CONTROL ENGINEERING

Controlled Variable (Control Signal) or Manipulated Variable. The controlled

variable is the quantity or condition that is measured and controlled.

The control signal or manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that is varied by
the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.

In studying control engineering, we need to define additional terms that are

necessary to describe control systems.

Plants: A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts
functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation.

Any physical object to be controlled (such as a mechanical device, a heating furnace, a

chemical reactor, or a spacecraft) a plant.

Processes: Any operation to be controlled. Examples are chemical, economic, and

biological processes.

Systems: A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a

certain objective.

A system need not be physical.

Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the
output of a system.

If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called internal, while an external

disturbance is generated outside the system and is an input.

Feedback Control: Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of

disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the output of a system and some
reference input and does so on the basis of this difference.

Here only unpredictable disturbances are so specified, since predictable or known

disturbances can always be compensated for within the system.

The controller drives a process or a plant.

The input is sometimes called the reference, while the output can be called the
controlled variable.

Closed-Loop Control Systems: Feedback control systems are often referred to as

closed-loop control systems.

1
In a closed-loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the difference
between the input signal and the feedback signal (which may be the output signal itself
or a function of the output signal and its derivatives and/or integrals), is fed to the
controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a desired value.

The term closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback control action in order
to reduce system error.

Open-Loop Control Systems: Those systems in which the output has no effect on the
control action are called open-loop control systems.

In other words, in an open loop control system the output is neither measured nor fed
back for comparison with the input.

One practical example is a washing machine. Soaking, washing, and rinsing in the
washer operate on a time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, that
is, the cleanliness of the clothes.
In any open-loop control system the output is not compared with the reference input.

In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not perform the
desired task.

Open-loop control can be used, in practice, only if the relationship between the
input and output is known and if there are neither internal nor external
disturbances.

Clearly, such systems are not feedback control systems. Note that any control system
that operates on a time basis is open loop.

For instance, traffic control by means of signals operated on a time basis is another
example of open-loop control.

Therefore, it is worthwhile to summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using

open-loop control systems.
The major advantages of open-loop control systems are as follows:
 Simple construction and ease of maintenance.
 Less expensive than a corresponding closed-loop system.
 There is no stability problem.
 Convenient when output is hard to measure or measuring the output precisely is
economically not feasible. (For example, in the washer system, it would be quite
expensive to provide a device to measure the quality of the washer’s output,
cleanliness of the clothes.)

The major disadvantages of open-loop control systems are as follows:

 Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors, and the output may be
different from what is desired.

2
  To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration is necessary from
time to time.

Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

Mathematical models may assume many different forms.

Depending on the particular system and the particular circumstances, one

mathematical model may be better suited than other models.

For example, in optimal control problems, it is advantageous to use state-space

representations.

On the other hand, for the transient-response or frequency-response analysis of

single-input, single-output, linear, time-invariant systems, the transfer-function
representation may be more convenient than any other.

Once a mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical and

computer tools can be used for analysis and synthesis purposes.

Linear Systems: A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies.

The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous
application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the two individual responses.

Hence, for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be calculated by
treating one input at a time and adding the results. It is this principle that allows one to
build up complicated solutions to the linear differential equation from simple solutions.

Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems: A differential

equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent
variable.

Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter

components may be described by linear time-invariant differential equations—that is,
constant-coefficient differential equations.

Such systems are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems.
Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are functions
of time are called linear time-varying systems.

An example of a time-varying control system is a spacecraft control system. (The mass

of a spacecraft changes due to fuel consumption.)

3
The Design Process
Step 1: Transform Requirements into a Physical System
We begin by transforming the requirements into a physical system.

Step 2: Draw a Functional Block Diagram

Translate a qualitative description of the system into a functional block diagram that
describes the component parts of the system (that is, functionand/or hardware) and
shows their interconnection.

Step 3: Create a Schematic

Step 4: Develop a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)

Once the schematic is drawn, physical laws are used to model the system
mathematically.

Kirchhoff’s laws are used to model electrical networks and Newton’s law for mechanical
systems.
.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law: The sum of voltages around a closed path equals zero.

Kirchhoff’s current law: The sum of electric currents flowing from a node equals zero.

Newton’s laws: The sum of forces on a body equals zero; the sum of moments on a
body equals zero.

Step 5: Analyze and Design

Transfer Function and Impulse function

The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined
as:
 The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the
Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption that all
initial conditions are zero.

Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following differential equation:

where y is the output of the system and x is the input.

 The transfer function of this system is the ratio of the Laplace transformed output
to the Laplace transformed input when all initial conditions are zero, or

4
By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by
algebraic equations in s.

If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth-order system.

The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to linear, time-
invariant, differential equation systems. The transfer function approach, however,
is extensively used in the analysis and design of such systems.

1. The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model that expresses the

differential equation that relates the output variable to the input variable.
2. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the
magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.
3. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the
output; however, it does not provide any information concerning the physical
structure of the system.
4. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be
studied for various forms of inputs to understanding the nature of the system.
5. If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established
experimentally by introducing known inputs and studying the output of the
system. Once established, a transfer function gives a full description of the
dynamic characteristics of the system, as distinct from its physical description.

