AnAtomy of flowering PlAnts

Tissue Systems in Plants

1. Epidermal Tissue System
• Definition: Outermost protective covering of the entire plant body.
• Composition: Epidermal cells, stomata, epidermal appendages (trichomes & hairs).
Epidermis
• Single-layered, parenchymatous, covered by a cuticle (waxy layer) to prevent water loss.
• Cells usually compactly arranged, lack intercellular spaces.
• May be interrupted by stomata and epidermal appendages.
Stomata
• Present in epidermis of leaves & young stems.
• Function: Regulate transpiration & gaseous exchange.
• Structure:
o Dicots → Bean-shaped guard cells.
o Monocots → Dumbbell-shaped guard
cells.
• Guard cells contain chloroplasts and are
responsible for stomatal movement.
• Subsidiary cells surround guard cells.
• Stomatal apparatus = Stomatal pore + Guard cells + Subsidiary cells.
Epidermal Appendages
• Root hairs → Unicellular outgrowths of root epidermal cells; increase water & mineral absorption.
• Trichomes (stem hairs) → Multicellular, branched/unbranched; may be glandular/non-glandular; protect
against transpiration, grazing, and excess light.

2. Ground Tissue System

• Definition: All tissues between the epidermis and vascular bundles.
• Composition: Mostly simple permanent tissues (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma).
• Functions: Photosynthesis, storage, mechanical support.
Distribution
• Stem & Roots: Pericycle, cortex, pith, medullary rays.
• Leaves: Mesophyll (contains chloroplasts; site of photosynthesis).
o Palisade parenchyma → Columnar cells, more chloroplasts (photosynthesis).
o Spongy parenchyma → Loosely arranged, facilitates gaseous exchange.

3. Vascular Tissue System

• Definition: Complex permanent tissue system forming vascular bundles.
• Components:
o Xylem → Conducts water & minerals (tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma, xylem fibres).
o Phloem → Conducts food (sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, phloem fibres).
Types of Vascular Bundles
a) Radial → Xylem & phloem arranged on different radii (roots).
Conjoint → Xylem & phloem on the same radius (stems & leaves).
Collateral: Phloem outside, xylem inside (most common).
 b) Conjoint Closed → Xylem & phloem on same radius, cambium absent, no secondary
growth. (Monocot stems – maize)
c) Conjoint Open → Xylem & phloem on same radius, cambium present, allows
secondary growth. (Dicot stems – sunflower)

Bicollateral: Phloem on both sides of xylem (e.g., Cucurbita).

Concentric: One vascular tissue surrounded by the other.
▪ Amphivasal: Phloem surrounded by xylem. Ex: Yucca
▪ Amphicribral: Xylem surrounded by phloem. Ex: Fern

Dicots (Bean shaped) Monocots (Dumb-bell shaped)

• Epidermis also contains a number of hairs. Root hairs are unicellular elongation of
epidermal cells. Trichomes are present on stems, which are multicellular, branched or
un-branched preventing water loss due to transpiration.
The ground Tissue System
• All the tissue between epidermis and vascular bundle forms the ground tissues. It consists of simple
permanent tissues. Parenchyma is present in pericycle, cortex, pith and medullary rays in stem and roots.
• In leaves the mesophyll, chloroplast containing cell, forms the ground tissues.

Dicotyledonous (Dicot) Root – Primary Root (Ex- Sunflower)

• Epidermis (Epiblema): Single outer layer with unicellular root hairs; no cuticle or stomata.
• Cortex: Many layers of thin-walled parenchyma with intercellular spaces; stores food.
• Endodermis: Single innermost layer of cortex with barrel-shaped cells -tangential and radial walls-
Casparian strips (suberin deposition-impervious to water) are present, especially opposite
protoxylem.
Stele: All tissues inside the endodermis, including:
• Pericycle: consisting of a few layers of thick-walled parenchymatous cells located below the
endodermis, gives rise to lateral roots and, opposite the protoxylem, forms interfascicular cambium
that joins to complete the cambial ring responsible for secondary growth.
• Vascular bundles: Few 2-4 (diarch to tetrarch, rarely polyarch), radially arranged; xylem and phloem
alternate.
Cambium: is not present in primary structure.
Conjunctive tissue
During secondary growth, cambium originates secondarily from: Conjunctive tissue (between xylem
and phloem) → (forms fascicular cambium & secondary xylem and phloem) → increases girth.
• Pith: Innermost region, small or inconspicuous.
Monocotyledonous (Monocot) Root (e.g., Maize)

• Epidermis (Epiblema): Single outer layer with root hairs.

• Cortex: Many layers of parenchyma with intercellular spaces.
• Endodermis also has barrel-shaped cells with Casparian strips. Passage cells are present here as
well.
• Pericycle: Single-layered, lies beneath endodermis; gives rise to lateral roots but not cambium.
• Vascular tissue: Radially arranged
o Xylem: Polyarch (more than six).
o Phloem: Alternates with xylem.
• Pith is large and well-developed.
• Cambium is absent → no secondary growth (in normal monocots), so endodermis remains intact
(clearly visible).
• Exception: Some monocots (e.g., Dracaena, Yucca) show anomalous secondary growth, but it is
due to a secondary thickening meristem, not typical cambium.

Dicotyledonous (Dicot) Stem

• Epidermis: Outermost protective layer, covered with a thin cuticle, may bear trichomes and few
stomata.
• Cortex: Multiple cell layers
between epidermis and pericycle,
consisting of 3 sub-zones:
1. Hypodermis: Outer zone
just below epidermis, few
layers of collenchyma,
provides mechanical.
2. Cortical layers: Below
hypodermis, rounded thin-
walled parenchyma cells
with conspicuous
intercellular spaces.
3. Endodermis: Innermost
layer, cells rich in starch
grains, hence also called
starch sheath.
• Stele: Consists of pericycle,
vascular bundles, medullary rays, and pith.
1. Pericycle: Inner to endodermis, above phloem, in semi-lunar patches of sclerenchyma.
2. Medullary rays: Few layers of radially placed parenchyma cells between vascular bundles.
3. Vascular bundles: Numerous, arranged in a ring (dicot stem-feature). Each is conjoint and
open. with endarch protoxylem.
Cambium: Present between xylem and phloem (fascicular cambium); later interfascicular
cambium arises, forming a continuous cambial ring → secondary growth.
4. Pith: Central portion, many rounded, parenchymatous cells with large intercellular spaces.
Monocotyledonous (Monocot) Stem
• Epidermis: Single outer protective layer with cuticle.
• Hypodermis: Sclerenchymatous, gives mechanical
strength.
• Ground tissue: Large, undifferentiated, parenchymatous,
occupies most of the stem.
• Vascular bundles: Numerous, scattered (atactostele),
each surrounded by sclerenchymatous bundle sheath.
• Peripheral bundles smaller, central ones larger.
• Bundles are conjoint, collateral, closed (no cambium).
• Protoxylem is endarch; water-filled cavities present in
vascular bundles due to lysed protoxylem.
• Phloem parenchyma: Absent.
• Cambium: Absent in vascular bundles (closed bundles) →
no secondary growth.
• Secondary growth: Absent (except anomalous cases like Dracaena, Yucca due to secondary
thickening meristem).

Dicotyledonous (Dorsiventral) Leaf

• Epidermis: Covers adaxial (upper) and abaxial (lower) surfaces; conspicuous cuticle present; abaxial
side with more stomata, adaxial with fewer or none.
• Mesophyll: Parenchymatous tissue with chloroplasts, two types –
• Palisade parenchyma: Adaxial, elongated, vertically arranged cells.
• Spongy parenchyma: Below palisade, oval/round, loosely arranged with large air spaces, extends
to lower epidermis.
• Vascular system: Veins and veinlets show reticulate venation; midrib prominent; vascular bundles
surrounded by large, thick-walled bundle sheath of parenchymatous cells. Conjoint, collateral, and
closed.
• Leaf shape: Broad, wide, with reticulate venation.

Monocotyledonous (Isobilateral) Leaf

• Its Anatomy is almost same as dicot leaf except as follow:

• Epidermis: Has stomata on both surfaces -adaxial (upper) and abaxial (lower).
• Mesophyll: Not differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
• The bundle sheath, which is prominent around the vein, is made up of parenchymatous cells,
and often has sclerenchymatous cells on the outer side for support; Kranz anatomy is commonly
seen in C4 monocot plants.
• In grasses, adaxial epidermal cells along the veins modify into large, empty, colourless cells called
Bulliform cells. When they absorb water- become turgid, & the leaf surface is exposed. When
they lose water- become flaccid, causing the leaves to curl inwards to minimize water loss.
• Vascular bundles: Similar in size, except for the main veins. Conjoint, collateral, and closed.
• Leaves are usually long & narrow with parallel venation & have nearly similar sizes of vascular
bundles.
 Biological Classification
The scientific procedure of arranging organisms into groups and subgroups on the basis of their similarities and
dissimilarities and placing the group in a hierarchy of categories.

Importance of classification-
• It is not possible to study every organism. Study of one or two organism of a group gives sufficient information
about the essential features of the group.
• It helps in identification of new organism.
• Classification helps in knowing the relationship amongst different groups of organisms.
• The organism of past cannot be studied without a proper system of classification.
Classification
• Artificial system of classification
• Natural system of classification
• Phylogenetic system of classification

Kingdom system of classification

• Earliest Classification: Aristotle used simple morphological characters

• Two Kingdom Classification: Organisms are grouped on the basis of presence and absence of cell wall as proposed
by Linnaeus. Plantae & Animalia

What were the demerits of two kingdom classification?

Ans: This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms and
photosynthetic (green algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms. A large number of organisms did not fall into
either category. Characteristics like cell structure, nature of wall, mode of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction,
evolutionary relationships, etc were also not included.

• Three kingdom : Plantae Protista Animalia

Haeckel separated unicellular animals, algae and fungi on the basis of lack of tissue differentiation and new
kingdom Protista was introduced.

• Five kingdom : Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animaila

Main criteria used by [Link] for classification include cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition,
reproduction and phylogenetic (evolutionary) relationships.

• Six Kingdom: Kingdom Monera was divided into two domains, leaving the remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in the
third domain and thereby a six-kingdom classification.
Kingdom Monera– (Sole member Bacteria) Includes all Unicellular prokaryotes (primitive living forms)
1. Most abundant- occur almost everywhere & can survive in all kinds of climate.
2. Majority are heterotrophs some are Autotrophs (Chemosynthetic & Photosynthetic)
3. Microscopic and cell wall is generally present.
4. Genetic materials are not organized into nucleus and contain naked DNA.
5. Membrane bounded organelles are absent.
6. Reproduction is asexual except gene recombination.
7. Flagella may be present and are of single stranded.
On the basis of shape classified as:

Spherical Shaped Rod Shaped Spiral Shaped Comma Shaped

Archaebacteria – Lives in Extreme condition. They differ from other bacteria in having different cell wall structure.
• Halophiles- Extreme Salty area
• Thermoacidophiles- Hot springs
• Methanogens- marshy area. Present in the gut of several ruminant animals like cows and buffalo, responsible for
production of biogas (methane).
Eubacteria – True bacteria.
They contain rigid cell wall
Photosynthetic Autotrophs- Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae) Chemosynthetic Autotrophs
• Have Chlorophyll A • Oxidised inorganic substances such as nitrates,
• Unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine or terrestrial algae. nitrites & ammonia and use released energy for
• Colonies are surrounded by Gelatinous sheath. ATP synthesis.
• Often blooms under polluted water. • Help recycling Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Iron &
• Some of them fix atmospheric Nitrogen with specialised cell called Sulphur.
Heterocyst’s. • Eg: Green Sulphur Bacteria, Purple Sulphur
• Eg: Nostoc & Anabaena Bacteria, Iron bacteria etc.

Heterotrophic bacteria- Most abundant

• Mostly act as decomposer.
• Some are helpful in production of curd- (Lactobacillus), antibiotic and fixing nitrogen in leguminous plants.
• Some are disease causing pathogen like cholera, typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker.
• Reproduce mainly by Fission. Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions produce spores.
• Also reproduce by sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other.
• Mycoplasma - smallest living cells that completely lack a cell wall, can survive without oxygen. Many are
pathogenic in animals and plants.

Kingdom Protista–It includes all unicellular and colonial eukaryotes.

1. Most of them are aquatic forming plankton.
2. Mode of nutrition may be photosynthetic, saprophytic, parasitic or holozoic.
3. Flagella if present are 11 stranded with 9+2 arrangement of microtubules composed of tubulin.
4. Genetic material consists of 2 or more DNA molecules.
Chrysophytes (Diatoms & Golden Algae(desmids)) - chief producer in oceans.
• Found in fresh water as well as marine water.
• Microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton) & mostly Photosynthetic.
• In diatoms cell wall forms two thin overlapping cells which fit together as in soap box.
• The siliceous indestructible cell wall pile up at the bottom of water reservoirs and this accumulation over billions of
years is referred to as diatomaceous earth.
• Being gritty this soil is used for polishing, filtration of oil and syrups.
 Dinoflagellates
• Motile, biflagellate and photosynthetic.
• Appears yellow, green, brown, red and even blue.
• The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
• Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally & other transversely in a
furrow between the wall plates.
• Red Dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax grow in large number in the sea and make the
water look red and cause the so called “red tide”. They release toxins that kill marine
animals.
Euglenoids-
• Possess protein rich layer- pellicle instead of cell wall which make their body flexible.
• Mainly freshwater organism, found in stagnant water.
• They have two flagella, one short and other long.
• Link between plant and animal as it shows Mixotrophic Nutrition- Photosynthetic in
presence of sunlight and heterotrophic (predating) in absence of sunlight.
• Example- Euglena, Peranema.
Slime Moulds
• Saprophytic and feeds on decaying twigs and leaves.
• Under favourable condition, forms aggregation called plasmodium which may grow to several feets.
• Under unfavourable condition produce fruiting bodies bearing spores (contains cell wall- resistant to extreme
condition)
• The spores are dispersed by air currents.
• Example- Physarum, Fuligo.
Protozoans
• All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
• They are considered as primitive relatives of animals.
Amoeboid Flagellated Ciliated Sporozoans
• Lives in freshwater, sea or • Free living or Parasite • Aquatic, actively moving • Diverse organism have
most soil. • Have Flagella (helps in • Have cavity (Gullet) open infectious spore like stage.
• Marine form have silica movement) outside cell surface.
shells on their surface.
Eg: Amoeba ( Catch its prey Eg: Trypanosoma (Sleeping Eg: Paramecium Eg: Plasmodium (malarial
using pseudopodia) Sickness) parasite)
Entamoeba (Parasite cause
Amoebic dysentery )

Kingdom Fungi–
• Lack chlorophyll, heterotrophic, spore forming, eukaryotic
• Cell wall is made up of chitin (amino acid) or
polysaccharides
• Reserved food is glycogen.
• Mode of nutrition is saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic.
• Reproduction may be vegetative (fragmentation, fission or
budding), asexual (conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores)
or sexual reproduction by oospores, ascospore and
basidiospores.
• Sexual cycles involves the following steps-
1. Plasmogamy, fusion of male and female gametes.
2. Karyogamy, fusion of two nuclei.
3. Meiosis in zygote to produce haploid spores.
Class of Fungi Hypha/ Type of Characteristic Origin of Characteristics & Example
Mycelium Reproduction of Spore Spore
Phycomycetes Aseptate Asexually Zoospore Endogenously • Found in Aquatic & Damp places or
Multinucleated (motile) in Sporangium as parasite on plants.
(Coenocytic) Aplanospore • Eg: Rhizopus (Bread Mould),
(Non-Motile) Albugo (Parasitic fungi on
Sexually Zygospore Formed by Mustard)
fusion of
Gametes
Isogamous
(similar)
Anisogamous/
Oogamous
(Dissimilar)
Ascomycetes Branched & Asexually Conidia Exogenously • Saprophytic, decomposer,
(Sac Fungi) Septate on parasitic & coprophilous (Cow
Conidiophores dung)
Sexually Ascospore Endogenously • Asci arranges to form Ascocarp
in Asci (Sac) (Fruiting Bodies)
• Eg: Unicellular- Saccharomyces
cervices (Yeast)
Multicellular: Penicillium,
Aspergillus
Neurospora (Biochemical &
genetic Work)
Morels & Truffles (Edible &
delicate)
Basidiomycetes Septate & Sexually Basidiospore Exogenously • Grow in soil, on log & tree stumps
(Bracket, Club or Branched on Basidia & as parasite on plants.
Puffball fungi) arranged in • Sexual Organ Absent but
fruiting plasmogamy occur by fusion of
bodies- two vegetative/somatic cells of
Basidiocarp. different genotypes result in
Dikaryotic structure that give rise
to Basidium.
• Karyogamy & meiosis occur in
basidium producing 4
Basidiospores
• Vegetative reproduction by
Fragmentation
• Eg: Agaricus (Mushroom),
Puccinia (Rust), Ustilago (smut)

Deuteromycetes Septate & Asexually Conidia Exogenously • Saprophytic, Parasitic, majority

(Imperfect Branched on are decomposer of litter & help in
Fungi) conidiophores mineral cycling.
• Sexual stages were transferred to
Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes.
• Eg: Alternaria, Trichoderma

Kingdom Plantae
1. Eukaryotic, Autotrophic-chlorophyll bearing organism with Cell Wall.
2. Life cycle is divided into diploid saprophytic and haploid gametophytic, which alternate with each other.
3. Kingdom Plantae includes Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
Kingdom Animalia
1. Heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and cell wall is absent in the cell.
2. Mode of nutrition is holozoic and reserve food is glycogen or fats.
3. Sexual reproduction is by copulation between male and female followed by embryological development.

Five kingdom system of classification do not includes Virus, Viroids and Lichens.

