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Fresh Notes – Foundation Engineering & Soil Exploration

1. Soil Exploration / Subsoil Investigation
Purpose: Soil exploration is done for:
• New structures
• Existing structures
• Foundations
• Natural slopes
• Pile foundations
Objectives
• Determine bearing capacity
• Predict settlement
• Study groundwater condition
• Select suitable foundation type
• Check safety of existing structures
Planning of Exploration
Consider:
• Purpose of structure
• Existing nearby structures
• Topographical data
• Geological data
• Hydrological data
• Type and condition of soil
Depth of Exploration
Shallow Foundation: Depth ≈ 1.5B to 2B (B = width of footing)
Pile Foundation: Depth below pile tip ≈ 2 times pile width
Raft Foundation: Depth ≈ 1.5 to 2 times smaller raft dimension
2. Methods of Soil Exploration
Direct Methods
Trial Pit
• Simple and economical
• Used for shallow depth
• Gives undisturbed sample
Limitation: Not suitable for deep exploration
Semi-Direct Methods
Auger Boring
Types: Hand auger, Spiral auger
Suitable for: Soft clay, Silty soil
Boring Methods
Wash Boring: Water jet loosens soil
• Suitable for sand and soft clay
Percussion Drilling
• Chisel breaks hard layer
• Used in hard strata
Rotary Drilling
• Rotary cutting action
• Fast method
• Used in rock
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3. Stabilization of Bore Hole
Methods:
1. Casing
2. Bentonite slurry
Bentonite Slurry
• Prevents collapse of bore hole
• Creates hydrostatic pressure
4. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Purpose
Used to determine:
• Relative density of sand
• Strength of soil
Equipment
Split spoon sampler:
• Outer diameter = 50.8 mm
• Inner diameter = 34.93 mm
Procedure
Hammer:
• Weight = 63.5 kg
• Drop = 750 mm
SPT value: 𝑁 = 𝑁2 + 𝑁3
where:
• First 15 cm = seating drive
• Next 30 cm = penetration resistance
5. Corrections in SPT
𝐸𝑅
Energy Correction 𝑁60 = 𝑁 × 60
Overburden Correction 𝑁 ′ = 𝐶𝑁 𝑁
2000
𝐶𝑁 = 0.77log⁡ ( )
𝜎𝑣′
Dilatancy Correction
Applied when: Saturated fine sand/silt
• 𝑁 ′ > 15
1
𝑁𝑐 = 15 + (𝑁 ′ − 15)
2
6. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
Purpose
• Determine variation of soil strength
• Estimate bearing capacity
Features: Economical, Quick field test
7. Soil Sampling
Types of Samples
Disturbed Sample
• Structure disturbed
• Used for classification
Undisturbed Sample
• Natural structure maintained
• Used for shear and consolidation tests
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8. Samplers
Thin Wall Sampler
Area ratio:
𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑖2
𝐴𝑟 = × 100
𝐷𝑖2
For good undisturbed sample: 𝐴𝑟 < 10%
𝐿
Recovery Ratio 𝑅𝑟 = 𝐿 × 100
𝑠
9. Shallow Foundation
𝐷𝑓
Condition ≤1
𝐵
where:
• 𝐷𝑓 = depth of foundation
• 𝐵= width
𝐷𝑓
If: >1
𝐵
→ Deep foundation
10. Loads on Foundation
Types:
• Vertical load
• Shear load
• Moment
• Tension
Sources:
• Dead load
• Live load
• Wind load
• Earthquake load
• Temperature load
11. Types of Shallow Foundation
Spread Footing: Supports single column
Combined Footing: Supports two or more columns
Strap Footing: Connected by strap beam
Mat / Raft Foundation: Supports entire structure
Grillage Foundation: Used for heavy steel columns
Shell Foundation: Curved shell action
Skirted Foundation: Has skirt walls for confinement
12. Bearing Capacity
𝑃
Gross Pressure 𝑞 = 𝐴
Net Pressure 𝑞𝑛 = 𝑞 − 𝛾𝐷𝑓
13. Ultimate Bearing Capacity
Maximum pressure before shear failure.
Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Equation
1
For strip footing: 𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 2 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
Where: 𝑐= cohesion
• 𝛾= unit weight
• 𝐷𝑓 = depth
• 𝐵= footing width
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14. Modes of Shear Failure
General Shear Failure
• Dense sand/stiff clay
• Sudden failure
• Distinct failure surface
Local Shear Failure
• Medium dense soil
• Partial failure surface
Punching Shear Failure
• Loose sand/soft clay
• Sudden penetration
15. Terzaghi Assumptions
• Strip footing
• Rough base
• Homogeneous soil
• Vertical load
• Shear failure develops fully
16. Meyerhof Bearing Capacity Theory
1
General equation: 𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 𝑠𝑐 𝑑𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 𝑠𝑞 𝑑𝑞 + 2 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 𝑠𝛾 𝑑𝛾
Includes:
• Shape factors
• Depth factors
17. Effect of Water Table
Water table near foundation:
• Reduces effective stress
• Reduces bearing capacity
Correction applied to:
• Unit weight term
18. Footing on Slopes
Bearing capacity decreases when footing is near slope because:
• Passive resistance reduces
• Soil confinement decreases
19. Plate Load Test
Purpose
• Determine bearing capacity
• Estimate settlement
Plate Size
Generally: 30 cm to 75 cm
Limitation
• Suitable only for shallow depth
• Not reliable in layered soil
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20. Settlement
Types
1. Immediate settlement
2. Consolidation settlement
3. Secondary settlement
Total settlement: 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖 + 𝑆𝑐 + 𝑆𝑠
where:
• 𝑆𝑖 = immediate settlement
• 𝑆𝑐 = consolidation settlement
• 𝑆𝑠 = secondary settlement
21. Differential Settlement
Occurs when:
• Adjacent footings settle differently
Effects:
• Cracks
• Tilting
• Structural damage