Convolution Integral
For a linear, time-invariant system the transfer function G(s) is

where X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input to the system and Y(s) is the Laplace
transform of the output of the system,

We assume that all initial conditions are zero.

It follows that the output Y(s) can be written as the product of G(s) and X(s), or

5
Note that multiplication in the complex domain is equivalent to convolution in the time
domain, so the inverse Laplace transform of is given by the following convolution
integral:

where both g(t) and x(t) are 0 for t<0.

Impulse-Response Function
Consider the output (response) of a linear time-invariant system to a unit-impulse input
when the initial conditions are zero.

Since the Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is unity, the Laplace transform
of the output of the system is

The inverse Laplace transform of G(s),

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

A control system may consist of a number of components.
To show the functions performed by each component, in control engineering, we
commonly use a diagram called the block diagram.

Block Diagrams

A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by

each component and of the flow of signals.

In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks.

The blocks are connected by arrows.

The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the
input signal to the block that produces the output.

The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the corresponding
blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of signals.

Note that the signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows.

6
Summing Point
A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing operation.

The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be added
or subtracted.

It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the same dimensions
and the same units.

Branch Point
A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other
blocks or summing points.

Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System

Figure below shows an example of a block diagram of a closed-loop system.

The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with the
reference input R(s) signal.

The output of the block, C(s) in this case, is obtained by multiplying the transfer
function G(s) by the input to the block, E(s).

Any linear control system may be represented by a block diagram consisting of blocks,
summing points, and branch points.

When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is
necessary to convert the form of the output signal to that of the input signal.
7
This conversion is accomplished by the feedback element, whose transfer function is
H(S).

The role of the feedback element is to modify the output before it is compared with the
input.

In most cases the feedback element is a sensor that measures the output of the plant.

The output of the sensor is compared with the system input, and the actuating error
signal is generated.)

The feedback signal that is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the
input is B(s) = H(s)C(s).

Open-Loop Transfer Function and Feedforward Transfer Function

Referring to Figure above, the ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error
signal E(s) is called the open-loop transfer function.

That is,

The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the
feedforward transfer function, so that

If the feedback transfer function H(s) is unity, then the open-loop transfer function and
the feedforward transfer function are the same.

Closed-Loop Transfer Function

For the system shown in Figure above, the output C(s) and input R(s) are related as
follows: since

8
eliminating E(s) from these equations gives

The transfer function relating C(s) to R(s) is called the closed-loop transfer function.

It relates the closed-loop system dynamics to the dynamics of the feedforward elements
and feedback elements.

From Equation above, C(s) is given by

Thus the output of the closed-loop system clearly depends on both the closed-loop
transfer function and the nature of the input.

Example 1
Find the transfer function represented by

Solution
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial conditions, we have:

The transfer function, G(s), is

Example 2
Use the result of Example 1 to find the response, c(t) to an input, r(t)=u(t), a unit step,
assuming zero initial conditions.

Solution
To solve the problem, we know that G(s)=1/(s+2), where r(t) = u(t) and r(t) is unit step =
1/s, the initial conditions are taken to be zero;

9
Expanding by partial fractions, we get

Finally, taking the inverse Laplace transform of each term yields

Home work
1. Find the transfer function, G(s) = C(s)/R(s), corresponding to the differential
equation

Answer

2. Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer function,

Answer

3. Find the ramp response for a system whose transfer function is

Answer

Block Diagram Manipulation

Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:

(series)

We can obtain the resultant transfer functions of the connected blocks in two ways:
a) Manual Manipulation
b) Using MATLAB

Cascaded (series) Transfer functions

10
Two or more transfer functions are arranged in series (cascade) when the output of the
first transfer function is the input of the following transfer function.

For any finite number of transfer functions blocks connected in series (cascade) can
be algebraically combined by multiplication of the transfer functions.

For several transfer functions say H1(s), H2(s), H3(s), … Hn(s), the resulting transfer
functions H(s) is:

For our particular case, with two transfer functions, the resulting transfer function H(s)
will be:

We can prove this using the following:

The two transfer functions are defined as:

It is also known that the input u2(s) is equal with the output y1(s):

The overall transfer function of the system H(s), can be written as:

Since the input in the connected transfer functions is u1(s) and the final output is y2(s).

Hence if we extract y2(s) and u1(s) and replace in equation above:

11
Example 1

Let’s define two transfer functions H1(s) and H2(s) as:

The equivalent transfer function is:

Transfer function in parallel (forward loop)

In a parallel connection of transfer functions the same input is fed to all the transfer
functions and all the outputs are summed together.

The equivalent transfer function is this case is the algebraic sum of all the transfer
functions.

In a parallel connection block diagram all the inputs u1(s), u2(s), u3(s), … un(s)
are equal to each other and the final output y(s) is the algebraic sum of all the
outputs y1(s), y2(s), y3(s), … yn(s).