Virus are non-cellular organisms having inert crystalline structure outside the living. When they enter the living cell, they
take over the machinery of living cell to replicate themselves.
• [Link] recognized certain microbes as causal organism of mosaic disease of tobacco.
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material that could be DNA or RNA. In general, virus that infect
plants have single stranded RNA and virus that infect animals have double stranded DNA.
• Some common diseases caused by virus are common cold, influenza, AIDS, small pox, leaf rolling and curling.
• Bacteria feeding virus are called [Link] are usually double stranded DNA viruses.
• The protein coat called capsid is made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid. These
capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Viroids -discovered by [Link]

• New infectious agent smaller than virus causing potato spindle tuber disease.
• They are free RNA (low molecular weight) without protein coat.

Prions :
• Abnormally folded protein causing neurological diseases.
• Size similar to viruses.
• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle
& Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.

Lichens-
• Symbiotic association between algae (Phycobiont) and fungi (Mycobiont).
• Algae prepare food and Fungi provide shelter and raw material.
• They are good pollution indicator as they do not grow in polluted area.
 CHAPTER-10
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genetic material, synthesizes the other
constituents and eventually divides into two daughter cells is called cell cycle.
• Cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continuous process.
• Human cell divides once in approximately 24 hours.
• Vary in different organisms. Yeasts-90 minutes

Phases of Cell cycle

Cell cycle is divided into two basic phases-

1. Interphase– Phase between two successive M phases.

Constitute 95% of a cell cycle.
Resting phase- Cells prepare itself for nuclear division by cell growth.
Interphase

G 1 Phase S Phase G 2 Phase

Gap Phase 1 Synthesis Phase Gap Phase 2

Cell increases in size DNA Replication takes place Cell Growth (Cytoplasmic
(Cytoplasmic growth) in nucleus growth) continues.
Duplication of Organelles Centrosomes Duplicates in Duplication of Organelles
like ER, Golgi bodies, Cytoplasm (Animal Cell) like Mitochondria and
lysosomes etc. Plastids
Length of this Phase Vary- DNA doubles per cell and Protein synthesis in
Longest Phase chromosomes no. remain preparation for mitosis.
same.
Cell remains metabolically Increased metabolic rate.
Active
RNA, Protein and Enzyme Spindle fibres and asters are
(Used during M phase) formed
synthesise (in same
sequence).

Some cells in adult animals cell exit G1 phase and enter inactive G0 phase. Ex: Heart cell.
Quiescent Stage (G0)- Cell do not proliferate (divide) but remain metabolically.
Cell can exit G0 and resume G1 phase whenever required (in case of injury or cell death) so.

M Phase–Mitosis (actual cell division) termed as Equational division (Chromosomes number same in
parental & progeny cells.)
Karyokinesis (nuclear division) generally followed by cytokinesis (cytoplasm division).

In animals mitosis is present in only somatic diploid cells (exception few insects like male honey bee-
drone) but in plants it is seen in both haploid and diploid cells.

Prophase -first & longest phase followed by G2 phase.

1. Initiation of condensation of chromosomal materials.
2. Chromosomes composed of two chromatids.
 3. Centrioles move towards opposite poles & radiates out microtubules called asters.
4. Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex & nuclear membrane disappears.

Metaphase
1. Nuclear membrane completely disappears.
2. Condensation complete chromosomes clearly visible (Best stage for morphology of chromosomes)
3. Two sister chromatids attached with spindle fibres with kinetochores (disc-shaped structures at the
surface of centromeres of chromosomes)
4. Chromosomes moves & gets aligned to metaphase plate/spindle equator through spindle fibres
from both the poles.

Anaphase
1. Two sister chromatids splitting off from each chromosome & now referred as daughter
chromosomes.
2. Two chromatids start moving towards opposite poles.
3. Centromere leads towards poles and arms tailing behind

Telophase - last stage

1. Chromosomes reach at opposite poles and loose its identity as discrete unit.
2. Nuclear membrane reappears around the chromosomes.
3. Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reappear.

Cytokinesis -division of cytoplasm after karyokinesis (division of nucleus) into two daughter cells.
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis results in multinucleate condition- forms syncytium (e.g.
liquid endosperm in coconut).
• In animal cells- appearance of furrows in plasma membrane that deepens gradually and joins to
divide cytoplasm into two parts.
• In plant cells- Wall formation starts at the centre and grows outwards to meet lateral walls.
The formation of cell wall begins with formation of cell plate that represent middle lamella.

Significance of Mitosis
1. Mitosis occur in diploid cells & produces diploid daughter cells with identical genetic complement.
2. Some lower plants and some social insects’ (like male honey bee-drone) haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
3. Helps in repair of cells, especially in lining of gut and blood cells.
4. Meristematic division in apical and lateral cambium results in continuous growth of plants.

Meiosis- Reductional Division

• Chromosomes no. reduce to half- form haploid daughter cells.
• Occur in diploid germ cell to form haploid gametes in sexually reproducing organisms, diploid phase
is restored by fertilization.
• Two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but single cycle of
DNA replication.
• It involves pairing of homologous chromosome and recombination between non-sister chromatids.
• Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
• Initiate after parental chromosomes have replicated to produce identical sister chromatids at the S
phase.
 Meiosis I Meiosis II

• Prophase I • Prophase II

• Metaphase I • Metaphase II

• Anaphase I • Anaphase II

• Telophase I • Telophase II

Meiosis I Prophase I

Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene Diplotene Diakinesis

Chromosomes Homologous Chromosomes Dissolution of the Terminalisation of
gradually visible chromosomes start becomes distinct & Synaptonemal chiasmata
Under light pairing- synapsis clearly appears as complex
microscope. tetrads
Compaction of Accompanied by Crossing over Bivalents to separate Chromosomes are
chromosomes synaptonemal (exchange of genetic from each other Fully condensed
continues complex. Materia) occurs Except at the sites of
between non-sister crossovers- x-shaped
chromatids of the structures, called
homologous Chiasmata.
chromosomes.
Short lived stage Complex formed Enzyme- In oocytes of some Meiotic spindle is
called mediated process- vertebrates, prepare for
Bivalent/Tetrad recombinase diplotene can last separating
for Months or years. homologous
chromosomes
Short lived stage Recombination Nucleolus and cell
completed leaving organelles disappears
the and the nuclear
chromosomes linked envelope also breaks.
at the sites of crossing Transition to
over. Metaphase
 Metaphase I
• Bivalent chromosome align at equatorial plate,
• Microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle get attached to kinetochore of homologous chromosomes.

Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosome separate but sister chromatids remain attached at centromere.
• Homologous chromosomes moves to opposite pole.

Telophase I
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus and cell oragnelles reappear.
• Chromosomes starts losing their individual identity.

Cytokinesis
• Furrow divides the cytoplasm forming a dyad of cells
• In many cases the chromosomes do undergo some dispersion, they do not reach the extremely extended state of
the interphase nucleus.

Interkinesis
• Stage between two meiotic divisions, generally short lived.
• No replication of DNA.
• Followed by prophase II.

Meiosis II

Prophase II
• Starts before chromosome gets fully elongated.
• Nuclear membrane disappears and chromosome becomes compact.

Metaphase II
• Chromosomes align at equator.
• Microtubules attach with kinetochores of sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
• Splitting of chromosome from centromere.
• Sister chromatin (now referred as Chromosomes) to move towards opposite poles by shortening
of microtubules.

Telophase II
• Two groups of chromosomes get enclosed by nuclear membrane.
• Nucleolus and cell organelles reappear.
• Chromosomes starts losing their individual identity.

Cytokinesis

• Furrow divides the cytoplasm of forming a tetrad of cells (four haploid daughter cells).

Significance of meiosis–
1. Forms the haploid gametes by reduction of chromosomes no. to half that are essential for
sexual reproduction.
2. Crossing over introduces new recombination of traits leading to genetic variability hence leads to
Evolution.
3. Helps in maintenance of chromosome number of sexually reproducing organism.
4. Provides evidence of basic relationship of organisms.
 Frog – Rana tigrina
Systematic Position:
• Phylum: Chordata
• Class: Amphibia
• Genus: Rana
• Species: tigrina
Key Features:
• Cold-blooded (poikilotherms).
• Amphibious (land + water).
• Protective coloration (mimicry) for camouflage.
• Undergo aestivation (summer sleep) and hibernation
(winter sleep).
• Exhibit sexual dimorphism: Male has vocal sacs and
copulatory pad.

1. Morphology
• Body divisions: Head + trunk; neck and tail absent.
• Skin: Moist, smooth, slippery due to mucous glands.
o Dorsal: Olive green with irregular dark spots.
o Ventral: Pale yellow.
• Eyes: Bulged, with nictitating membrane for protection in water.
• Ears: Membranous tympanum.
• Limbs:
o Hind limbs: Longer, muscular, 5 digits, webbed (swimming).
o Forelimbs: 4 digits.
• Sexual dimorphism: Male – vocal sacs, copulatory pad; Female – absent.

2. Digestive System
• Type: Carnivorous; alimentary canal short, small intestine is reduced.
• Components: Mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, rectum, cloaca + digestive glands
(liver, pancreas, gall bladder).
• Food pathway: Mouth → buccal cavity → pharynx → oesophagus → stomach → duodenum → small intestine →
rectum → cloaca.

• Food pathway and digestion:

• Food captured by bilobed tongue.

• In stomach: Gastric juice + HCl partially digest food into
chyme.
• Duodenum (1st part of small intestine): Receives chyme;
common bile duct delivers bile (emulsifies fat) and
pancreatic juice (digests carbohydrates & proteins).
• Small intestine: Final digestion occurs; nutrients absorbed
by villi and microvilli.
• Undigested waste: Moves to rectum → exits via cloaca.

• Cloaca: Common chamber for feces, urine, and reproductive products.

• Digestive gland functions:

o Liver → bile (emulsifies fat).
o Pancreas → pancreatic juice (carbohydrates & proteins).
o Gallbladder → stores bile.

3. Respiratory System
 • Aquatic: Cutaneous (through skin).
• Terrestrial: Pulmonary (lungs), buccal cavity, skin.
• Special: During aestivation/hibernation → only cutaneous respiration.
• Lungs: Paired, sac-like; air enters nostrils → buccal cavity → lungs.

4. Circulatory System
• Type: Closed, double circulation.
• Heart: 3-chambered (2 atria, 1 ventricle), pericardium-covered.
o Right atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood via vena cava.
o Sinus venosus: Thin-walled triangular structure; stores blood
before entering right atrium.
o Ventricle: Pumps mixed blood into conus arteriosus.
o Conus arteriosus function: Ensures proper separation of
oxygenated & deoxygenated blood → directs blood to systemic &
pulmonary arches.
• Blood: Plasma + nucleated RBC, WBC, platelets.
• Arteries: Carry blood away from heart.
• Veins: Return blood to heart.
• Special venous connections: Hepatic portal system (liver & intestine), Renal
portal system (kidney & posterior body).
• Lymphatic system: Lymph, lymph channels, lymph nodes.

5. Excretory System
• Components: Paired kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, cloaca.
• Functional unit: Nephron (uriniferous tubules).
• Male: Ureters act as urogenital ducts (carry urine + sperm) → open into cloaca.
• Female: Ureters → cloaca; oviducts open separately.
• Waste type: Urea → ureotelic.

6. Nervous & Sense Organs

• Endocrine glands: Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal body, pancreatic islets, adrenals, gonads.
o Adrenal gland function: Secretes hormones controlling metabolism, stress response, salt & water balance.
• Nervous system:
o CNS: Brain + spinal cord
o PNS: Cranial + spinal nerves
o ANS: Sympathetic + parasympathetic
• Brain divisions:
o Forebrain: Olfactory lobes, cerebral
hemispheres, diencephalon
o Midbrain: Optic lobes
o Hindbrain: Cerebellum, medulla
oblongata
• Cranial nerves: 10 pairs arise from brain.
• Sense organs: Touch (papillae), taste (buds),
smell (nasal epithelium), vision (eyes),
hearing (tympanum + internal ear).

7. Reproductive System
Male
• Paired testes, attached to kidneys via mesorchium.
 • Vasa efferentia (10–12): Arise from testes → kidneys → Bidder’s canal →
urogenital duct (sperm duct) → cloaca.
o Bidder’s canal: Connects testes to kidneys; carries sperm from testes to
kidney → urogenital duct.
• Cloaca: Common chamber for feces, urine, sperm.
• Accessory organs: Vocal sacs, copulatory pad (forelimb).

Female
• Paired ovaries near kidneys; no connection with kidneys.
• Paired oviducts open separately into cloaca.
• Oviduct function: Receives eggs from ovaries, secretes albumin & jelly coat
around eggs.
• Eggs: Large, yolky, telolecithal (large yolk), spherical; laid in water (~2500–3000).
Vitelline membrane: Inner, primary membrane.
Jelly coat: Outer, thick, adhesive, secreted by oviduct.
Functions of jelly coat: Protection, keeps moist, deters predators, aids fertilization,
holds eggs in clusters.

8. Fertilization & Development

• Fertilization: External, in water.
• Development (Metamorphosis):
1. Zygote → Early Tadpole → Late Tadpole → Adult Frog
2. Tadpole stage: Aquatic larva, gills, tail, herbivorous.
3. Metamorphosis: Gradual development of limbs, lungs, loss of tail, development of carnivorous diet → adult
frog.
• Early tadpole: Fish-like, aquatic, gills, tail present, herbivorous (algae).
• Late tadpole: Hind limbs develop first, then forelimbs; tail gradually resorbed.
• Transition: Lungs develop → tadpole becomes terrestrial.
• Adult frog: Carnivorous, lungs functional, limbs fully formed, tail absent.
• Significance: Adaptation to aquatic and terrestrial life.

9. Digestive & Cloacal Functions

• Cloaca: Receives feces, urine, and reproductive products → exits to external environment.
• Digestive system: Short intestine due to carnivorous diet; nutrients absorbed by villi & microvilli in small intestine.

10. Economic Importance

• Controls insect pests → protects crops.
• Maintains ecological balance (food chain & food web).
• Muscular legs used as food in some countries.
 Animal Kingdom
Basis of Classification:
(i) Level of Organisation:
• Cellular level: cells arranged as loose aggregates, present in Porifera (sponges)
• Tissue level: cells performing the same function form tissues, present in coelenterates
• Organ level: tissues grouped together to form an organ, which performs particular function, e.g. Platyhelminthes
• Organ system level: A few organs coordinatively perform a certain physiological function, e.g. Annelids,
Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates
Eg: Circulatory System
o Open: cells and tissue directly receive the blood pumping out of the heart
o Closed: blood is circulated through arteries, veins and capillaries
Digestive system:
o Incomplete: It has only one opening that act as
mouth and anus. Eg: Cnidaria &
platyhelminths
o Complete: Two openings Mouth & Anus.

Germ Layer: Embryonic layers that give rise to all the body
parts.

• Diploblastic: embryo with two germinal layers. external ectoderm and internal endoderm, Mesoglea
(Undifferentiated jelly like layer) may be present between ectoderm and endoderm. e.g. Porifera, Cnidaria
• Triploblastic: embryo with three germinal layers, mesoderm between ectoderm and endoderm, e.g. Platyhelminthes
to Chordates
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
• Epidermis of Skin & its derivatives • Endoskeleton • Thyroid, Parathyroid, Pancreas &
(Sweat Gland, Hair, sensory • Circulatory System Thymus.
receptors etc) • Connective Tissue • Tongue
• Epithelial lining of Mouth and • Renal System • Respiratory System
Anus. • Reproductive System • Urinary Bladder
• Cornea & Lens of eye. • Urinary & Genital Ducts • Liver & Pancreas
• Nervous System • Eyes • Eustachian Tube
• Adrenal Medulla • Spleen • Epithelial lining of the
• Tooth Enamel • Adrenal Cortex Gastrointestinal tract.
• Pineal and Pituitary gland. • Dermis of Skin

(ii) Symmetry: Body divided into two equal halves from a line of symmetry.
• Asymmetrical: No line of symmetry in the body, e.g. sponges
• Radial symmetry: any plane passing through centre divides the body in two
symmetrical halves, e.g. coelenterates, ctenophores
• Bilateral symmetry: a plane divides the body in symmetrical left and right halves, e.g.
annelids, arthropods, etc.
Echinoderms exhibit radial as well as bilateral symmetry at different stages of their life

(iii) Coelom Cavity: Body cavity between the body wall and gut wall, lined by
mesoderm.
 Function of Coelom:
Accommodates visceral
organs.

Coelomic fluid reduces

friction between visceral
organs.

It acts as shock absorber.

(iv) Segmentation: Presence of segments on the body. Annelida, Arthropoda & Some Chordata.
• Earthworm’s shows Metameric segmentation- Body is externally & internally divided into repeated segments
(metamers).

(v) Notochord
• Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal side during embryonic development in
some animals.
• Notochord Present: Chordates
• Notochord Absent : Non-Chordates (Porifera to Echinodermata)
 Biomolecules
• All the elements present in earth’s crust are also present in living tissue. However, carbon and hydrogen
present in relative abundance in living organism.
• Biomolecules - Chemicals or molecules present in the living organism. Types-
• Inorganic- minerals, gases and water
• Organic (Carbon & its compound) - carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, etc.
• Chemical forms- aldehyde, ketones and aromatic compounds.
• Biochemical form- amino acids, nucleotides and fatty acids.

Analysis- Living tissue is made up of Organic compound-

Living Tissue (Vegetable/liver piece)

Grind In Tri-chloroacetic acid (Cl3CCOOH)

Slurry
Filter using Cheese cloth

Acid Soluble (Filtrate) Acid In-soluble (Retentate)

(18-800/1000 Daltons) (800/1000 and above Daltons) 1 Daltons= 1.66 × 10 -27Kg
Represents Cytoplasmic Represents Cell wall, cell membrane
Composition Nucleic composition

Bio-Micro molecules Bio-Macromolecules

Non-Polymeric Polymeric
Amino Acids, Simple Sugar, Nucleotides, Polysaccharides, Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA), Protein,
Nucleosides, Ions, Glycine etc Fats, Collagen, t-RNA, Starch, Insulin etc

Compounds in Earth Crust: O>Si>Ca>Na

Human Body: O>C>N>Ca

Analysis of inorganic compound in Living tissue:

Wet Weight- Living Tissue (Vegetable/liver piece)
Dry It Water evaporate

Tissue (dry mass)

Combustion Carbon Compound Oxidised

Ash (Contains- Na, K, Ca, Mg, H2O, NaCl, PO4-3 ,SO4-2 etc)
 BIOMICROMOLECULES

Molecules found in living organisms that have low molecular weight (18-800 dalton) and generally found
in acid soluble pool.