Fresh Notes – Pile Foundation & Ground Improveme

1. Capacity of Pile
Types of Pile Capacity
1. Structural capacity
2. Geotechnical capacity
Ultimate pile capacity: 𝑃𝑢 = 𝑃𝑏𝑢 + 𝑃𝑠𝑢 − 𝑊
Where:
• 𝑃𝑢 = ultimate pile load
• 𝑃𝑏𝑢 = base resistance
• 𝑃𝑠𝑢 = skin friction resistance
• 𝑊= self weight of pile
2. End Bearing Resistance
For pile base resistance: 𝑃𝑏𝑢 = 𝐴𝑏 (𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 )
Where:
• 𝐴𝑏 = base area
• 𝑐= cohesion
• 𝑞 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓
• 𝐵= diameter of pile
3. Skin Friction Resistance
In Clay : 𝑃𝑠𝑢 = ∑𝛼𝐶𝑢 𝐴𝑠
Where:
• 𝛼= adhesion factor
• 𝐶𝑢 = undrained cohesion
• 𝐴𝑠 = surface area
In Sand : 𝑃𝑠𝑢 = ∑𝐾𝜎𝑣′ tan⁡ 𝛿 𝐴𝑠
Where:
• 𝐾= earth pressure coefficient
• 𝛿= angle of friction between soil and pile
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4. Critical Depth in Sand
Skin friction increases up to critical depth only.
Critical depth:
• Loose sand → about 10𝐷
• Dense sand → about 20𝐷
Where:
• 𝐷= pile diameter
5. Pile Driving Formula
Engineering News Formula:
Driving energy relation: 𝑊𝐻 = 𝑄(𝑆 + 𝐶)
Thus,
𝑊𝐻
𝑄=
𝑆+𝐶
Where:
• 𝑊= hammer weight
• 𝐻= fall height
• 𝑆= penetration per blow
• 𝐶= empirical constant
Safe Load Formula
Using factor of safety:
𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 =
𝐹(𝑆 + 𝐶)

For Engineering News formula:

2𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 =
6(𝑆 + 𝐶)
6. Types of Pile
End Bearing Pile
Transfers load to hard stratum.
Friction Pile
Transfers load through skin friction.
Combined Action Pile
Load transferred by both:
• End bearing
• Skin friction
7. Pile Spacing
Recommended spacing:
• 3𝐷to 7𝐷
Where:
• 𝐷= pile diameter
Closer spacing:
• Causes group action
Large spacing:
• Causes individual action
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8. Pile Group Efficiency
Group Capacity
𝜂=
ΣIndividual Pile Capacity
Converse-Labarre Formula
𝜃[(𝑛1 − 1)𝑛2 + (𝑛2 − 1)𝑛1 ]
𝜂 =1−
90𝑛1 𝑛2
Where:
• 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 = number of rows and columns
• 𝜃 = tan⁡−1 (𝑑/𝑠)
9. Group Capacity of Piles
Two failure possibilities:
1. Individual pile failure
2. Block failure
Ultimate group capacity: 𝑄𝑔 = min⁡(𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 , 𝑄𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 )
10. Block Failure
For clay: 𝑄𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 𝐴𝑏 (𝑐𝑁𝑐 ) + 𝑃 × 𝐿 × 𝐶
Where:
• 𝐴𝑏 = base area
• 𝑃= perimeter
• 𝐿= pile length
11. Settlement of Pile Group
Settlement increases due to:
• Overlapping stress zones
• Group interaction
For friction pile group:
• Settlement is generally larger.
12. Ground Improvement
Objectives
• Increase shear strength
• Reduce settlement
• Increase bearing capacity
• Improve stability
13. Vibro Compaction
Suitable for:
• Granular soil
• Sand deposits
Not suitable for:
• Clay soil
Principle: Vibration rearranges particles into denser state.
14. Vibroflotation
A vibrating probe is inserted into soil.
Effects:
• Densification
• Reduction in void ratio
Typical depth improvement:
• Up to 35 m
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15. Dynamic Compaction
Heavy weight dropped repeatedly from height.
Important parameters:
• Weight of hammer
• Drop height
• Number of blows
• Grid spacing
Depth of improvement approximately: 𝐷 ∝ √𝑊𝐻
Where:
• 𝑊= hammer weight
• 𝐻= drop height
16. Blasting Method
Used in: Granular soils
Principle: Explosive energy densifies soil
Not effective in: Saturated cohesive soil
17. Grouting
Purpose
• Fill voids
• Reduce permeability
• Increase strength
Types of Grout
• Cement grout
• Chemical grout
Cement Grout Mix
Typical ratio: Cement : Sand = 1:3 to 1:9
Water-cement ratio: 0.4 to 1.0
18. Pressure Grouting
Grout injected under pressure.
Applications:
• Underpinning
• Crack filling
• Soil stabilization
19. Compaction by Rollers
Used for:
• Earth embankment
• Pavement work
Effects:
• Increases density
• Reduces air voids
20. Dynamic Compaction Field Layout
Grid spacing depends on:
• Soil condition
• Required depth
• Energy applied
Closer spacing:
• Better densification
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21. Important Exam Points
Short Notes
• End bearing pile
• Friction pile
• Group efficiency
• Block failure
• Vibro compaction
• Grouting
• Dynamic compaction
Important Formulae
Pile Capacity 𝑃𝑢 = 𝑃𝑏𝑢 + 𝑃𝑠𝑢 − 𝑊
𝑊𝐻
Driving Formula𝑄 = 𝑆+𝐶
𝑄𝑔
Group Efficiency: 𝜂 =
𝑛𝑄𝑝
Block Capacity: 𝑄𝑏 = 𝐴𝑏 (𝑐𝑁𝑐 ) + 𝑃𝐿𝑐
22. Key Differences
End Bearing Pile Friction Pile
Transfers load to hard stratum Transfers load by skin friction
Used where strong layer exists Used in deep soft soil
Settlement less Settlement more

23. Quick Revision Points

• Skin friction develops along pile surface.
• End bearing develops at pile tip.
• Group action reduces efficiency.
• Vibro methods are best for sand.
• Grouting improves weak soil.
• Dynamic compaction suitable for granular soil.
• Block failure common in closely spaced piles.