In this case we can write the general expression of the equivalent transfer function for a
forward loop parallel connection as:

For out particular case, with two transfer functions connected in parallel (forward loop),
the equivalent transfer function is:
12
(give proof)

Example:
Let’s define H1(s) and H2(s) as:

Transfer function in parallel (feedback loop)

In this connection, the output of first transfer function y1(s) is fed back as input to the
second transfer function.

Then, the output of the second transfer function y2(s) is added/subtracted from the
input u(s).

This configuration is also known as the canonical form of a feedback control system.

For two given transfer functions H1(s) and H2(s) connected in parallel with a feedback
loop, the equivalent transfer function H(s) is:

Proof

Both transfer functions are defined as:

13
the input u2(s) is equal with the output y1(s) and equal with the equivalent output y(s):

The input u1(s) is equal with the sum between the output y2(s) and the equivalent input
u(s):

Then, the overall transfer function of the system H(s), can be written as:

Hence;

Example:

Let’s define H1(s) and H2(s) as:

gives the equivalent transfer function:

14
Unity feedback system

We have a unity feedback system when the second transfer function H2(s) is equal to
1:

The equivalent transfer function for the unity feedback system is:

Using MATLAB

MATLAB has convenient commands to obtain the cascaded, parallel, and feedback
(closed-loop) transfer functions.

Suppose that there are two transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) connected differently as
shown below:
a)

b)

c)

Where

15
To obtain the transfer functions of the cascaded system, parallel system, or feedback
(closed-loop) system, the following commands may be used:
[num, den] = series(num1,den1,num2,den2)
[num, den] = parallel(num1,den1,num2,den2)
[num, den] = feedback(num1,den1,num2,den2)

Example

Obtain transfer functions:

Solution

Note that the command

printsys(num,den)

displays the num/den of the system considered.

MATLAB Program
num1 = [10];
den1 = [1 2 10];
num2 = [5];
den2 = [1 5];
[num, den] = series(num1,den1,num2,den2);
printsys(num,den)
num/den =

[num, den] = parallel(num1,den1,num2,den2);

printsys(num,den)
num/den =

[num, den] = feedback(num1,den1,num2,den2);

printsys(num,den)
num/den =

16
Block Diagram Algebra

Often want to simplify block diagrams into simpler, recognizable forms

Move blocks around relative to summing junctions and pickoff points – simplify to a
standard form

 Move blocks forward/backward past summing junctions

 Move blocks forward/backward past pickoff points

Moving Blocks Back Past a Summing Junction

The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

Moving Blocks Forward Past a Summing Junction

The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

17
Moving Blocks Relative to Pickoff Points

We can move blocks backward past pickoff points:

And, we can move them forward past pickoff points:

18
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS

The fundamental law governing mechanical systems is Newton’s second law.

We apply this law to various mechanical systems and derive transfer function models.

The basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s laws.

We obtain transfer-function models of various electrical circuits and operational amplifier

systems that may appear in many control systems.

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Consider the spring-mass-dashpot system mounted on a massless cart as shown in

below:

To obtain mathematical models of this system, we assume that the cart is standing
still for t<0.

The spring-mass-dashpot system on the cart is also standing still for t<0.

In this system, u(t) is the displacement of the cart and is the input to the system.

At t = 0, the cart is moved at a constant speed, or du/dt = 0.

The displacement y(t) of the mass is the output

m = mass,
b = denotes the viscous-friction coefficient, and
k = denotes the spring constant.

19
Assuming that the friction force of the dashpot is proportional to dy/dt = du/dt and that
the spring is a linear spring; that is, the spring force is proportional to y – u.

According to Newton’s second law:

where
m = mass,
a = acceleration of the mass, and
ΣF= sum of the forces acting on the mass in the direction of the acceleration a.

Applying Newton’s second law to the present system and noting that the cart is
massless, we obtain

Taking the Laplace transform of this last equation, assuming zero initial condition,
gives

Taking the ratio of Y(s) to U(s), we find the transfer function of the system to be

Such a transfer-function representation of a mathematical model is used very frequently

in control engineering.

Question 1

Obtain the transfer functions and of the mechanical system shown in figure below.

The equations of motion for the system shown in figure above:

20
Simplifying, we obtain

Taking the Laplace transforms of these two equations, assuming zero initial conditions,
we obtain

Substituting

From which we obtain

Then

Question 2

An inverted pendulum mounted on a motor-driven cart is shown in Figure below. This

is a model of the attitude control of a space booster on takeoff. (The objective of the
attitude control problem is to keep the space booster in a vertical position.) The
inverted pendulum is unstable in that it may fall over any time in any direction unless a
suitable control force is applied. Here we consider only a two-dimensional problem in
which the pendulum moves only in the plane of the page. The control force u is applied
to the cart.

21
Define the angle of the rod from the vertical line as θ.

Define also the (x, y) coordinates of the center of gravity of the pendulum rod as (xG,
yG).

Then

22