1. Amino Acids 2. Lipids 3. Simple Sugar 4. Nitrogenous Bases

Amino acids- Organic compounds containing an amino group(NH2), an acidic

group (-COOH), a Hydrogen (H) and a Variable R group as substituents on the
same (0)-carbon (also called α-amino acids). There are 20 types of Amino Acids.
• Amino acids could be Acidic , Basis, Neural , aromatic, Polar , non-polar etc
on the basis of its structure and compound substituted hence called
Substituted Methane.
• They could be classified as:
Essential Amino Acid: Can not be synthesized by body and should be supplied through
diet.
Non-Essential: Can be synthesized by the body.
• Based on R group Amino Acids could be classified as:
Non-polar/Neutral Acidic Basic Aromatic
VIP MLA G AG HAL PTT

Amino Acid Abbr. Class Polarity Requirement CODONS

Alanine Ala Aliphatic Nonpolar Non-Essential GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG
Arginine Arg Fixed cation Basic Conditionally CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG
Asparagine Asn Amide Polar Non-Essential AAU,AAC,
Aspartic Acid Asp Anion Acidic Non-Essential GAU, GAC
Cysteine Cys Thiol Polar Conditionally UGU, UGC
Glutamine Gln Amide Polar Conditionally CAA, CAG
Glutamic Acid Glu Anion Acidic Non-Essential GAA, GAG
Glycine Gly Aliphatic Nonpolar Conditionally GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG
Histidine His Aromatic cation Base Essential CAU, CAC
Isoleucine Ile Aliphatic Nonpolar Essential AUU, AUC, AUA
Leucine Leu Aliphatic Nonpolar Essential UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG
Lysine Lys Cation Base Essential AAA, AAG
Methionine Met Thioether Nonpolar Essential AUG
Phenylalanine Phe Aromatic Nonpolar Essential UUU, UUC
Proline Pro Cyclic Polar Conditionally CCU,CCC, CCA, CCG
Serine Ser Hydroxylic Polar Conditionally AGU, AGC
Threonine Thr Hydroxylic Polar Essential ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG
Tryptophan Trp Aromatic (indole) Nonpolar Essential UGG
Tyrosine Tyr Aromatic Polar Conditionally UAU, UAC
Valine Val Aliphatic Nonpolar Essential GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG
Role of some Amino Acid
i) Glycine – Simplest & only amino acid that
is optically Inactive.
ii) Tryptophan- Most complex – Indole ring
present. Precursor of Auxin.
iii) Tyrosine- Triggers Melanine, T3 & T4, (thyroxine), Adrenaline, Dopamine

Zwitter Ion- An ionizable amino acid that possess both positive and negative electrical charges. It is
electrically neutral. Its structure changes in different pH.

In Acidic Solution In Basic Solution

 Body Fluids and Circulation
60-65% of Body weight is made up of water.
Intracellular Fluid- Present inside the cell. (Contains high amount of Potassium & Phosphate, moderate amount of
Magnesium and Sulphate.
Extra Cellular Fluid-
Cerebrospinal Fluid- present inside the ventricle of brain and spinal cord.
Intraocular Fluid- Found in Eye Ball- aqueous humours & virtuous humours
Serous Fluid- Intrapleural (lungs), pericardial (heart), Peritoneal (Abdomen)
Synovial Fluid- Joints
Digestive Fluid, Excretory Fluid, Blood & Lymph

Blood
It is a fluid connective tissue composed of Plasma and different cells (RBCs, WBCs and platelets).
The pH of blood is ~7.4, i.e. slightly alkaline.
Volume in an adult~5.5liters.

Plasma constitutes 55% of blood volume. It is a viscous fluid.

Pale yellow but transparent and clear.
Composition- 90-92% –Water
❖ Glucose, Amino acids, lipids, Gases (O2, CO2) Minerals (Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3-, Cl-to etc),
Protein-Albumin (for osmotic balance), Globulin (for defense), Fibrinogen (for clotting)
❖ Immunoglobins (Antibodies), Lysozyme (destroy bacteria/viruses)
❖ Waste-Ammonia, Urea, Uric acid, Creatine etc.
❖ Heparin (anticoagulant), Hormones, Vitamins, Enzymes.
Serum- Plasma without Clotting factor.
Function – Body Immunity, Maintaining PH, Clotting, Transport & Retention of Fluid in Blood.

Formed Elements include erythrocytes, leukocytes and blood platelets

Erythrocytes
❖ RBCs are the most abundant cells, 5 - 4.5 millions per mm³, 7-8 micro meter, Circular & Biconcave.
❖ Nucleus & many cell organelles (Mitochondria, Golgibodies , Ventricle, Ribosomes) are absent.
❖ Life Span -120days.
 ❖ Anaerobic respiration occur in RBC.
❖ Red in colour due to Haemoglobin – (made up of 4 fe++ & 4 globulin protein) 280 million-haemoglobin-in 1
RBC.
❖ On average 12-16gm haemoglobin per 100ml. Helps in transport of O2 & Co2.
❖ Form in Red Bone Marrow in adult, in spleen in early embryonic life & in Liver in later embryonic stage.
❖ Destroyed in Spleen (graveyard of RBCs) . Excess RBCs stored in Spleen.
❖ Iron, Protein, Vitamin B12, Folic acid essential for RBCs formation. Deficiency of these elements causes
Anemia (Deficiency of RBCs)
❖ Function -Transport O2, CO2 & maintains PH.

Leucocytes
❖ WBCs (Soldiers of Body) are colourless due to the absence of haemoglobin.
❖ Amoebied shape, 12-20 micrometer in size.
❖ Nucleus and cell organelles are present.
❖ Total Leukocytes Count (TLC) 6000-8000 mm³ of Blood.
❖ WBC : RBC – 1 : 600.
❖ Leukocytosis-TLC increases in case of Infection.
❖ Leukaemia- WBCs (abnormal) increases in case of Cancer
❖ Diapedesis- Amoeboid movement of WBCs
❖ They are of two types Granulocytes and Agranulocytes.

Granulocytes- (10μm) Contains granules in cytoplasm. Nucleus is lobed (irregular). Divided into three types:-
1. Eosinophils(2-3%)- Nucleus is two lobed. Have coarse granules. Granules take acidic strain. Involved in allergic
reactions. Nonphagocytic. Dissolve blood clot. Lifespan -2-5 days.
2. Basophils(0-1%)- Nucleus is three lobed & S shaped. Have less no. of coarse granules. Granules take basic
stains. They release Heparine (Anti-coagulant) , Serotonin & Histamine (Allergy, inflammatory reactions &
vasodilation). Life span- 1-2days.
3. Neutrophils(60-65%)- Nucleus is many lobed (drumstick). Have fine granules. Stain weakly with both acid &
base. Phagocytic in nature. Life span- 24hrs.
Agranulocytes- Granules are not found in cytoplasm. Divide into two types:-
1. Monocytes(2-10%)- Largest (18μm) Leukocytes, Amoebied shape. Bean shaped nucleus. Phagocytic in nature,
changes into macrophage when enters tissues. Life span-10-20hrs.
2. Lymphocytes(20-25%) – (7-10μm) Large round nucleus. Nonmotile & Nonphagocytic. Helps building immune
system, produce antibodies. Life span- few months to year.
They are of two types –
B-lymphocytes – Cell responsible for immunity produce in Bone Marrow. Types:
Active Cells (produce antibodies in plasma), Inactive cells (memory)
T-lymphocytes- Cell responsible for immunity produce in Thymus Gland. Types: T-helper (helps B-lymphocytes to
produce antibodies), T-Killer- (Kill virus), T-Suppressor (suppress immune response as in auto immune disease), T-
Memory

Thrombocytes (Blood Platelets) 1,50,000-3,50,000 per mm³. Platelets are cell fragments rather than true cells..
They are formed from the megakaryocyte (large) cells of bone marrow. They are Flat, non-nucleated,
colourless, round or Oval in shape & 2-3micrometer in diameter. Life span-1week.
Release Platelets factor-Thromboplastin during any injury, that helps in clotting.

Blood Groups
AB+ is Universal Recipient. O- is Universal Doner.

If blood transfusion takes place between incompatible donor and recipient, reaction of antigen on the cells and
antibodies in the plasma produces clots that clog capillaries.

Rh grouping
80% of people have Rh antigen on the surface of RBC. Those who have Rh antigen are called Rh+ and those
without it are Rh–.

Antigen On RBCs Surface

Blood Antigen Antibodies Can Receive Can Donate
Group RH Present Present From To
A+ A, RH B A+,A-, O+, O- A+,AB+

B+ B, RH A B+,B-,O+,O- B+,AB+

AB+ A,B, RH - A+,A-,B+,B-,AB+, AB+

AB-,O+,O-

O+ RH A, B O+, O- A+,B+,AB+,O+

A- A B, RH A-, O- A+,A-AB+,AB-

B- B A, RH B-, O- B+,B-,AB+,AB-

AB- A,B RH A-,B-,AB-,O- AB+,AB-

O- - A, B, RH O- A+,A-,B+,B-,AB+,
AB-,O+,O-

RH-Incompatibility : When the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+ and the foetus blood group is Rh+, then
there are chances of mixing of foetus’ blood with that of the mother’s blood during delivery. The mother’s body
produces antibodies against the antigen, which may go to the foetus and result in the agglutination/distruction
of RBCs in the subsequent (2nd onwards) pregnancy. This may result in Haemolytic disease of the New Born
(HDN) or ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FOETALIS which could be fatal for foetus. In which foetus may survive
but it is often anaemic.

To avoid this mother is given anti-Rh antibodies after the delivery of the first child. That’s why marriage
between RH+ women and RH-women is not recommend.

Lymph (Middle Man/ Interstitial or Tissue Fluid)

Lymph is a fluid connective tissue similar to blood plasma. Lymph flows through lymphatic vessels to lymph
nodes, where it is filtered for harmful substances. The lymphatic system drains back the interstitial fluid back to
major veins. Lymph helps in transport of substances (like nutrients, gases, hormones, antibodies etc) from blood
capillaries to tissues & vice-versa.

Lymph consists of lymphocyte cells and is part of the immune system of the body.
Fats are absorbed in the intestine by lacteals of villi and transported to the blood by lymph.

Lymphoid Organ – Tonsils (present at back of Throat) , Thymus (degenerates as person grows old) , Spleen
(Largest Lymphoid organ), Peyer’s patches (Present in Samll intestine). Lymph Nodes – (small, bean-shaped
organs that are scattered throughout the body. They act as filters for lymph, removing harmful substances such as
bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells.)
, Coagulation of Blood (Hemostasis)

Blood clotting prevents excess loss of blood from an injury. The clot is made up of a network of fibrins, which
traps dead formed elements.

Clotting factors are proteins that work together in cascade manner to form a blood clot. There are total 13-
clotting factors.

Injured Tissue & Platelets

Thromboplastin

Ca++

Prothrombinase inactivates Heparin (Anticoagulant)

Catalyses

Prothrombin Ca++ Thrombin (active)

(inactive plasma protein)
Catalyses

Fibrinogen Fibrin + Blood Cell debris

Clot

Fibrinogen and Prothrombin present in plasma are produce in liver. Vit K is necessary for synthesis of Prothrombin.

Haemophilia- Genetic disorder (due to mutation) that affects the body's ability to clot blood.

• Haemophilia A: Most common, caused by a deficiency of factor VIII.

• Haemophilia B: Royal Haemophilia (Found in decedents of Queen Victoria) Caused by a deficiency of
factor IX.
• Haemophilia C: Less common, caused by a deficiency of factor XI.
 Breathing and Exchange of Gases
Cells continuously use oxygen (O2) for the catabolic reactions that releases energy from molecules, e.g., breakdown
of nutrient molecules like glucose. Thus, O2 has to be provided to the cells constantly. Simultaneously, these
reactions releases carbon dioxide (CO2), which is harmful, so it must be removed quickly and efficiently.

Respiration is catabolic process in which oxidation of nutrients in the living cells to release energy for
biological work.

1. Aerobic Respiration- Occur in presence of oxygen. Complete breakdown the food to release energy.

2. Anaerobic Respiration (fermentation)-Occurs in the absence of oxygen in the cytoplasm. Yields only
about 5% of the food’s energy. e.g., yeasts oxidise glucose to ethanol and CO2.

• Anaerobic respiration appeared first in primitive atmosphere due to absence of oxygen.

• In frog 100% cutaneous respiration occurs during hibernation and in all marine snakes, 20%
respiration is by skin.

Breathing is theprocess of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cell.
.
Breathing Respiration

a. It is simply an intake of fresh air and a. It is the oxidation of food to form carbon dioxide, water and
removal of foul air. energy.
b. It is a physical process. b. It is a biochemical process.
c. No energy is released. c. Energy is released in form of ATP.
d. It is an extracellular process. d. It is an intracellular process.

Mode of gaseous Respiratory organs Examples

exchange

Cutaneous respiration Skin/ Through body Poriferans, Coelenterates, Flatworms

surface Moist cuticle- Earthworms
Moist skin- Amphibians (frogs)

Tracheal Spiracles Arthropods (cockroaches)

Branchial respiration Gills Aquatic animals- arthropods, molluscs and

fishes

Pulmonary respiration Lungs Terrestrial vertebrates including human

Human Respiratory System

Conducting part of the respiratory system:

➢ Nostrils- (External Nares ) - Hairs present prevent entry of Dust Particles.

➢ Nasal Cavity- Separated by Nasal Septum, secrets mucus -prevents entry of dust particles.
Humidifies air and warmed up when it enters the nasal passage.
Olfactory Cells present (Smell)
 ➢ Internal Nares (Opening into Nasopharynx)
➢ Nasopharynx -Pharynx (common passage for food & air)
➢ Glottis Slit like opening into Larynx guarded by Epiglottis
(thin elastic cartilaginous flap like structure that
prevents entry of food into wind pipe)
➢ Larynx - Sound box , made-up of 9 Hyaline cartilage.
2-pairs of vocal chords present -upper-false, lower true.
At puberty larynx size grows larger in man, becomes
prominent called Adam’s Apple.
➢ Trachea- Thin-walled tube, about 11cm long and 2.5
cm wide extends up to mid-thoracic cavity.
• Divides into right & left primary Bronchi at at 5th thoracic vertebra.
➢ Primary Bronchi (Right and left)-
➢ Secondary Bronchus (Lobar)-
➢ Tertiary Bronchi -
➢ Terminal Bronchioles -No cartilaginous rings present
➢ Alveolar Duct
➢ Alveoli – Structural &Functional unit of Lungs, 300 millions
Alveoli present in both lungs (total surface area 80m2 approx.
Made-up of thin wall-squamous epithelium -single celled.
Vascularised -richly supplied by blood vessels

❖ Wall of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles is composed of fibromuscular tissue & is lined by pseudo
stratified ciliated columnar epithelium bearing glandular cell (mucus gland).
❖ C-Shaped cartilaginous rings support the walls of the trachea and the bronchi (primary, secondary
& tertiary) to prevent their collapsing.
❖ Vocal cords in men are thick resulting in more slow vibrations, thus have lower pitch than women.
❖ Hyoid Bone (Horseshoe-shaped Bone supports the tongue) -lies just above the larynx.
Embryologically considered a bone of skull.
❖ If the chest wall is pierced (e.g., by a stab wound), atmospheric air rushes into the pleural cavity,
eliminating the pressure difference across lung walls causing the lungs to collapse. The condition is
called pneumothorax.

Lungs: Bronchi, bronchioles & alveoli together constitute lung. They are soft, spongy, elastic organ, pinkish
in colour.
• Lungs reside in air tight thoracic cavity, which is formed by the vertebral column (dorsal surface),
sternum (ventral surface), ribs (present laterally) and diaphragm present at the lower side.
• Left lung is larger in size, consists of 3-lobes Superior, Middle , Inferior divided by horizontal fissure
and oblique fissure. Left Lung have cardiac notch to accommodate Heart.
• Right lung consist of two lobes-Superior and Inferior lobes divided by oblique fissure.
• Each Lung is covered by double layered pleura (outer parietal & inner visceral)
• Pleural Fluid is filled between two pleural layer prevents friction and absorbs shock.

Respiratory Organs – Mechanism of breathing varies in different organism according to their body
structure and habitat.
Alveoli and alveolar ducts together take part in the exchange of gases. No exchange of gases takes place till
terminal bronchioles.
Steps of Respiration
1. (Pulmonary Ventilation) Breathing in which Oxygen rich atmospheric air is diffused in and CO2 rich
alveolar air is diffused out.
2. Diffusion of gases across lungs alveolar membrane & blood.
3. Transport of gases by blood.
 4. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
5. Cellular Respiration -Utilization of O2 by cells (catabolism of food using O2) to obtain energy and
release of CO2.
Breathing Mechanism
Inspiration Expiration
1 Contraction of radial muscles results in flattens of 1 Relaxation of radial muscles -diaphragm returns to
diaphragm (contract)- Vertical volume (antero- its original dome shape (relax)- Vertical volume
posterior axis) increases. (antero-posterior axis) decrease.
2 External intercostal Muscles Contracts & Internal 2 External intercostal Muscles relax & Internal
Intercostal Muscles relax. Intercostal Muscles contract
3 Ribs & sternum lifts up result in increase of 3 Ribs & sternum returns to its original position
dorso-ventral volume result in decrease of dorso-ventral volume
4 Thoracic/Pulmonary volume increase & pressure 4 Thoracic/Pulmonary volume decrease & pressure
decrease – Lungs Expand increase – Lungs Expand
5 Air Moves from outside into lungs due to Lower 5 Alveolar air is expelled out due to high
intrapulmonary pressure intrapulmonary pressure

❖ Inspiration is an active process, while expiration is a passive process

❖ Inspiration and expiration volume can be increased by the help of muscles in the abdomen.
❖ Normal breathing rate is 12-16 times/ minute.
❖ Spirometer- An apparatus for measuring the volume of inhaled and exhaled air.
 Cell – The Unit of Life
• Cytology → The branch of biology dealing with study of form, structure, and composition of cell.
• Cell is the fundamental, structural, and functional unit of life.
• Unicellular organisms (Amoeba, Paramecium, Yeast, Bacteria): A single cell performs all vital functions →
respiration, digestion, reproduction, excretion.
• Multicellular organisms: Functions are divided among tissues and organs → division of labour.

