Introduction to Psychology,
Sport, and Exercise
Lesson 2
Asst. Prof. Raymond B. Esperida, MSPT, PTRP, FRIPOT, GDMT, CNMT, PhD©
College of Sports, Physical Education, and Recreation
Cavite State University
Research Methods
• EXPERIMENTS
• Experiments manipulate one variable (the
independent variable) to see what effect this has
on another (the dependent variable).
• Experiments should be internally and externally
valid.
• To be internally valid, the true ‘between- groups’
experiment needs to consist of: random
allocation to groups; pretesting; administration
of the treatment to the experimental group, but
not the control group; and finally, post-testing of
both groups.
Research Methods
• EXPERIMENTS
• To increase external validity, researchers employ
deception and conduct field experiments.
• Ethical issues must be considered when designing
and carrying out experiments.
• The value of the true experiment is that it allows
strong inferences about causality.
Research Methods
• SINGLE-SUBJECT MULTIPLE BASELINE DESIGNS
• The single-subject, multiple baseline design allows
the benefits of experimental rigor with the possibility
of gathering individualized data of a more detailed
nature.
• It is particularly useful in applied research with top
athletes, where large numbers of experimental
participants are not available.
• The design typically involves the staggered
introduction and withdrawal of the treatment to
individual athletes over a set period, during which
performance is repeatedly monitored.
• Evidence that the technique is effective would result
if performance improves in each participant following
the treatment, and declines again after its cessation.
Research Methods
• CASE STUDIES AND INTERVIEWING
• Case studies involve an in-depth investigation of
one individual.
• It is useful in sport research because it allows us
to explore the psychology of elite athletes who
can recount what it is to be in situations of
extreme pressure.
• Case studies are more open to the possibility of
subjectivity, but they are likely to uncover a much
richer picture of events.
Research Methods
• CASE STUDIES AND INTERVIEWING
• Interviews are useful for exploring the athlete’s
perceptions in depth.
• They can also be helpful, when for practical or
ethical reasons; experiments are difficult or
unacceptable to do.
• Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or
open-ended depending on the nature of the
information required.
Research Methods
• OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES
• Observational techniques basically involve
monitoring and recording behavior.
• They are often used when we wish to gather data
unobtrusively or when we are unable to conduct
experiments or interview athletes.
• To guard against subjective bias, two or more
observers are typically employed, and their
interrater reliability is monitored.
• Without other evidence it is sometimes hard to
correctly interpret observed behavior. As well as
being useful in their own right they are often
used in combination with other methods.
Qualitative-Quantitative Issue
• QUALITATIVE APPROACH
• Proponents of qualitative research are unhappy
about the traditional approach of positivist
science.
• They advocate a holistic approach in preference
to reductionism, and a move from reliance on the
experiment, to techniques such as action
research, case studies, in-depth interviews, focus
groups, participant observation, and discourse
analysis.
• They also argue that positivism cannot reach the
richness and depth of human experience and that
what is needed is a shift in focus from research in
the laboratory to research in the real world.
Qualitative-Quantitative Issue
• QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE DEBATE
• The qualitative-quantitative debate is one in
which it is very easy for views to become
polarized.
• The qualitative approach has the advantage that
it provides a depth and richness of detailed
information on the experience of the athlete.
• These experiences are expressed in categories
that come from the athlete, rather than coming
from the restricted options presented in the
typical questionnaire.
Qualitative-Quantitative Issue
• QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE DEBATE
• Another advantage claimed for the qualitative
approach is that the distance that often exists
between researcher and athlete is minimized.
• Negative side:
• 1. qualitative methods are said to increase the
possibility that subjective bias might creep into
the analysis.
• 2. reliance on the accounts of the participants.
• There is much evidence that suggests that people
do not have access to, and are not always aware
of, the factors which influence their thoughts,
emotions and behavior.
Qualitative-Quantitative Issue
• QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• The two approaches have their pros and cons and
the question of which is better, is one that must
be considered in context.
• For applied work in the field, qualitative research
characterized by richness and depth, in specific
ecologically valid settings, would seem well
suited.
• If the aim is to discover underlying processes and
laws that govern behavior, then positivism has a
great deal to offer.
• Another option is to use both. This might allow
for a quantitative cross- checking of the more
intuitive findings of qualitative analysis.
Qualitative-Quantitative Issue
• QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Some researchers might argue against this
eclectic approach, on the grounds that there is a
fundamental incompatibility between the
underpinning philosophies of the two approaches
and that their ideas are mutually exclusive.
• Where the assumptions that drive the researcher
are not incompatible, and where the finding will
help to broaden a phenomenological
understanding and deepen a positivist one, the
use of both would seem fruitful.