectors
• Cancer therapy
b) Beta (β) Particles
Beta particles are fast-moving electrons.
Nature of Interaction
• Interact with electrons and nuclei of atoms
• Due to smaller mass, paths are zigzag
Energy Loss Mechanisms
• Ionization and Excitation
• Bremsstrahlung Radiation — emitted when beta particles are deflected by nuclei
Characteristics
• Medium ionizing power
• Medium penetrating power
Applications
• Medical tracers
• Industrial radiography
c) Gamma (γ) Radiation
Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves with no charge and no mass.
Nature of Interaction
• Interact indirectly with matter
• Transfer energy to electrons of atoms
Characteristics
• Low ionizing power
• Very high penetrating power
19. Breeder Reactor
A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that produces more fissile fuel than it consumes. It converts fertile
material like Uranium-238 into fissile fuel such as Plutonium-239.
Main Parts
• Reactor Core: Contains fissile fuel like U-235 or Pu-239
• Blanket Region: Surrounds the core; contains fertile material (U-238 or Th-232)
• Coolant: Liquid sodium is commonly used to remove heat from the core
• Control Rods: Made of cadmium or boron to control the rate of nuclear reaction
• Heat Exchanger and Turbine: Convert heat energy into electrical energy
Working
• Nuclear fission occurs in the reactor core
• Fast neutrons released during fission produce heat energy
• Some neutrons convert fertile material into fissile fuel in the blanket region
• Coolant carries heat to the heat exchanger
• Steam produced runs the turbine to generate electricity
• Newly formed fissile material is reused as fuel
Reaction: 23892U + n → 23994Pu
Advantages
• Produces more fuel than it consumes
• Generates large amount of energy
• Efficient utilization of uranium resources
• Helps reduce radioactive waste
20. Criticality Conditions
Criticality is the condition in which a nuclear chain reaction becomes self-sustaining. The minimum amount
of fissile material required to maintain this reaction is called critical mass.
A nuclear chain reaction depends on the multiplication factor (k):
k = Number of neutrons in one generation / Number of neutrons in previous
generation
a) Subcritical Condition (k < 1)
• Number of neutrons decreases
• Chain reaction stops gradually
b) Critical Condition (k = 1)
• Neutron population remains constant
• Chain reaction becomes steady and self-sustaining
c) Supercritical Condition (k > 1)
• Number of neutrons increases
• Energy production increases continuously
Factors Affecting Critical Mass
• Type of fuel: Different isotopes have different fission probabilities
• Shape of material: A sphere has the lowest critical mass
• Density of fuel: Higher density → lower critical mass
• Presence of moderator: Slow neutrons increase chance of fission
• Neutron reflectors: Materials like graphite or beryllium reduce neutron loss
21. Nuclear Fuel Cycle
The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of processes involved in the preparation, use, and disposal of nuclear
fuel used in nuclear reactors for power generation.
Steps in Nuclear Fuel Cycle
• Mining and Milling: Uranium ore is mined from the earth; processed to produce yellow cake (U3O8)
• Conversion and Enrichment: Uranium is converted into UF6 gas; concentration of U-235 is
increased from 0.7% to about 3-5%
• Fuel Fabrication: Enriched uranium is converted into UO2 pellets; pellets are packed into metal
tubes called fuel rods
• Reactor Operation: Fuel rods are placed inside the reactor; nuclear fission produces heat energy;
heat is used to produce steam and generate electricity
• Spent Fuel Storage: Used fuel becomes radioactive and is stored in cooling pools or dry containers
• Reprocessing: Useful uranium and plutonium are recovered from spent fuel for reuse
• Waste Disposal: Radioactive waste is sealed and buried safely underground
Types of Fuel Cycle
• Open Fuel Cycle: Spent fuel is disposed of directly
• Closed Fuel Cycle: Spent fuel is reprocessed and reused
Advantages
• Produces large amount of energy
• Conserves fuel resources
Disadvantages
• Produces radioactive waste
• High handling cost