History of Cell Discovery

1. Robert Hooke (1665)
o First observed and described dead cells for the first time in his book Micrographia (1665) while
observing thin slices of bottle cork using a self-designed compound microscope.
o Coined the term “Cell” (looked like honeycomb chambers).
2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)
o First to observe living free cells (bacteria, protozoa).
3. Robert Brown (1831)
o Discovered nucleus in orchid cells.
4. J. E. Purkinje (1839)
o Coined the term “Protoplasm” for the fluid substance inside the cell.
5. Matthias Schleiden (1838) – German Botanist
o Examined many plant tissues → concluded all plants are composed of cells.
6. Theodor Schwann (1839) – German Zoologist
o Studied animal cells, observed plasma membrane.
o Stated: Animals and plants differ as animal cells lack cell wall.
o Concluded: All living beings are made of cells and cell products.
7. Cell Theory (1838–1839) – Schleiden & Schwann
o All living organisms are composed of cells.
o Cell is the basic unit of life.
o Limitation: Did not explain origin of new cells.
8. Rudolf Virchow (1855)
o Modified Cell Theory.
o Proposed: “Omnis cellula e cellula” → new cells arise only from pre-existing cells.
o Final cell theory:
▪ Cell is the structural, functional, and genetic unit of life.
▪ Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
▪ Cells carry genetic information passed to next generation.

Microscopy & Advancements

Robert Hooke → first compound microscope & dead cell discovery (1665).
Anton van Leeuwenhoek → first simple microscope & living cell discovery (1674).
Ernst Ruska → first electron microscope (1931/1938).

Fathers Related to Cell Biology & Microscopy

1. Father of Cytology (Cell Biology) & Micrography: Robert Hooke (1665)
2. Father of Microbiology: Anton van Leeuwenhoek
3. Father of Modern Cell Theory: Rudolf Virchow – “Omnis cellula e cellula.”
4. Father of Histology (study of tissues): Marcello Malpighi.
5. Father of Electron Microscopy: Ernst Ruska – invented electron microscope (1931).
Cell Sizes
• Smallest cell: Mycoplasma (PPLO) (~0.1 μm).
• Largest cell: Ostrich egg (~170 mm × 130 mm).
• Longest cell: Human nerve cell (~1 m).
• Human RBC: ~7–8 μm, circular, biconcave, no nucleus.
• Viruses: 0.02–0.2 μm (acellular, not true cells).
• Bacteria: 1–2 μm.
• Eukaryotic cells: 10–100 μm.
• Multinucleated cells: Muscle fibers, some fungi.

Cell Shapes
• Cuboidal → lining of kidney tubules.
• Columnar → intestinal lining.
• Polygonal → epithelial cells.
• Thread-like → muscle fibers.
• Irregular → amoeba, WBCs.
• Biconcave → RBCs.
Functional Characteristics of Cells
1. Metabolism
o Energy production, nutrient uptake, waste removal, growth.
2. Growth & Development
o Cell enlargement, cell division, differentiation.
3. Reproduction
o Ensures continuity of life (binary fission in prokaryotes, mitosis/meiosis in eukaryotes).
4. Responsiveness/Irritability
o Ability to respond to stimuli (e.g., amoeba moving towards food).
5. Genetic Material
o DNA stores hereditary information and transmits it to next generation.
 Excretory Products & Their Elimination
• Excretion: Elimination of metabolic waste products from the animal body to regulate the composition of body fluids
and tissues. These waste products include ammonia, uric acid, urea, carbon dioxide and ions like , , Cl– and
phosphates and sulphate.
• Osmolarity :The concentration of solutes in a solution, expressed as osmoles per liter of solvent.
Types of Excretion:
Ammoniotelic Ureotelic Uricotelic
• Excrete Ammonia/NH3 • Excrete Urea (NH2 CO NH2) • Excrete Uric Acid
• Ammonia is the most toxic • Less toxic than ammonia • Least toxic
• Readily soluble in water • Ammonia is converted into less • Insoluble in
• Requires large amount of water for toxic Urea in liver. water
its elimination. • Require moderate amount of • Do not require water for
• Excreted through Body surface or water for elimination elimination.
gills as ammonium ion. • Kidney play significant role in
• Contribute to water
• Kidney do not play significant elimination.
conservation.
role. • Some amount of urea may retain
• Ex- Bony fishes, aquatic amphibians in kidney to maintain osmolarity. • Produce concentrated Urine.
and aquatic insects. • Ex: Bony fishes, aquatic amphibians • Ex: Reptiles, birds, land snails,
and aquatic insects crustaceans and insects

Animals Excretory organs

Flatworms, some annelids & Protonephridia or flame cells.
cephalochordates.
Earthworms and annelids Nephridia
Insects including cockroaches Insects including cockroaches
Mammals Kidney
Human Excretory System
According to the chapter on excretory products and their elimination, the
human excretory system consists of:
1. A pair of Kidneys: Situated between the T12 and L3 vertebra, bean-
shaped and reddish-brown in colour.
10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, 2-3 cm thick with an average weight of
120- 170 g. Divided into 2 layers: the outer cortex and an inner medulla.
2. A pair of ureters: Muscular Tube carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Approximately 25-30 cm long consist of
smooth muscle.
3. A urinary bladder- A hollow, muscular organ that temporary stores the urine. Consist of 4 layers. Mucosa (innermost)
layer with folds, Submucosa contains blood vessels, Muscularis made of Smooth/Detrusor muscles responsible for
contraction of bladder and the outermost Serosa.
4. A urethra: A tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the external environment. In females it is 3-4 cm long.
In males it is 20-25 cm long and serve as common passage for semen & urine.

Human Kidney- Divides into two zone outer cortex & inner medulla.
Renal Cortex: The outer region of the kidney containing nephrons and renal
corpuscles, where filtration of blood occurs. Malpighian body, PCT & DCT lies in
Cortex region.
Renal Medulla: The inner region of the kidney containing renal pyramids and
collecting ducts, responsible for the concentration and transportation of urine. 8-18
pyramids present in each kidney. Henle’s loop lies in Medullary region.
Renal Capsule: A tough fibrous tissue covering that act as a barrier to the kidney.
Hilum- Notch present on concave side of kidney through which the ureter, blood
vessels, and nerves enter the kidney.
Columns of Bertini : The renal columns formed when the cortex extends between the medullary pyramids.
Renal pelvis: A broad funnel shaped space inner to hilum that collects urine from calyces
Calyces (Sing: Calyx): Funnel shape projections from renal pelvis that collects the urine from renal pyramids.
Nephrons: The structural & functional unit of kidney. Each kidney has an average of 1 million nephrons. It consists of :
1. Malpighian Body or Renal corpuscle (glomerulus)
➢ Bowman’s capsule: A double-walled cup-like structure at the
beginning of the renal tubule, which encloses the glomerulus
➢ Glomerulus: A cluster of capillaries formed by the arteriole
within Bowman’s capsule.
Afferent Arteriole: Brings blood to glomerulus.
Efferent Arteriole: Takes away blood from
Glomerulus.
Renal tubule
➢ Proximal Convoluted Tubule : A highly coiled tubular
structure that carries the filtrate forms Bowmans Capsule.
➢ Henle’s loop: U shaped tube that extends from PCT &
descends into renal medulla. It has an ascending and
descending limb.
➢ Distal convoluted tubule: Another highly tubular coiled into
which ascending limb of Henle’s open.

❖ Vasa recta: U - shaped blood vessel that runs parallel to Henle’s loop.
❖ Collecting Duct: Straight tube in which DCTs of many nephrons opens.
❖ Peritubular capillaries: The fine network of capillaries emerging from
glomerulus’ efferent arteriole that surrounds the renal tubule.
Types of Nephrons:

1. Cortical Nephron (85%): In this Henle’s loop is short and extends only
very little into medulla. Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced.
2. Juxtamedullary Nephron (15%): In this Henle’s loop is long and runs deep
into medulla. Vasa recta is present. It plays a crucial role in establishing
the concentration gradient necessary for water reabsorption and urine
concentration.

Urine Formation: Involves 3 main processes namely:

1. Glomerular Filtration (ultrafiltration)
➢ Filtration of blood in glomerulus.
➢ An average of 1100-1200 ml (1/5 of blood pumped by each ventricle per min) of blood is filtered by the kidneys per
minute.
➢ Almost all the constituents except proteins are filtered onto the lumen of Bowman’s capsule.
➢ Blood Filter through three layers, endothelium of blood vessels, the epithelium (also called podocytes are arranged in
an intricate manner leaving some minute spaces called filtration
slits or slit pores) of Bowman’s capsule and a basement membrane
between these two layers.
➢ Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)- amount of the filtrate formed
by the kidneys per minute (approx 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres
per day).
➢ Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA): Sensitive region formed at
contact of DCT and afferent arteriole. Fall in GFR activates JG cells to
release Renin which increase Blood flow & bring GFR to normal.
2. Selective Reabsorption
➢ 180 litres of filtrate formed every day out of which 99% is
reabsorbed. 1.5 litres of urine is produced.
➢ Glucose, amino acids, Na+ , etc., in the filtrate are reabsorbed
actively whereas the nitrogenous wastes are absorbed passively.
➢ Reabsorption of water passively.
3. Tubular Secretion
➢ H+ , K + and ammonia into the filtrate during urine formation.
Maintenance ionic and acid base balance of body fluids.
Locomotion: The movement of a whole individual from one place to another.
Movement: The change of position, exhibited either by the whole organism or any part of the body.
All locomotion are movement but all movements are not locomotion.
Types of Movement
Cells of the human body show three main types of movements:

• Amoeboid Movement: The movement with the help of finger-shaped

protoplasmic extensions (pseudopodia). Ex: Macrophages and leucocytes
in blood.
• Ciliary Movement: The Coordinated movement with the help of many fine, short, hair like structures i.e. cilia. Ex: In
Trachea to remove dusts particles and passage of ova through fallopian tube.
• Muscular Movement: The Movement with the help of contractile property of muscles. Ex: Movement of limbs, jaw,
tongue, etc.
Muscles are specialized tissues of mesodermal origin. They have property like excitability, contractility, extensibility and
elasticity.

• Most abundant tissue in most animals.

• Human body has some 639 separate muscles.
• The study of muscle is called Myology.
• Muscles of iris and ciliary body are ectodermal in origin.
• The largest muscle in human body is gluteus maximus (hip muscle), the longest muscle is sartorius (back muscle), the
strongest muscle is masseter (jaw muscles).
• The longest smooth muscle is rectus abdomins and the shortest muscle is stapedial muscle.

Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified

Smooth/Non-Striated
Skeletal/Striated/ Voluntary Muscles Cardiac Muscles
/Visceral/Involuntary Muscles

• Attached with skeletal system.

• Cylindrical & Branched.
• Cylindrical Shaped, Multinucleated • Found in inner wall of internal visceral
• Muscles of heart, having branching
(peripheral) organs.
pattern, (alternate light and dark
• Striations (alternate light and dark • Spindle Shaped, Uninucleated
bands) with Inter-calated Disc.
bands)Present. • No-striations (light & dark band) found.
• Do not get Fatigued.
• Get Fatigued. • Do not get Fatigued.
• Involuntary muscles ,controlled by
• Voluntary muscles ,controlled by • Involuntary muscles ,controlled by ANS
ANS
CNS
Skeletal Muscle is made up of
• Fascicles: Muscles bundles containing many muscle fibres.
• Fascia : Collagenous tissue holding muscle bundles
together.
• Sarcolemma: Plasma membrane lining the muscle fibre.
• Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm of muscles
• Myofibrils/Myofilaments: Large no. of parallelly arranged
filaments in sarcoplasm of muscle fibre.
• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Specialised endoplasmic
reticulum of muscles for storage of calcium.
• Muscle fibre is a syncitium as the sarcoplasm contains
many nuclei
• Note:- Each Myofibril has Light and dark bands in muscles
which are present due to the protein actin and myosin &
are arranged parallel to each other.
• I-band (Isotropic band): Light thin bands containing actin.
• A-band (Anisotropic band): Dark thick band contains
myosin.
• Z line (Zwischen line): The Centre of each I-band is elastic fibre
• M line (Mittelsclzeibe Line): A thin fibrous line in the middle of A-band
• H Zone (Hensen’s Zone): The centre part of A Band during resting stage in which myosin do not overlapped by actin.
• Sarcomere : The portion of myofibrils between two successive ‘Z’ lines (The structural & functional unit of muscle).
Structure of Contractile Protein
Actin: (Thin Filament) Made up of two types of proteins
1st Filamentous Actins: Two Filamentous (F) actins made up of
globular actin (monomer) helically bound to each other.
2nd Tropomyosin : Two protein filament that attached to Z line and run parallel to F Actin.
Troponin: A complex protein distributed at regular intervals on the tropomyosin (actin) which mask the active binding
sites for Myosin.
Myosin: (Thick Filament) Made up of many meromyosin (monomer). Each
meromyosin has two parts :
1: Globular Head with short arm or Cross Arm (HMM- Heavy Meromyosin): Is an active
ATPase & has active ATP binding site and active Actin binding site.
2: Tail (LMM-Light Meromyosin).

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

Signal by CNS via motor neuron release neurotransmitter (Acetyl B
choline) to generate action potential in the sarcolemma. This causes
release of Ca++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
A: Relaxed Stage: A C
• New ATP binds ATP-binding site of Globular Head.
B: Transition of Crossbridge:
• Ca++ binds to Troponin removing masking of active site for myosin.
D
• ATPase in Myosin Head breaks down ATP to ADP and iP and its energy is used to bind actin at active site of Actin.
C: Formation of Crossbridge:
• Myosin binds to actin at Actin binding site.
• Cross bridges forms that pull the actin towards A Band.
D: Sliding/Rotation :
• H zone & I Band are highly reduced as Z line is pull inwards, while A Band
retains its length.
• Causing contraction due to sliding of LMM over HMM.
• Myosin head release ADP & iP causing low energy & Myosin head
detached & moves to its original position.
A: Breaking of Crossbridge-
• Actin filament, Z line, H zone & I Band returns to its original position.
• Ca++ ions are returned to sarcoplasmic cisternae which inactivate the
actin.
Note: Repeated activation of muscles cause accumulation of Lactic acid causing fatigue.
Muscles are classified as:
Red fibres (aerobic muscles-) Thin muscles contain more myoglobin that has plenty of mitochondria, store oxygen as
oxymyoglobin. Undergo slow contraction for long period. Found in Marathon Racers (extensor muscles in black man)
White fibres (anaerobic muscle) – Thick muscles white or pale in appearance, containing less number of Myoglobin and more
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum. Undergo rapid contraction for short period. Get fatigue easily. Found in Sprint Racers (white mans),
eye balls.
 Morphology in Flowering plants
Morphology: The study of external structure (form, size, structure, colour, and external features) of an
organisms.
Angiosperms: also called flowering plants. Most diverse and advanced group of plants.

Parts of a Flowering Plant

A typical angiosperm has:
1. Underground Part – Root System
• Primary roots, secondary roots, tertiary roots, root hairs, etc.
2. Aerial Part – Shoot System
• Above ground part includes stem, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits.
3. Reproductive Part
• Flower, fruit, seed
4. Vegetative Part
• Leaf, stem, roots, tendrils, etc.

Root System
General Features:
• Underground part that develops from radicle of the plant.
• It is non-green and non-photosynthetic.
• Nodes and internodes are absent.
• It shows:
o Positive geotropism
o Positive hydrotropism
o Negative phototropism

Types of Roots
1. Tap Root System
• Found in dicotyledonous plants.
• Consists of primary root and its lateral branches (secondary and tertiary roots).
• Primary root arises from the radicle and persists.
• Examples: Mustard, Gram
2. Fibrous Root System
• Found in monocotyledonous plants.
• Develops from the base of the stem.
• Primary root is short-lived and replaced by a large number of adventitious roots.
• Examples: Wheat, Paddy, Maize
3. Adventitious Root System
• Roots develop from parts other than the radicle.
• Examples: Grass, Banyan, Sweet Potato

Regions of a Root
 1. Root Cap
o Thimble-like structure at the root tip.
o Helps penetrate deep into soil and protects
meristem.
o Present in primary root, absent in lateral roots.
o Regenerates if damaged.
o In aquatic plants, root pockets are present
instead of root cap.
2. Meristematic Zone
o Cells divide actively.
o Cells have dense cytoplasm, prominent
nucleus, and thin walls.
o Gives rise to both root cap and region of elongation.
3. Zone of Elongation
o Cells elongate and increase the root's length.
4. Zone of Maturation
o Cells differentiate and mature.
o Root hairs appear here.
5. Root Hairs
o Very fine, unicellular, thread-like extensions from epidermal cells.
o Absorb water and minerals from the soil.
Note: Root Caps are absent in lateral roots and Aquatic plants have root pockets instead of root cap.

Functions of Roots
• Anchorage – Fixes the plant in the soil.
• Absorption – Water and mineral uptake.
• Conduction – Transport to the stem.
• Storage – In some plants (e.g., carrot).
• Hormone Production – Produces growth hormones like cytokinins.
• Vegetative Propagation – In species like sweet potato.
• Soil Erosion Prevention – Binds soil particles.
• Symbiotic Associations – With Rhizobium (N-fixation) or mycorrhiza.
• Respiration – Pneumatophores help in gas exchange.
• Aerial Absorption – Epiphytic roots absorb moisture from
air.

Modifications of Roots
A. Tap Root Modified for Food Storage
S.N. Type Feature / Shape Examples
1. Conical Cone-shaped, broad at base, tapering downward Carrot
2. Fusiform Spindle-shaped, middle swollen, tapered ends Radish
3. Napiform Top round, bottom tapering like a tail Turnip, Beetroot
B. Adventitious Roots Modified for Food Storage
Type Feature / Shape Examples
Tuberous Irregular swollen single roots Sweet Potato
Fasciculated Clustered tuberous roots at base Dahlia, Asparagus
Nodulose Root tips swell into nodules Roots in Turmeric, Mango,ginger

C. Roots Modified for Mechanical Support

Type Feature / Function Examples
Prop Roots Hanging or pillar-like roots from branches for support Banyan
Stilt Roots Oblique roots from lower nodes for anchorage Maize, Sugarcane
Climbing Roots Roots help climbing by attaching to support Grapevines, Money Plant

D. Roots Modified for Special Functions

Function Type/Name Description Example(s)
Erect aerial roots grow upward, negatively Rhizophora
Respiration Pneumatophores
geotropic (Mangroves)
Spongy velamen tissue absorbs moisture
Aerial Absorption Epiphytic Roots Vanda, Orchids
from air
Fungal association, enhances mineral
Symbiosis Mycorrhizal Roots Pinus, Orchids
uptake (esp. phosphorus)
Haustorial Penetrate host plant to absorb food and Cuscuta,
Parasitism
(Sucking) water Orobanche
Vegetative Roots develop buds and produce new Sweet Potato,
Reproductive Roots
Propagation plants Dalbergia
Photosynthetic
Photosynthesis Green roots perform photosynthesis Trapa, Tinospora
Roots

The Stem
General Features:
• Arises from the plumule of the embryo.
• Generally erect, green (young), and cylindrical.
• Has nodes (points where leaves arise) and internodes (space between nodes).
• Bears leaves, buds, flowers, fruits.
• Usually aerial and positively phototropic.

Functions of the Stem:

• Support – Bears branches, leaves, and flowers.
• Conduction – Transports water and minerals from roots to aerial parts and food from leaves to
other parts.
• Storage – In potato, turmeric.
 • Photosynthesis – Green stems (e.g., Euphorbia).
• Vegetative propagation – Sugarcane, Mint, Jasmine.

Modifications of Stem
A. Underground Stem Modifications
Used for perennation, food storage, vegetative propagation.
Type Features Examples
Rhizome Horizontal stem, thick, fleshy with nodes & internodes Ginger, Turmeric
Tuber Terminal part of underground stem swells to store food; has eyes Potato
Corm Short, vertical, solid, swollen base with nodes Colocasia, Amorphophallus
Bulb Condensed stem with fleshy leaves Onion, Garlic

B. Subaerial Stem Modifications

Used for vegetative propagation, spreading.
Type Features Examples
Runner Long internodes; creeps on surface Grass, Oxalis
Stolon Grows horizontally, then curves upward Strawberry, Jasmine
Sucker Arises from underground base; grows obliquely Chrysanthemum, Banana
Offset Short, thick internode, forms new rosettes Pistia, Eichhornia

C. Aerial Stem Modifications

Adapted for protection, support, photosynthesis, and food storage.
Type Features Examples
Stem Tendrils Slender, spirally coiled for climbing Cucumber, Passionflower
Stem Thorns Hard, woody, pointed outgrowths for defense Citrus, Bougainvillea
Phylloclade Flattened or cylindrical green stem for photosynthesis Opuntia, Euphorbia

The Leaf: It is lateral , flattened, photosynthetic structure develop from

the node of the stem.
It is always arises from Apical Bud (Shoot apical meristem) & arranged in
acropetal manner.
It bears a bud (Axillary bud) in its axil which later develops into a branch.
It has 3-Main parts:
a) Leaf base (Hypopodium): Part of leaf attached to stem
In Dicot leaf it may bear two later outgrowth called stipules.
In some leguminous plans leaf base may become swollen called Pulvinus.
b) Petiole – Thin flexible stalk by which leaf is connected to stem.
c) Lamina (leaf blade) The green expanded part with veins & midrib.
Veins provide rigidity and act as channel to transport.
Types of Leaves
A. Simple Leaf
• Lamina is entire or incision do not touch the midrib, and not
divided into leaflets. Example: Mango
B. Compound Leaf
• When incision of lamina reaches up to midrib & Lamina is
divided into leaflets.
• A bud is seen in axil of leaflets of simple and compound leaf
but not on leaflets.
Type Features Examples
Leaflets arise along common
Pinnately Compound Neem
axis ( Rachis-represents Midrib)
Leaflets arise from a single
Palmately Compound Silk Cotton
point at tip of petiole

Phyllotaxy – Leaf Arrangement on Stem

Type Description Example

Single leaf per node, China Rose,
Alternate
alternating sides Mustard, Sunflower
Pair of leaves arises at each
Opposite Guava, Calotropis
node, opposite to each other.
More than two leaves per
Whorled Alstonia
node.
Leaf Modifications
Modification Purpose Examples
Tendrils Climbing Pea
Spines For defense, & to prevent transpiration loss. Cactus
Fleshy Storage food Onion, Garlic
Insectivorous Trapping insects Pitcher plant, Venus flytrap
Reproductive Vegetative propagation Bryophyllum
Venation : Arrangement of veins & vein lets in the leaf lamina.
Types: 1) Reticulate : Veinlets forms a network. Seen in Dicots
2) Parallel : Veins run parallel to each other. Seen in Monocots.

The Flower
A Flower is a modified shoot where in the shoot apical meristem changes
to floral meristem.
Internodes do not elongate and the axis gets condensed & the condense node produces whorls
(floral appendages).

Solitary: When a shoot tip is transformed into a single flower. Ex: China Rose, Lily.

Inflorescence: Arrangement of cluster of flowers on the floral axis (peduncle).

Types of Inflorescence
A. Racemose
• Main axis grows continuously.
• Acropetal succession – older flowers at base, younger towards apex.
Ex: Maize, Mustard, Radish, Sunflower, Colocasia, Pineapple

B. Cymose
• Main axis terminates in a flower.
• Basipetal succession – older flowers at apex, younger below.
Ex: Jasmine, Bougainvillea, Calotropis

The Flower
Definition:
• Modified condensed shoot, for reproduction.
A typical flower has 4 – Whorls (Parts):
Accessory Whorls
1. Calyx (Collection of Sepals) – Outer green, protective
2. Corolla (Collection of Petals) – Colourful, attract
insects
Essential/ Reproductive Whorls
3. Androecium (Collection of Stamens) – Male part
4. Gynoecium (Collection of Pistil/Carpels) – Female part
Bracteate : The flowers that possess a small, leaf-like structure called a bract at the base of the flower
stalk (pedicel). Ex: mustard, china-rose
Ebracteate flowers are those which lack bracts. Ex: Mustard, Datura, Lily

Floral Symmetry
Type Description Example
Radial (MCD) Mustard, Chilli,
Actinomorphic
symmetry Datura
Bilateral (Pe, Gu, Be, Ca) Pea,
Zygomorphic
symmetry Gulmohar, Bean, Cassia
Asymmetric No symmetry Canna

Flower Types
Term Description Example(s)
Bisexual Both androecium and gynoecium Hibiscus, Mustard, Datura
Unisexual Either androecium or gynoecium Papaya, Corn, Cucumber
Complete All four floral whorls Datura, Mustard, Hibiscus
Incomplete One or more floral whorls missing Grass (no petals), Papaya (unisexual)
Hypogynous Ovary superior; other floral parts below ovary Mustard, China rose , Brinjal
Perigynous Ovary half-inferior; floral parts Rose, Peach, Plum
Epigynous Ovary inferior; floral parts above the ovary Guava, Cucumber, Apple

Flower Types on the basis of number of appendages:

Trimerous Floral Appendages in multiple of three. (Common in Monocot) Lily, Tulip, Onion
Tetramerous Floral Appendages in multiple of four. (Common in Dicot) Mustard, Radish, Turnip
Pentamerous Floral Appendages in multiple of five. (Common in Dicot) China rose, Pea, Dhatura
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS
Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process by which green plants use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic
compounds. It is an enzyme regulated anabolic process.

• Basis of life on earth as it is primary source of all food and is responsible for release of in the atmosphere.

Raw Material Sources

CO2 Atmosphere
Chlorophyll Green Parts of Plant
Sun Light Sun
Water Soil

Necessity of Chlorophyll (Green Pigment of Leaf)

➢ Take a potted plant with variegated leaf.

➢ Destarching- Keep the plant in dark for a day so that all the starch gets used.
➢ Now keep the plant in sunlight for 6 hrs
➢ Pluck the variegated leaf
➢ perform starch test –
• Dip the leaf in boiling water for few mins
• Now Boil the leaf in Alcohol (leaf will loses its colour)
• Pour iodine solution on leaf
➢ Observation: Green part of variegated leaf turns blue black and non-green part do not.
➢ Conclusion : Green parts contain Chlorophyll that is essential for photosynthesis.

Necessity of Carbon Dioxide

➢ A part of leaf is enclosed in a test tube.

➢ The test tube contains KOH (it absorbs carbon dioxide) and the another half of leaf is exposed to light & air.
➢ Exposing light for about few hours, when starch test was done.
➢ Observation: Exposed part of leaf tested positive for starch while, the portion enclosed in the tube tested
negative.
➢ Conclusion: CO2 is also essential for photosynthesis.

Necessity of Light

➢ Take a potted plant & destarch it.

➢ Place a black strip on a leaf and keep it in sunlight for 6 hrs and perform starch experiment.
➢ Observation: Exposed part turns blue black and part of leaf covered with black strip do not.
➢ Conclusion: Starch is produced only in area that received light, shows that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Necessity of Water
Through radio labelling of oxygen in water molecule, it is confirmed that the 02 released during photosynthesis comes
from H2O, not CO2.

Early Experiments

Priestley/ Bell Jar Experiment

➢ In 1770 Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) performed his experiments

➢ A mouse kept in closed space get suffocated and die as candle extinguished.
➢ If a mint plant is kept in bell jar neither candle will extinguish nor will the mouse
die.
 ➢ Conclusion: Foul air produced by animal is converted into pure air by plants hence discovered Oxygen gas in
1774.

Jan Ingenhousz (1730-1799)

➢ Using similar setup as of Priestley showed that sunlight is essential to the plant in the process that somehow
purifies the air fouled.
➢ He showed that in aquatic plant in presence of bright sunlight, small bubbles were formed around the green
parts while in the dark they did not.
➢ identified later bubbles to be of oxygen.

Julius Von Sachs

• In 1854 shows that green part in plants produces glucose which is stored as starch.

[Link] (1843-1909)

➢ Used prism to split light and found Cladophora (an algae) placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria.
➢ Observation: Bacteria accumulated in blue and red light of the spectrum where O2 evolved.
➢ Conclusion: Photosynthesis depends on wave length of light. Occur mostly in blue and red region.
Action spectrum of photosynthesis roughly resembles the absorption spectra of chlorophyll-a & b.

Cornelius Van Neil (1897-1985)

➢ On the basis of studies with purple and green sulphur bacteria showed that in photosynthesis hydrogen from
an oxidisable compound reduces to form carbohydrate.

In green sulphur bacteria, when , instead of was used as hydrogen donor, no was evolved. He inferred
that evolved by green plants comes from (proved by radio isotopes technique) but not from as thought
earlier.

Where Does Photosynthesis Takes Place?

• Chloroplasts are green plastids which function as the site of photosynthesis in eukaryotic photoautotrophs.
• Chloroplast is semiautonomous, double membrane organelle in which division of labour takes place.
• Within the chloroplast there is a membranous system consisting of grana, the stroma lamellae and the fluid
stroma.
• Under Stress/ Low light condition chloroplast will align parallel while in noon it would be perpendicular to the
mesophyll walls.

• The membrane system is responsible for synthesizing light energy for the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. In
stroma enzymatic reactions incorporate in plants leading to synthesis of sugar.
• The reaction in which light energy is absorbed by grana to synthesis ATP and NADPH is called light reaction.
 • The later part of photosynthesis takes place in stroma in which is reduced to sugar, light is not necessary
and is called dark reaction.
Pigments involved in Photosynthesis – Chromatographic separation of leaf pigments are as follows-

Maximum absorption by chlorophyll a occurs in blue and red regions having higher rate of photosynthesis.
Hence, chlorophyll a (blue green) is the chief pigment.
• Other thylakoid pigments like chlorophyll b (yellow & green), xanthophyll (yellow) and carotenoids (yellow to
yellow-orange) are called accessary pigments that absorb light and transfer energy to chlorophyll a and protect
them from photo-oxidation.
• Energy is inversely proportional to Wavelength.
• White light spectrum- VIBGYOR (Max Wavelength/ Minimum Energy = Red )
Light reaction
• Light reaction(photochemical phase) includes:
1. Light absorption
2. Water splitting
3. Oxygen release
4. Formation of high energy chemical intermediates (ATP and NADPH).
• The pigments are organized into two discrete LHC( light harvesting
complex) within photosystem I ( discovered first) and photosystem II
(discovered later) .
• LHC are made up of hundreds of pigments molecules containing all
pigments except single chlorophyll a also called antenna.
• Single chlorophyll a molecule makes the reaction centre.
• In PS I reaction centre has highest peak at 700nm, hence called P700.
• In PS II reaction centre has highest peak at 680 nm, so called P680.
 PLANT GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
• All plants cells are descendants of the zygote. Root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds arise in orderly
manner in plants.
• Plants complete their vegetative phase (Juvenile) to move into reproductive phase in which flower and fruits are
formed for continuation of life cycle of plant.
• Development is the sum of two processes growth and differentiation. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors control the
process of growth and development in plants.
• Growth is irreversible/permanent increase in dry weight, size, mass or volume of cell, organ or organism. It is
internal or intrinsic in living beings. Result of anabolism.
• In plants growth is accomplished by cell division, increase in cell number and cell enlargement. So, growth is a
quantitative phenomenon which can be measured in relation to time.
• Plant growth continues throughout the life due to presence of Meristematic tissue (dividing capacity) present
at the certain region of plant.
• The growth in which new cells are always being added to plant body due to meristem is called open form of
growth.

• Primary growth (increase in length):-

i) Apical Meristem: Present at Root and shoot apex causes elongation of plant along their axis.
ii) Intercalary meristem -Located at base of internodes produce buds and new branches in plants.
• Secondary meristem (Increase in Grith):
iii) Lateral Meristem – vascular cambium & cork cambium increases grith of plant.
Growth is measurable
• At cellular level, growth is increase in protoplasm (difficult to measure).
Parameter of Growth (Increase in):
i) Fresh weight ii) Length iii) Dry weight iv) Volume v) Area vi) Cell number
➢ Cell Number- Apical meristem of Maize root produces more than 17,500 new
cells per hour.
➢ Cell Size- Watermelon cells increase in size by 3,50,000 times.
➢ Length- Growth of Pollen Tube
➢ Surface Area- Growth in dorsi-ventral leaf.

Formative/ Meristematic phase Phase of Elongation/Enlargement Phase of Maturation

➢ It occurs at root/shoot apex. ➢ Present just next to meristematic zone. ➢ Away from meristematic, next to
➢ Cells have rich protoplasm and large ➢ Cell enlargement, large vacuole, and elongation zone.
nuclei. new cell wall deposition. ➢ Undergo structural & physiological
➢ Cell wall are primary, thin & ➢ Maximum elongation in conducting differentiation.
cellulosic with abundant tissues and fibres. ➢ Cells attain their maximum size,
plasmodesmata. wall thickening & protoplasmic
➢ The rate of respiration is high & cell modifications.
undergo mitosis.
 Growth Rate
Increase in growth per unit time is called growth rate. Growth rate may be arithmetic or geometrical.

Arithmetic Growth- Rate is constant & increase in Geometric Growth- Here initial growth is slow & increase
growth occurs in arithmetic progression- 2,4,6,8 ……. rapidly thereafter.
Found in root and shoot elongation. Every cell divides that result into exponential growth.
In this following mitotic division only one daughter cell Common in unicellular organisms when growing in nutrient
continues to divide while other differentiates and rich medium.
mature. Characteristic of living organism growing in a natural
Lt = L0 + rt environment.
Lt = Length after time Sigmoid growth curve consists of fast dividing exponential
L0 = length at phase and stationary phase.
beginning W1 =W0ert
r = growth rate W1 = Final size
t = time. W0 = initial size,
r = growth rate
t = time of growth
e = base of logarithms
(2.71828).

Quantitative comparison between the growth of living system :

1. Absolute growth rate: Measurement and comparison of total growth per unit time.
Eg: Absolute rate = Final growth - initial growth.
Case A Case B
2 2 2
10cm – 5cm = 5cm 55cm – 50cm2 = 5cm2
2

2. Relative growth rate- The growth of given system per unit time expressed on a
common basis. Relative Rate= Final – Initial
Initial
Case A Case B
10cm2 – 5cm2 = 1cm2 or 100% 55cm2 – 50cm2 = 1cm2 or 10%
5cm2 50cm2 10
Condition for growth
• Water -For cell enlargement and maintaining turgidity. Medium for enzymatic activities & protoplasm formation
• Temperature: Require optimal temperature for maximum growth.
• Oxygen: To release metabolic energy for growth.
• Nutrients: Macro & Micro nutrients needed as a source of energy.
• Light & Gravity: Affect certain phases of growth.
 Respiration In Plants
Respiration is an energy releasing, enzymatically controlled catabolic process which involves a step-wise oxidative
breakdown of food substance inside living cells.

• Living organism require energy for all activities like absorption, movement, reproduction or even breathing that
is obtained from oxidation of food during respiration.
• Cellular respiration - mechanism of breaking down of food materials within the cell (cytoplasm & mitochondria)
to release energy for ATP synthesis.
• Breaking down of C-C bond of complex compounds (food) through oxidation within the cells leading to release
of energy is called respiration.
• Respiratory substrates- The compounds that get oxidized (Carbohydrates (Main Substrate) , Protein, Fats &
organic acids)
• Energy released during oxidation is not used directly but utilized in synthesis of ATP, which is broken down
when energy is required. Therefore, ATP is called energy currency of cells.
• Plants respire through Stomata & Lenticles and do not have any special respiratory organs because:
1. Each part takes care of its own gas-exchange needs.
2. No great demands for gas exchange.
3. Living cell present near surface for diffusion. Parenchyma cells are loosely packed (for air).
4. O2 released during photosynthesis fulfil the demand of respiration in plant.
• First cell on earth lived in O2 lacked environment. Some were facultative anaerobes other were obligatory.
• Types of Respiration:
1) Anaerobic Respiration: Incomplete breakdown of food (glucose) in absence of O2 to release energy (2 ATP).
2) Aerobic Respiration : Complete breakdown of food (Glucose) in presence of O2 to release energy (38 ATP).

Glycolysis
A multistep metabolic pathway in all living organism to partially breakdown glucose with the help of enzyme in absence
of O2 .
• Occur in cytoplasm, common for both Aerobic & Anaerobic respiration
• The scheme of glycolysis is given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and J. Parnas hence called as EMP
pathway.
• Final products of glycolysis are two molecules of Pyruvic Acid, ATP and 2 NADH+H+.
• In plants glucose is derived from sucrose or from storage carbohydrates. Sucrose is converted into glucose and
fructose by enzyme invertase.
• Ten steps process-
1. Phosphorylation of Glucose by ATP with the help of enzyme hexokinase to Glucose 6 phosphate.
2. Isomerisation of glucose -6-phosphate to Fructose 6 phosphate using enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase.
3. Phosphorylation of Fructose 6 phosphate to Fructose 1,6- bisphosphate using enzyme
phosphofructokinase & ATP.
4. Splitting of (6C) Fructose 1,6- bisphosphate into (3C) 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (3-PGA) &
Dihydroxyacetone (DHAP) using enzyme aldose. This reaction is reversible.
5. Isomerization of Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by the
enzyme phosphotriose isomerase. Hence two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are formed.
6. Dehydrogenation of Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate by
enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Two NADH + H+ formed using two NAD+.
7. Conversion of two molecules of 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate to two molecules of 3-Phosphoglycerate using
enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase. Two ATP are released.
8. Inter-Molecular Shift of Phosphate Group using enzyme Phosphoglycerate mutase to form to 2-
phospho glycerate. Mg2+ is essential for this reaction.
9. Dehydration of 2-Phosphoglycerate using enzyme Enolase & Mg++..
10. Conversion of Phosphoenolpyruvate to Pyruvate using enzyme Pyruvate kinase. Two ATP are released.
Guru Ganesh Farmate Fal Dekar Ganga Bahate Param Pita Pujiyne Paate
Hasi Pal Pal Aati Thi Gauri Par Pyaar Ek Pachtawa hai.
Fate of pyruvate:

• In Absence of Oxygen • In Absence of Oxygen • In Presence of Oxygen

• Occur in Muscles • Occur in Organisms like Yeast • Occur in Mitochondria of Cell
• End Product is Lactic Acid • End Product is Ethanol & CO2 • End Product CO2 & HO2
• Total 2ATP produce • Total 2ATP produce • Total 38 ATP produce
Define the following

Protostomes: Animals in which mouth opening develop first and anus later. Eg: Annelida, Mollusca & Arthropod .
Deuterostomes: Animals in which anus develop first & mouth opening develop later. Eg: Echinodermata & Chordates.
Hypostome: Animals in which there is a single opening that act both as Mouth & Anus. Eg: Cnidaria.

Phylum – PORIFERA ( Sponges-pore bearing animals)

Habitat Aquatic (Mostly Marine), Sedentary (attached), Solitary or Colonial
Organization Multicellular with Cellular level of organisation
Germ Layer Absent
Body Cavity Acoelomate
Symmetry Asymmetric
Reproduction Both Sexual (Bisexual & Hermaphrodite) & Asexual (Fragmentation)
Fertilization Internal
Development Indirect
Digestive System Absent. Intracellular
Respiratory System Absent
Circulatory System Absent
Excretory System Absent
Neural System Absent
Skeletal System Made up of Spicules & Spongin Fibres
Segmentation Absent
Unique Feature Water Canal System- Helps in food gathering, respiratory
exchange and removal of waste.
Water enters through ostia (Pores) move through canals to
spongocoel (Cavity) & finally comes out through osculum (single
large opening)
.
Choanocytes: Flagellated collar cells line in spongocoel.

Example Sycon, Spongilla (fresh water) & Euspongia (Bath Sponge)

Phylum – COELENTRATA / CNIDARIA

Habitat Aquatic (Mostly Marine), Sessile or free swimming, Solitary or Colonial
Organization Tissue Level
Germ Layer Diploblastic
Body Cavity Acoelomate
Symmetry Radial
Reproduction Some exist in both forms exhibit alternation of generation
(Metagenesis), i.e., polyps produce medusae asexually &
medusae form the polyps sexually e.g., Obelia.

Fertilization External
Development Indirect
Digestive System Absent
Both Intra cellular & Extracellular
A gastrovascular cavity with a single opening (hypostome).
Respiratory System Absent
Circulatory System Absent
Excretory System Absent
Nervous System Absent.
Apolar neurons forms the plexus (net).
Skeletal System Corals have skeleton of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Segmentation Absent
Unique Feature Body have Tentacles (helps in locomotion) with Cnidoblast (Stinging cell shoot out nematocyst
which penetrate paralyse the prey & also used for defence ).
Two forms:
Polyp (Tubular & attached/sessile form with upward mouth & tentacle)- Asexually
Medusa (Umbrella like, free-swimming with downward mouth & tentacles)-Sexually
Example Polyp: Hydra, Adamsia (Sea anemone)
Medusa: Aurelia, (Jelly fish)

Phylum – CTENOPHORA (Sea walnuts or Comb jellies)

Habitat Exclusively Marine
Organization Tissue Level
Germ Layer Diploblastic
Body Cavity Acoelomate
Symmetry Radial
Reproduction Sexually, Sexes not separate.
Fertilization External
Development Indirect
Digestive System Incomplete
Both extracellular and intracellular.
Respiratory System Absent
Circulatory System Absent
Excretory System Absent
Neural System Subepidermal Nerve Net
Statocyst - conspicuous sense organ
Skeleton Absent
Segmentation Absent
Unique Feature Body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates (Helps in locomotion)
Bioluminescence (emit line)
Example Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.

Phylum – PLATYHELMINTHIS (Flat worms- dorso-ventrally flattened)

Habitat Endoparasites
Organization Organ level
Germ Layer Triploblastic
Body Cavity Acoelomate
Symmetry Bilaterally symmetrical
Reproduction Asexual (Fragmentation) & Sexual (Hermaphrodite)
Fertilization Internal
Development Indirect
Digestive System Incomplete
Hypostome
Respiratory System Absent
Circulatory System Absent
Excretory System Absent.
Flame cells (Protonephridia) help in osmoregulation and excretion.
Nervous System CNS (Head ganglion, usually attached to longitudinal nerve cords with transverse branches.)
Skeletal System Absent
Segmentation Absent (except tapeworm)
Unique Feature Hooks and suckers (Helps in nutrient absorption) in parasitic forms
Some posses regeneration Property-Eg- Planaria
Example Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke)
Carbohydrates (saccharides or sugars)
• Organic compound mainly made up of C, H and O.
• Defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
• Produced directly by the plants during photosynthesis.
Types: Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides(2-5 units), Polysaccharides (more than 5 unites)
i- Monosaccharides
• Simplest carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed further into smaller components.
• Composed of three to seven carbon atoms per molecule.

ii- Oligosaccharides
• Formed by condensation of 2-6 monosaccharide molecules.
• The bond between two monosaccharide units is called a glycosidic bond.
They are classified as:
(a) Disaccharides These are the sugars containing two monomeric units.
Non-reducing sugars because the free aldehyde or ketone group is absent.

(b) Trisaccharide It contain three monomers. e.g., Raffinose.

(c) Tetrasaccharides, e.g., Stachyose

Lipids
• Generally insoluble in water.
• Are esters of fatty acids and alcohol or could be simply fatty acids.
• Fatty acids-hydrocarbon chains (R- contain variable no. of C ) that containing carboxylic group
(—COOH) in one end. (1 carbon to 19 carbons)
• E.g., Palmitic acid (16 carbons) , Arachidonic acid (20 carbons)

Depending upon the types of bonds present, fatty acids are of following two types
i. Saturated Fatty Acids-Do not have double bonds, (C—C). Generally solid at room temperature.
ii. Unsaturated Fatty Acids- Contain one or more than one double bonds (C = C). Generally liquid at room temperature.
Types:
Neutral or True Fats- Glycerol esterified with fatty acid is known as glyceride.
Glycerol is a simple lipid which is known as trihydroxypropane.
Eg: monoglyceride, diglycerlde and triglyceride

ii- Compound or Conjugated Lipids- These are the esters of fatty acids and alcohol but contain other substances also, e.g.,
Phospholipids, glycolipids, cutin & suberin (water proof) etc.
Phospholipids are lipids which have phosphorus and phosphorylated organic compound in them. Ex: lecithin.
Some tissue have complex structure of lipids, e.g., Neural tissues.

iii. Derived Lipids

These are lipid-like substances such as sterol or derivatives of lipids, e.g., steroids, prostaglandins and terpenes.
(a) Ghee- Hard Fats are solids at room temperature and contain long chains of fatty acids, e.g., Animal fat.
Softness of butter is due to the good quantity of short chain fatty acid it contains.
(b) Oils- liquid at room temperature because they have low melting point, remain as oils in winters also e.g., groundnut
(peanut) oil, cotton seed oil, mustard oil, Gingely (Seasum)oil.

Cholesterol -27 carbon compound with a hydrocarbon tail, a central sterol nucleus made of four hydrocarbon rings, and a
hydroxyl group.

Nucleotides (Nucleoside+ Phosphate group) Monomers of nucleic acids. Made up of three molecules, i.e., a pentose
sugar, a cyclic nitrogenous base and a phosphoric acid (phosphate group), e.g., Adenylic acid, thymidylic acid, guanylic acid,
uridylic acid and cytidylic acid.

1. Ribose (Pentose) Sugar. It is present in the form of ribose or deoxyribose sugar in RNA and DNA respectively.
i. Nitrogenous Bases
These are the flat heterocyclic compounds having nitrogen and carbon in ring structure.
These are of basically two types
(a) Purines It is larger and composed of two rings. i.e., Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
(b) Pyrimidines It is smaller and composed of single ring. i.e., Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U).

iii. Phosphoric Acid (Phosphate Group)- PO4-3

A nucleotide may have 1, 2 or 3 phosphate groups. It gives acidic nature to the nucleotide.

Nucleoside= Ribose+ Nitrogenous Base

e.g., adenine + ribose —> adenosine.
Likewise guanosine, thymidine, uridine and cytidine are the examples of nucleoside.
The nucleoside combines with a phosphate group at 5-position by an ester bond to form a nucleotide.
Circulatory Pathways
There are two types of circulatory systems:
1. Open circulatory system: Blood vessels are not found and blood is present in the open cavity known as sinuses,
where internal organs float. Found in arthropods and molluscs.
2. Closed circulatory system: Blood vessels circulate the blood. Found in Annelids and Chordates.
Name Type of Heart Circulation
Fish 2 chambered, 1-atrium and 1-ventricle Single circulation
Amphibian and Reptiles 3 chambered, 2-atrium and 1-ventricle Incomplete double circulation
Crocodiles, Birds and Mammals 4 chambered, 2-atrium and 2-ventricle Double circulation
Human Circulatory System
• Heart- A muscular organ that pumps the blood throughout the body.
• Derived from mesoderm. Located in mediastinum in thoracic cavity at level of T5-T8 vertebrae.
• Made up of cardiac muscles & Nodal Tissue
• Protected by double pericardium membrane filled with pericardial fluid (reduce friction).
• It is clenched Fist size & weights about 250-300gm.
• Human heart has 4 Chambers
2- Auricles/Atrium (Separated by inter-atrial septum)
2-Ventricles (Separated by inter-ventricular septum)
• Valves-Muscular flap like structure prevents the back flow of blood.
Four Major Valves:
1- Semilunar Valve- (Left)- Between Right Ventricle & Aorta
2- Semilunar Valve- (Right)- Between Left Ventricle & Pulmonary
artery
Cuspid/Atrio-ventricular Valve
3- Bicuspid (mitral) valve- Between left atrium & ventricle
4- Tricuspid valve - between the right, atrium and ventricle
• Size- Left Ventricle>Right Ventricle > Left Auricles> Right Auricle
• Foramen Ovale -Aan opening between the two atria in the fetal
heart.
• Fossa Ovalis- A remnant depression of foramen Ovale located in the interatrial septum of the heart.

Blood Vessels
Arteries Veins Capillaries
• Carry Blood away from the • Carry Blood towards the Heart. • Facilitate the exchange of substances.
Heart. • Carry deoxygenated Blood except • Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
• Carry oxygenated Blood pulmonary vein. • Blood flow with very low pressure.
except pulmonary artery. • Blood flow with low pressure. • Extensively distributed throughout tissues and
• Blood flow with high pressure. • Present towards surface in the organs.
• Present deep in the body. body. • Ver Thin walls (endothelium only)
• Have thick wall & narrow • Have thin wall & broad lumen. • Very Narrow lumen.
lumen. • Contain valves (prevent backflow • Lack valves.
• Do not contain any valve. of blood). • Connect arterioles and venules, forming a
• Divides into smaller branches • Divides into smaller branches network throughout the body.
called arterioles. called venules.
Arteries and veins are made up of three layers
1. Inner Tunica intima – squamous endothelium
2. Middle Tunica media – elastic fibres and smooth muscles (thin in the
veins)
3. Outer Tunica externa – fibrous connective tissue having collagen
fibres

Conducting System of Heart

Nodal Tissue (musculature) is auto-excitable, i.e. it can generate action
potential without any external stimuli
Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) also known as PACE MAKER as it initiates
and maintains the heart’s rhythmic activity. It is present on the upper
right corner of the rightatrium that maintains contraction of heart by
generating electric impulses/action potential (70-75/ min).

Atrioventricular Node (AV Node) also know as PACE SETTER is

present at the lower-left corner of the rightatrium receives impulse
from SA Node and rapidly transmit it to all the parts of ventricles via
Bundle of Hiss and Purkinje Fibres. Action Potential of AV Node I
60-65impulse/min.
➢ AV Node divides into right and left bundle which along with Purkinje
fibres is called Bundle of His. It regulates heartbeat & conducts the
 electrical impulses (40-45 impulse/min).
➢ The branches of bundle divides into minute fibres, present only in ventricle wall called Purkinje fibres
Cardiac Cycle

Total 0.8 Atrial Sys. Ventricle Systole (0.3 sec) Joint Diastole (0.4 sec)
Sec 0.1 Sec 0.1 Sec 0.1 Sec 0.1 Sec 0.1 Sec 0.1 Sec 0.1 Sec 0.1 Sec
Atrial Systole Atrial Diastole (0.7sec)
Ventricle Diastole Ventricle Systole (0.3 sec) Ventricle Diastole (0.4sec)

➢ Stroke Volume is the amount of blood each ventricle pumps in a cardiac cycle, i.e. 70 ml
➢ Cardiac Output -Total output of blood from each ventricle in a minute, i.e. no. of heart beats per minute, which is ~5 L
in a healthy individual. The cardiac output varies from person to person. An athlete will have much more cardiac
output compared to an ordinary person
➢ In each cardiac cycle, two distinct sounds are produced, ie. ‘lub’ and ‘dub’, which can be heard using a
Stethoscope.
➢ The first sound ‘lub’ is produced when bicuspid and tricuspid valves close at the time of ventricular systole
➢ The second sound ‘dub’ is produced when semilunar valves close at the time of ventricular diastole.
➢ Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels. It's measured in millimeters of mercury
(mmHg) using a device called a sphygmomanometer. Systolic blood pressure, the higher number, indicates the
pressure when your heart contracts. Diastolic blood pressure, the lower number, shows the pressure when your heart
relaxes.

ECG
The electrical activity of the cardiac cycle can be recorded in a
graphical form by electrocardiogram or ECG.
Various phases of each cardiac cycle are represented by a letter
from P to T.
➢ P wave → excitation or depolarisation of atria
➢ QRS complex → depolarisation of ventricles
➢ T wave → repolarisation of ventricles (excited to
normal)
The no. of QRS complex recorded in a time period tells the heart
rate of the patient. Any abnormality or disease can bediagnosed
by ECG if the graph shows any deviation from a regular pattern.

Deviation in ECG indicates abnormality

or disease.

Double Circulation
The circulation in which blood flows through the heart twice for
completing its circuit.
Pulmonary Circulation: The pulmonary artery receives
deoxygenated blood and transports it to the lungs.
From the lungs, oxygenated blood is transported to the
left atrium via the pulmonary vein.
Pulmonary artery – deoxygenated blood, Pulmonary vein
– oxygenated blood.
Systemic Circulation: The oxygenated blood goes to the
aorta from the left ventricle & gets transported to various
tissues by arteries, arterioles and capillaries.
The deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body
comes to the right atrium by the network of venules, veins
andvena cava.

Hepatic Portal System: The vascular connection between

the liver and digestive tract. The hepatic portal vein
collectsintestinal blood and transports to the liver and
then it goes to the systemic circulation.
Regulation of Cardiac Activity
The heart is myogenic, as its activity is regulated by nodal tissues.
The heart’s function is moderated through ANS (autonomic nervous system) by a neural centre in the medulla
oblongata.
1- Baroreceptors present in
aortic arch and carotid
artery sends the signal
through sensory neuron to
chemoreceptors in Medulla
Oblongata (Cardio regulatory
centre)
2- Parasympathetic neural
signals – via Vagus Nerve carry
signal to SA Node and release
neuro transmitter Acetyl
choline that decrease heart
beat rate.
3- Sympathetic neural signals –
via Acceleratory nerve carry
signals to SA Node and release
neurotransmitter Epinephrine
& norepinephrine that
increase heart beat rate and
cardiac output.

Hormone Regulation
➢ Thyroxin released from
thyroid gland increase
Heart Beat rate.
➢ In emergency condition Adrenalin & Nor-Adrenalin released from Adrenal medulla increases Heart Beat
Rate.

Disorders of the Circulatory System

1. High Blood Pressure: When blood pressure is more than normal blood pressure of a human being is 120/80 mm Hg
2. Hypertension:. High bp > 140/90 mm Hg for a longer duration. It may lead to various heart diseases and may also
adversely affect the brain and kidneys.
3. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): It is also referred to as atherosclerosis. It affects the supply of blood to the heart.
The lumen of the arteries become narrower due to deposition of cholesterol, fat, calcium or fibrous tissues.
4. Angina Pectoris: The severe chest pain due to the scarcity of oxygen reaching the heart muscles, when there is interrupted
blood flow.
5. Heart Failure: When the heart fails to pump enough blood to meet the requirement of the body. Lungs congestion
is one of the symptoms of the disease.
6. Heart attack: When the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply occurs, when a blood clot
blocks one of the coronary arteries this can damage the heart muscle if not treated promptly. This can cause severe
chest pain, shortness of breath, and other symptoms.
7. Cardiac Arrest: A condition where heart abruptly stops beating due to sudden electrical malfunction, leading to
unconsciousness.
8. Coronary Thrombosis: It is a condition when there is a clot formation in the coronary artery. It happens frequently
in theleft anterior descending coronary artery.

This occurs when a blood clot blocks The normal blood pressure of a human being is 120/80 mm Hg. 120 is the systolic
pressure and 80 is the diastolic pressure one of the coronary arteries.
 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
1) Tidal volume (TV)-The volume of air inspired or expired normally. It is total 500 ml i.e. 150 mL of dead
space and 350 mL of alveolar volume. A Healthy man have 6000-8000 mL/min.
In infants it is 15 ml approx and in fetus it is 0 ml.
2) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)- 2500 to 3000 ml, Additional amount of air a person inspire forcible after
a normal inspiration.
3) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)- 1000 to 1100 ml, Additional amount of air a person expire forcible after
a normal expiration.
4) Residual volume (RV)- 1100 to 1200 ml, The amount of air remain in the lungs after forcible expiration.
5) Inspiratory Capacity (IC) - Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration i.e. TV + IRV
6) Expiratory Capacity (EC)- Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal inspiration i.e. TV + ERV
7) Functional residual capacity (FRC), The air remaining in the lungs after normal expiration (ERV + RV)
8) Vital capacity (VC)- The maximum volume of air that can be breathed in or out after forced expiration or
inspiration (IRV + ERV + TV). It is 3400-4800ml
9) Total Lung capacity (TLC)- Total volume of air present in the lungs after a forced (maximum) inspiration.
(VC + RV) or (RV+ ERV+ TV+ IRV)
10) Dead space: Portion of tracheobronchial tree where gaseous exchange does not occur is called
dead space. It is also called conductive zone. Dead space is 150 ml.
Note:
• Vital capacity is higher in
athletes, mountain dwellers than in
plain dwellers, in men than women
& in young ones than old persons.
• All pulmonary volumes and
capacities are about 20-25% less in
women than in men and they are
greater in tall persons and atheletes
than in small and asthenic people.
• During respiration, the lungs and
the respiratory tract are never
devoid of air. Instead, there is a
tidal volume of air.
Exchange of Gases- takes place at two sites by simple diffusion due to pressure/ concentration gradient,
solubility of the gases, thickness of membrane & surface area of respiratory surface (total 80m2)
1. Alveoli to blood
2. Between blood and tissues.

• Partial pressure- Pressure contributed by individual gas in a mixture of gas represented by

pC and p . Gases diffuses through higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure.
• Solubility of C is 20-25 times more than solubility of , so C diffuse much faster through
membrane.
• Diffusion at alveoli takes place through three membranes. i.e. 0.5mm.
1) Squamous epithelium- Alveoli
2) Endothelium- capillaries
3) Basement- space between them
Transport of Gases- Blood is medium of transport for
CO2 and .
• 97% of oxygen is carried by RBCs as Oxyhaemoglobin
and remaining 3% by blood plasma in diffused form.
• Each molecule of Haemoglobin molecule can bind to 4
molecules of oxygen forming oxyhaemoglobin. (Fe++
in haemoglobin binds to O2).
• Binding of & is related with partial
pressure of & ,H+ ion concentration,
pH and temperature.
• In the alveoli, oxyhaemoglobin formation is
favoured due to higher pO2 , low temperature ,
low pCO2 , high PH and H+ concentration.
• In tissues, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates due to low pO2
• Every 100mL of oxygenated blood can deliver about
5mL of O2 to the tissues.

Oxygen Dissociation Curve

A sigmoid curve (S–shaped) is obtained when percentage
saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen is plotted against pO2.

Bhor Effect- An increase in carbon di-oxide in the blood causes oxygen to displaced from the haemoglobin.
Haldane Effect-Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin tends to displace carbon di-oxide from blood.

Left Shift – Haldane Effect (Association of O2) Right Shift- Bhor Effect (Dissociation of O2)
• Association of O2 by Haemoglobin • Dissociation of O2 by Haemoglobin
• Increase in pO2 • Decrease in pO2
• Decrease H+ ions and High PH (alkalosis) • Increase in H+ ions and Low PH (acidosis)
• Decrease in pCO2 • Increase in pCO2
• Decrease in temperature • Increase in temperature
• Decrease in 2, 3 -diphosphoglycerate. • Increase 2,3-diphosphoglycerate:

Carbon dioxide Transport

• About 7% of CO2 is transported in dissolved form (in plasma)
• As carbaminohaemoglobin in RBC- 20 – 25%
• About 70% as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
 •RBCs contain high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase & minute quantities of it is present
in the plasma too.
• At tissue PCO2 is high due to catabolism, CO2 diffuses into the RBCs, & combines with water forming
carbonic acid (H2CO3) catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic acid is unstable and dissociates into H+
and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
• The HCO3– diffuses from the RBCs to plasma, where it is carried
to the lungs.
• At the alveoli pCO2 is low, the reaction is reversed leading to the
formation of CO2 and water.
• Chloride Shift (Hamburger’s Phenomenon) – HCO3- formed in RBCs
leaves RBCs in exchange to Cl- to plasma.
• Every 100mL of deoxygenated blood delivers 4mL of CO2 to the
alveoli for elimination.

Regulation of Respiration- Hind Brain

• Respiratory rhythm centre- Medulla region.
Inspiratory Area- Actively controlled by Dorsal Medulla
(Expiration is passive process)
Expiratory Area – Forceful Expiration is controlled actively by
Ventral Medulla.
• Pneumotaxic centre in pons moderate the function of
respiratory rhythm centre.
• Apneustic Centre- in pons is responsible for slow & deep
breathing.
• Chemo-sensitive area near rhythm centre is highly sensitive to CO2 and H+ ions that ultimately control
the respiratory rate.
• Receptors in Aortic Arch & Carotid Artery recognize changes in CO2 and H+ ions concentration and send
signal to rhythm centre.
• Oxygen do not play major role in controlling rate of respiration.

Function of Respiration -Energy production, Maintenance of acid-base balance, Maintenance of

temperature, Return of blood and lymph.

Disorders Of Respiratory System

Asthma: is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
Emphysema: is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface is
decreased. Major reason Smoking. There is shortness of breath even at rest.
Occupational respiratory disorder: Workers, who are exposed to a lot of dust are prone to get long term
inflammation and leading to fibrosis and lung damage.
Pneumonia– it is acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the lungs due to bacterium streptococcus
pneumoniae. Alveoli become acutely inflamed and most of air space of the alveoli is filled with fluid and
dead white blood corpuscles limiting gaseous exchange.

Mountain Sickness is the condition characterised by the ill effect of hypoxia (shortage of oxygen) in the
tissues at high altitude commonly to person going to high altitude for the first time.
Symptoms- Loss of appetite, nausea, & vomiting occurs due to expansion of gases in digestive system.
Breathlessness occurs because of pulmonary oedema, Headache, depression, disorientation, lack of sleep,
weakness and fatigue.
Carbon monoxide poisoning-(CO has 200 times more efficiency than O2). It occurs when CO binds up with
Haemoglobin. When too much CO is in the air, your body replaces the oxygen in your RBCs with CO. This
can lead to serious tissue damage, or even death.
 Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Size Small (0.2–2 µm diameter) Large (10–100 µm)

Nucleus Nuclear membrane absent Nucleoli absent True nucleus consisting of nuclear membrane
and nucleoli present
Cell organelles Membrane Bound Cell Organelles are absent. Present

Flagella Simple Complex microtubules show (9+2) array

Cell wall Usually present, chemically complex (typical bacterial Present in plant cells. But
cell wall is made up of Peptidoglycan) absent in human and
protozoan cells
Plasma No carbohydrate and generally lacks sterols Carbohydrate & sterols are
Membrane High proportion of protein is present Present comparatively less proportion of protein.
Cytoplasm Cytoskeleton Absent Cytoskeleton present

Ribosome 70 S ribosome present 80S ribosome present in the cytoplasm, 70S present
in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Chromosome Single circular DNA, histone proteins absent Multiple linear chromosomes with histones
proteins
Cell Division Binary fission (Amitosis) Mitosis

Reproduction Meiosis absent Meiosis present

Example Bacteria Algae, fungi, protozoa, plants and animals

Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic cells multiply rapidly and vary in size and are represented by Bacteria, Blue-green algae,
Mycoplasma (0.3 micron) (Smallest Cell) and PPLO (0.1 micron) (Smallest Cell).
• Bacterial cells may be Bacillus (rod-shaped), Coccus (spherical), Vibrio (comma- shaped) and
Spirillum (spiral).
• All prokaryotic cells have cell wall except in Mycoplasma.
• Nuclear membrane absent, Genetic material is naked.
• In addition to genomic DNA (Single chromosome/circular DNA) the bacteria have plasmid/ circular
DNA (provides resistance to antibiotics & to monitor bacterial transformation with foreign DNA).
A specialized differentiated cell membrane formed by extension of plasma membrane into the cell is
called Mesosome.

• Cell envelope act as protective unit consist of three layers. The outermost is Glycocalyx, middle one
cell wall and innermost is the cell membrane.
• Glycocalyax may be as loose sheath in some bacteria called slime layer. In some other bacteria,
Glycocalyx may be thick and tough called capsule.
• Cell Wall- determine shape, and prevent from bursting. Made up of Peptidoglycans
(polysaccharides & amino Acids)

Gram Positive vs. Gram Negative Bacteria

Gram staining is a widely used technique in microbiology to differentiate bacteria based on the
structure of their cell walls. The primary difference between Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria lies in the thickness and composition of their cell walls.
Gram-Positive Bacteria
• Cell Wall: Gram-positive bacteria have a thick cell wall composed primarily of
peptidoglycan.
• Gram Stain: These bacteria retain the crystal violet stain during the Gram staining process
 and appear purple under a microscope.
• Examples: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis.
Gram-Negative Bacteria
• Cell Wall: Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner cell wall consisting of a few layers of
peptidoglycan surrounded by an outer membrane.
• Gram Stain: These bacteria lose the crystal violet stain during the decolorization step of
the Gram staining process and are counterstained with safranin, appearing pink or red
under a microscope.
• Examples: Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Plasma membrane is semi-permeable having mesosome in the form of vesicles,tubules, and

lamellae. They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells.

• Pili and fimbriae are the other surface structures that help the bacteria to attach
with host and other substances.
• Chromatophores – Membranous structure containing pigment ex: Cyanobacteria.
• In prokaryotes, ribosome are attached with cell membrane having two sub-units –
50S and 30S to form together 70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
Ribosomes – 15nm-20nm in size. Site of protein synthesis. Made up of two sub units
50S and 30S together forms 70S.
Ribosomes attached with single mRNA to form a chain are called polyribosomes.

Inclusion Body: Reserved materials in prokaryotic cells are present in cytoplasm which
may contain phosphate, granules, glycogen granules etc.

Motile bacterial cell contains flagella, which is composed of filament, hook andbasal
body.
Gas vacuoles are found in blue-green algae and purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria
• Function of Tubules- Lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium to increase surface area.
Proximal Convoluted Tubule Henle’s Loop Distal Convoluted Tubule
Ascending Limb Descending
• Present in Cortex region. • Minimum reabsorption. • Narrow part is • Present in Cortex region.
• 70-80 percent of nutrients, • Maintains high osmolarity of permeable to • Conditional reabsorption
electrolytes and water are medullary interstitial fluid. water but of Na+ and water.
reabsorbed. • Impermeable to water through impermeable to • Capable of reabsorption
• Glucose, Amino Acids, Na+, K+ entire length. electrolytes. of HCO3 – and H+
are absorbed actively. • Narrow part is permeable to • Broad Part is • Selective secretion of H+,
• Buffer HCO3- , Cl-, Some inorganic ions (Na+, K+ , Cl-)& impermeable to NH3, and K+ is actively.
amount of urea is reabsorbed. Urea but in broad part Active ions, urea & • Maintains the pH and
• Maintain pH and ionic balance reabsorption of electrolytes water. sodium-potassium
+
through selective secretion of (Na ) take place. balance.
H+ and NH3 into the filtrate. • U shaped tubule extends to Medulla.
• Uric Acid, Creatinine, • As the concentrated filtrate passes upward, it gets
Antibodies, drugs, pigments & diluted due to the passage of electrolytes to the
diuretics are secreted medullary fluid.
actively.

Collecting Duct: It extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla in each approx 6 nephron drains.
• Reabsorb water to produce a concentrated urine.
• Maintains osmolarity by allowing the passage of small amounts of urea into the medullary interstitium.
• Selectively secrets H+ and K+ ions and maintains pH and ionic balance of the body.
Mechanism of Concentration of Filtrate

• Mammals produce concentrated urine through Henle's loop and vasa recta.
• Filtrate flows in opposite directions in Henle's loop than blood flows in vasa recta
forming a counter current, aiding reabsorption, secretion and maintains
concentration gradient in medullary interstitium.
• Maintains an increasing osmolarity from cortex (300 mOsmolL–1) to inner medulla
(1200 mOsmolL–1).
• Gradient caused by NaCl and urea; NaCl transported by ascending limb of Henle's
loop and exchanged with vasa recta.
• Urea enters ascending limb, transported back to interstitium by collecting tubule.
• Interstitial gradient aids easy water passage from collecting tubule, concentrating
urine.
• Human kidneys can produce urine nearly four times more concentrated than the initial filtrate.

Role of Kidney Function

Case I- Excessive fluid loss (As in case of Loose motion)
• Osmoreceptors present in Hypothalamus & carotid artery activated by changes in blood volume and ionic
concentration activates hypothalamus to stimulates neurohypophysis (Posterior
Pituitary) to release Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or vasopressin (vessel
constrictor).
• ADH promotes water reabsorption in DCT & Collecting Duct, preventing diuresis.
• Increased body fluid volume suppresses osmoreceptors, reducing ADH release in
feedback.
Case II- Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System (RAAS)
• Fall in Blood Pressure or GFR activates JG cells (present in afferent arteriole &
DCT) to release Renin.
• Renin converts Angiotensinogen released by liver into blood is converted to
Angiotensin I which further is converted to Angiotensin II with the help of
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) released from Lungs.
• Angiotensin II (powerful vasoconstrictor) directly increases glomerular blood
pressure / GFR and increases Na+ & water absorption from PCT.
 • Angiotensin II also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone which promotes Na+ & water reabsorption
from DCT, further increasing blood pressure and GFR.
Case III- ANF mechanism acts as a regulatory check on the renin-angiotensin system.
• Increased blood flow to atria triggers release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
• ANF induces vasodilation (blood vessel expansion) results in decreased blood pressure.

Micturition: The process of expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder.

Micturition reflex-Till a voluntary signal is given by the CNS, the urine is stored in the urinary bladder.
• When urinary Bladder is filled the stretch receptors in urinary bladder sends signal to CNS (Medulla (ANS)
& cerebrum (Somatic N S)).
• Case I-Under Favourable Condition ANS send signal to PNS this causes the contraction of smooth muscles of the
bladder and a relaxation of the urethral inner(involuntary)-sphincter & outer sphincter (voluntary controlled by
Cerebrum) causing urine release.
• Case II- Under Unfavourable/Emergency Condition- signals from ANS goes to Sympathetic NS which dilate Smooth
muscles and cerebrum causes contraction of outer sphincter results in control or STOPs Micturition.

Urine Constitute: pH of Urine is 6 (slightly acidic), colour is pale yellow due to presence of Urochrome.
It constitute approximately 95% water, with the remaining 5% comprising urea, creatinine, electrolytes (sodium, potassium,
chloride, bicarbonate), uric acid, ammonia, and trace elements.
On an average, 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day.
The presence of glucose (glycosuria) and ketone bodies (ketonuria) in urine is indicative of diabetes mellitus, signaling high
blood sugar levels and increased fat metabolism.

ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

• Lungs remove about 200mL/minute of CO2 and significant water daily.
• Liver secretes bile with bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, hormones, vitamins, & drugs which are pass out with digestive
wastes.
• Skin's sweat glands eliminate NaCl, urea, and lactic acid, facilitating cooling and waste removal.
• Sebaceous glands in the skin release sebum containing sterols, hydrocarbons, and waxes for protective covering.

Disorders of the Excretory System

Towards the end of the chapter on excretory products and their elimination, we find out about the disorders of the excretory
system. They are as follows:
• Uremia – accumulation of urea in blood due to malfunctioning of kidneys. This can lead to kidney failures. Remedy
haemodialysis.
• Renal failure – The condition where the glomerular filtration stops and both the kidney’s stop working is called Renal
failure. In this case kidney transplant is the only option available.
• Renal calculi – Stones or insoluble salts are formed within the kidney,
• Glomerulonephritis (Bright’s Disease) – Inflammation of glomeruli in the kidneys. It occurs due to the entry of RBCs or
proteins.
Haemodialysis : (When both the kidneys of a person fail, they are advised for haemodialysis)
• Blood is drawn from the Radial Artery.
• It is mixed with heparin (an anticoagulant) and cooled to 0°C.
• The blood flows into the dialysis chamber, made of a
cellophane tube (semipermeable), containing a dialysis solution
isotonic to blood and hypotonic to nitrogenous waste.
• Nitrogenous waste, such as urea and soluble salts, diffuses
from the blood to the dialysis solution, which is then replaced
with a new one.
• After filtration, the blood is brought back to normal body
temperature and returned to the body via the Radial Vein, after
mixing it with Anti-heparin.
Skeletal System : Hard Protective or supporting structure of Animal Body.

Exoskeleton Endoskeleton
Hard covering present outside the body. Framework of bones and cartilage occur inside the body.
Ectodermal in origin & formed of non-living material. Mesodermal in origin & formed of living tissue.
In human beings, a baby is born with about 300 bones which fuses to form 206 bones and some cartilages.

What are the functions of skeleton?

Ans: It provide support, protection, shape to the body, sight of muscle attachment and movement, site of blood cell
formation, hearing (ear ossicles), breathing (ribs, larynx, cartilaginous rings), sound production (larynx), site of mineral
storage.

Human skull have two occipital condyle and is Dicondylic (less rotation) while Monocondylic skull are found in reptiles & birds & have wider movement .

Axial Skeleton (80)

Skull (23) Vertebral Column (26) Ear ossicles (6) Ribs (24) Sternum (1)- 1
(3pairs) (12 pairs) bone (Flat
Cranial- Brain Box (8) Facial Bones (14)
Chest/Breast
Frontal (1)- form Forehead consists of Lacrimal (2)- forming eye socket & 7 Cervical - C1 – C7 – Malleus/ Hammer True ribs 1st to 7th-
6parts: squamous, nasal, 2 orbital plates contains tear glands C1 (Atlas)- allow nodding (1 pair)- outer directly attached to Bone)
& 2 zygomatic plates. (articulate into occipital sternum through
Parietal (2)- present in side & top of skull Nasal (2)- Nose support condyle. hyaline cartilage.

Temporal (2)- present at base and lateral Zygomatic (2)- cheek and the C2 (Axis) – allow rotation of 1 Incus/ Anvil (1 False ribs- 8th,
side of the skull. outer side of the eye socket. head pair)- middle 9th and 10th- joint to
Occipital (1)- forms the back and base of Maxillae (2)- Upper Jaw 12 Thoracic - T1 to T12 7th rib through hyaline
the skull and encircles the spinal cord. -ribs attach to the spine cartilage
Palatine (2)- form hard palate in
the roof of mouth.
Sphenoid (1)- provide anterior support, Nasal Conchae (2)- Nasal cavity 5 Lumbar - L1 to L5- region 1 Stapes/Stirrup – Floating ribs -
contains pituitary grands in its cavity & regulation between thoracic and pelvic (1 pair) – inner & 11th and 12th pair-
form eye socket smallest bone do not attached to
Vomer (1)- Nasal septum Sacral (5-fused)- forms the Ossicles-are sternum
posterior region of pelvis. harder than
Ethmoid (1)- Forms nasal cavity & eye Mandible (1)- Lower jaw – (only cartilage but
socket movable bone in the skull) Coccygeal or Coccyx- Tail softer than
bone (4-fused)
bones
1 Hyoid -U-shaped (forms the base of buccal cavity/tongue)

Foramen Magnum: A large, oval-shaped opening in the occipital bone of the skull that connects the spinal cord to the brain.
Neural canal/ Foramen vertebral canal- The canal through which spinal cord passes .
 Appendicular Skeleton (126)
Pectoral 2 Scapula- triangular shaped bone present at
Girdle (4) back of shoulder. Humerus articulate into its
glenoid cavity.
2 Clavicles- collar bone present at top of shoulder
articulate into acromion cavity of scapula
Hands 1 Humerus- upper arm
(2*30) 1 Radius- forearm towards thumb
1 Ulna- forearm postaxial
8 Carpals- wrist
5 Metacarpals- Palms
Joints – are points of contact between bones, or between bones and cartilage.
14 Phalanges- fingers
1. Fibrous joints– do not allow any movements. Present in flat skull bones to form cranium.
Pelvic 2 coxal bones- formed by the fusion of 2. Cartilaginous joints– bones are held together with the help of cartilage present in vertebrae.
Girdle (2) Ilium- Upper & largest, contributes to the Permits limited movements.
acetabulum (hip socket) 3. Synovial joints– fluid filled synovial cavity, provide considerable movements. Ball and socket
Ischium- Lower & back portion, helps to sit & joint, hinge joints, pivot joints, gliding joints etc.
contribute to acetabulum Type of Joint Description Example
Pubis- Inner, Forms front of hip, joins at pubic
Rounded end of one bone fits into a cup-like
symphysis (made of fibrous cartilage that joins Ball-and-Socket socket of another Hip joint, shoulder joint
the two coxal bones ventrally) part of acetabulum.
Allows movement in one direction, like a door
Legs 1 Femur- thigh bone (the longest bone) articulates Hinge hinge Elbow joint, knee joint
(2*30) into acetabulum Pivot Allows rotation around an axis Neck joint (atlantoaxial joint)
1 Tibia- shank towards thumb
Joints between carpal or tarsal
1 Fibula- shank postaxial Gliding (Plane) Flat surfaces glide over each other bones
1 Patella- knee cap
Condyloid Oval-shaped end of one bone fits into an Wrist joint,
7 Tarsals- ankle (Ellipsoid) elliptical cavity in another metacarpophalangeal joints
5 Metatarsals- foot Resembles a saddle, allowing movement in
14 Phalanges- toes Saddle two planes Thumb carpometacarpal joint
Fixed (Immovable) No movement allowed Sutures of the skull
Synovial (Freely Contains a joint cavity with synovial fluid for
Movable) lubrication and movement Knee joint, shoulder joint
Disease Causes Pathogenesis and Symptoms

Tetany Calcium deficiency Involuntary muscle contractions, spasm results due to continued contraction as the Ca ions
transport back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum is affected.

Tetanus (lockjaw) A bacterial disease, the causative organism The toxin produced by the bacteria mimics the acetylcholine and binds to receptors on muscle
is Clostridium tetani fibres irreversibly, causing painful contractions.

Myasthenia Gravis Autoimmune disease Affecting neuromuscular junction (Antibodies are produced against acetylcholine) causing
weakening of muscles and paralysis.

Muscular Dystrophy A genetic disorder, (X-linked recessive) The gene coding for dystrophin protein is defective. The progressive degeneration of muscles
takes place leading to breathing difficulty and death. Males are mostly affected.

Osteoarthritis Due to Injury or infection the cartilage (within the Inflammation in the joints causing pain, swelling, stiffness, and decreased joint mobility.
joint) undergoes degeneration, leading to a
reduction in synovial fluid's lubricating properties.

Rheumatoid Arthritis Autoimmune disease Inflammation of joints due to the attack of one’s own immune system in joints.

Gout Metabolic disorder due to increased uric acid Uric acid crystals get deposited in the joints causing deformities, pain and inflammation.

Osteoporosis Age-related, due to demineralisation. Decreased Reduced bone mass leading to weakening of bones and frequent fractures.
estrogen level in females
Fruit
• Definition: A fruit is a mature or ripened ovary developed after fertilisation.
• Development: Ovules → Seeds, Ovary wall → Pericarp (fruit wall)
• Types of Fruits:
1. True Fruit – Develops only from fertilised ovary. (Ex: Mango)
2. False Fruit – Develops from ovary + other floral parts (e.g., thalamus). Ex: Apple, Cashew,
Strawberry.
3. Parthenocarpic Fruit – Develops without fertilisation, seedless. Ex: Banana, Grapes, Pineapple.
Types of True Fruits
1. Simple Fruits (from single ovary)
o Dry
o Fleshy/Drupe – Pericarp differentiated into:
▪ Epicarp (outer skin)
▪ Mesocarp (fleshy/edible in mango, fibrous in
coconut)
▪ Endocarp (stony/hard in mango & coconut)
▪ Ex: Mango, Coconut (drupe, single seed).
2. Aggregate Fruits – From a single flower with multiple
apocarpous ovaries.
o Ex: Custard apple, Raspberry.
3. Composite (Multiple) Fruits – From entire inflorescence.
o Ex: Pineapple, Jackfruit, Mulberry, Fig.
Importance of Fruits
• Source of vitamins, minerals, sugars, pectin.
• Staple food: cereals (one-seeded dry fruits).
• Eaten by birds & animals (dispersal).
• Medicinal: Amla, Datura, Poppy.
• Protect immature seeds.
• Unripe fruits are bitter (tannins/alkaloids) → protect from animals.

Seed: A seed is a ripened ovule containing an embryo with stored food.

• Parts: Seed coat (testa + tegmen) + Embryo (radicle, plumule,
cotyledon).
Types of Seeds
1. Dicot Seed (e.g., Gram, Pea)
o Seed coat → Testa (hard) + Tegmen (thin).
o Hilum (scar of attachment), micropyle (small pore), raphae (ridge).
o Embryo:
▪ Radicle → Root
▪ Plumule → Shoot
▪ 2 cotyledons (store food).
o Endosperm absent (non-
endospermous).
 2. Monocot Seed (e.g., Maize)
o Endospermic (bulk food storage).
o Aleurone layer surrounds
endosperm.
o Embryo:
▪ One cotyledon (scutellum).
▪ Plumule inside coleoptile, radicle
inside coleorhiza.
o Seed coat fused with pericarp.

Semi-Technical Description of Flowering Plant

• Floral Formula: Symbolic representation of
flower characters.
• Floral Diagram: Diagrammatic representation
showing arrangement of floral parts.

1. Family: Solanaceae (Potato Family)

Systematic Position
• Kingdom: Plantae
• Division: Angiosperms
• Class: Dicotyledonae
• Order: Solanales
• Family: Solanaceae
Distribution
• 90 genera, ~2800 species.
• Found in tropics, subtropics & temperate regions.
Habit
• Annual/perennial herbs, shrubs, rarely trees.
Vegetative Characters
• Root: Tap root system.
• Stem: Herbaceous/woody, may bear hairs/prickles, underground tubers (potato).
• Leaf: Alternate, simple, exstipulate, rarely compound (tomato).
Floral Characters
• Inflorescence: Solitary, axillary, cymose.
• Flower: Bisexual, actinomorphic, pentamerous, hypogynous. Actinomorphic (radially symmetrical),
bisexual.
• Calyx: 5 sepals, free or slightly fused (gamosepalous), valvate aestivation, persistent.
• Corolla: 5 petals, fused (sympetalous), twisted aestivation
• Androecium: 5 stamens, epipetalous (attached to corolla tube), alternate with petals.
• Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous (2 fused carpels), superior ovary, bilocular with many ovules.
• Receptacle: Slightly concave; floral formula:
Fruit: Berry or capsule.
• Seeds: Endospermic, embryo straight.
• Special feature in diagram: Ovary with axile placentation; stamens often enclosed in corolla tube.
Economic Importance
1. Food plants: Potato, tomato, brinjal, chilli.
2. Tobacco: Nicotiana tabacum (nicotine).
3. Medicinal:
o Atropa belladonna → Atropine, Belladonna.
o Datura stramonium → Asthma treatment.
o Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), Hyoscyamus niger.
4. Ornamentals: Cestrum nocturnum (Night queen), Petunia.

2. Family Fabaceae
• Type of flower: Zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical), bisexual.
• Calyx: 5 sepals, gamosepalous, valvate aestivation.
• Corolla: Papilionaceous: 5 petals – 1 banner/standard (outermost), 2
wings (lateral), 2 keel petals (fused) Vexillary Aestivation.
• Androecium: 10 stamens, diadelphous (9 fused + 1 free).
• Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, superior ovary, one locule, marginal
placentation.
• Receptacle: Slightly concave. Floral formula:
• Special feature in diagram: Show zygomorphic symmetry with unequal
petals and diadelphous stamens.
3. Family Liliaceae
• Type of flower: Actinomorphic, bisexual.
• Calyx: 3 sepals (often petaloid), free.
• Corolla: 3 petals, free or resembling sepals; perianth parts similar (tepals).
• Androecium: 6 stamens, free, arranged in two whorls of 3 each.
• Gynoecium: 3 carpels, syncarpous, superior ovary, trilocular with axile
placentation.
• Receptacle: Flat; floral formula:
• Special feature in diagram: Perianth of 6 tepals in 2 whorls; show trimerous
arrangement.

4. Family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae / Mustard family)

• Type of flower: Actinomorphic, bisexual.
• Calyx: 4 sepals, free, Imbricate arrangement.
• Corolla: 4 petals, free, cruciform (cross-shaped), alternate with sepals, Velvet
Aestivation.
• Androecium: 6 stamens, tetradynamous (4 long + 2 short).
• Gynoecium: 2 carpels, syncarpous, superior ovary, 2-locular with a false septum
(replum), marginal placentation.
• Receptacle: Slightly elongated; floral formula:
Floral Formula: ⊕ ⚥ K₂+₂ C₄ A₂+₄ G(2)
Special feature in diagram: Show tetradynamous stamens; ovary with replum.

5. Family Malvaceae (Hibiscus/Okra family)

• Type of flower: Actinomorphic (radial symmetry), bisexual.
• Calyx: 5 sepals, gamosepalous (fused), valvate aestivation, often with an epicalyx (whorl of bracteoles
resembling sepals).
• Corolla: 5 petals, polypetalous (free), twisted (contorted)
aestivation, often showy.
• Androecium: Numerous stamens (monadelphous) – staminal
filaments fused into a staminal tube around the style; anthers are
monothecous (one-lobed, one-celled).
• Gynoecium: Multicarpellary (usually 5–10), syncarpous, superior
ovary, multilocular with axile placentation.
• Receptacle: Slightly elongated.
• Floral formula: ⚥ ⚘ K(5) C5 A∞ G(5–10)
• Special feature in diagram: Show epicalyx, twisted corolla aestivation, monadelphous staminal tube
with monothecous anthers, and axile placentation.
The Electron Transport
• Membrane of Thyllakoid contains both PS I and PS II while Stroma Lamella contains only PS I.
• Occur in membrane thylakoid/Grana consisting of both PS I and PS II.
• Light of 680nm wavelength is absorbed by LHC of PS II.
• Electrons becomes excided and jump to next orbitals (farther from nucleus)
and finally accepted by electron acceptor of PS II.
• Electrons moves through Electron Transport System (ETS) downhill
(releasing ATP) to LHC of PS I.
• Electrons of PS I reaction centre also gets excited (at 700nm) & moves
uphill to PS I electron acceptor of greater redox potential.
• Finally pass on downhill to NADP+ where it gets redused to NADPH + H+
• Electrons are passed downhill energy is released.
• The whole scheme of transfer of electron is called Z-scheme due to its shape.

Splitting of Water

• Photolysis of water release electrons that replaces electron of PS II. PS I electrons are replaced by PS II
electrons.
• Each molecule of water release 2H+, [O] and 2 e-
• Only PS II (located on inner side of thylakoid membrane) is associated with splitting of water.
• The protons get accumulated in the lumen of the thylakoid and the oxygen gets into the atmosphere.

Photophosphorylation: The process in which ATP is synthesised from ADP and inorganic phosphate (P) by cell organelle
(chloroplast) with the help of light.

Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
Both the photosystems (PS-I and PS-II) cooperate.
The electron released from PS-II does not return to it
Both NADPH and ATP are formed during this reaction.

Cyclic photophosphorylation

• Occur when non-cyclic photophosphorylation do not occur due to certain condition.

• Occur in Stromal Lamella where only PS I is functional as it lacks PS II & NADP
reductase enzyme.
• Occur only when light beyond 680 nm wavelengths are available for
excitation.
• Light of 700nm wavelength is absorbed by chlorophyll a.
• Electrons accepted by electron acceptor of PS I.
• Excited e- do not pass on to NADP+ but recycled back to PS I through ETS.
• Only ATP is synthesised.

Chemiosmotic Hypothesis - Proposed by Mitchell in 1961.

• Water Oxidised and split into O2 (goes to atmosphere), H+ (accumulate in lumen) & e- (move to PS II to replace
lost e-).
• Proton gradient develop across membrane. Lumen -high H+ & stroma – low H+.
• The primary acceptor of electron of PS II (located outer side of the membrane) transfers e- to the proton (H+)
carrier and not to the electron carrier.
• While transporting an electron Plastoquinone takes a proton (H+) from the stroma & release into lumen.
• Electron from Plastoquinone is passed on to Cytochrome B6f which deliver further to plastocyanin & finally to
PS I which replaces excited PSI reaction center electron.
• Ferredoxin (Fd) protein carries e- from PS I and transfer to another protein that catalyses transportation of e- to
NADP+ where it gets redused to NADPH + H+ with the help of enzyme NADP reductase (located stromal side).

•
Transportation of protons takes place across the membrane when the electron moves through photosystems.
• Gradient is broken down due by movement of H+ across the membrane to the stroma through trans-membrane
channel of F0 of ATPase. One part of this enzyme is embedded in membrane to form trans-membrane channel.
The other portion is called F1 that protrudes on the outer surface of membrane which makes the energy
packed ATP.
• ATP and NADPH produced due to movement of electron is used immediately to fix CO2 to form sugar.
• The product of light reaction used to drive the process leading to synthesis of sugar are called biosynthetic
phase of photosynthesis.
 Primary Meristem
Differentiation -Maturation of Primary Meristem cell to perform specific function.
Primary Permanent
Tissue
Dedifferentiation -Living differentiated cells regain the capacity of division.
Secondary Meristem
Redifferentiation -Dedifferentiated cell lost the capacity of division.
Secondary Permanent
Tissue

During Differentiation: Cells undergo structural changes

both in their cell walls and protoplasm.
It may develop a very strong, elastic, lignocellulosic
secondary cell walls, to carry water to long distances even
under extreme tension

The growth in plants is open, i.e., it can be indeterminate (ex: No.

of leaves on a tree) or determinate (ex: leaf size).

Development
• All changes in life cycle of an organism from seed germination to senescence.
• Sum total of growth and differentiation.

Plasticity: Different pathway followed by plant to change its

structure in response to environment or phases of life.
Ex: Heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur (different
leaves in different phases of life).
Buttercup (Environment-different shape in air and in water)
.
 Promote cell division, Induce dormancy &
enlargement, flowering, abscission. Respond to
fruiting & seed formation wound & stress of biotic
etc. & abiotic origin.