PMTH002- Mathematical Techniques & Analysis

Chapter 1- Data Types & Structures

1.1 Introduction to Data & Tables

- Statistics is the branch of mathematics that involves collecting, organizing, analysing &
presenting numerical data about a particular situation.
- Descriptive statistics deals with the tabular or graphical presentation of data
- Variable refers to the characteristics being measured, counted or observed.
- Data array is the raw data obtained from a survey arranged in a table form to obtain a
frequency distribution table
- Statistical inference is the process of arriving at conclusions, predictions, forecasts or
estimates based on that data.
1.2 Graphs & Charts
- There are 8 types of graphs & charts.
- Graphically displaying data helps to provide a visual distribution of the information based on
the objective or question in mind.
- Example:
- Number of employees by department
- Favourite brands of ice-cream
- Performance of the company over the last five years
- Marks obtained by students in a class for a test

Characteristics of Graphs or Charts

All Bar Graph & Line Graph Pie Chart

1. Title 1. Title

2. Label of Axis with: 2. Label Sectors with

Name, Unit & Values Name & % only
% must be whole number

3. Colour to show differences 3. Colour to show differences

4. Legend 4. Legend (Optional)

1.2.1 Standard Bar Graphs

- Display categorical data
- Compares the data values through the height of each bar
- To see/ show distributions
- E.g. Number of students in a class

1.2.2 Component Bar Graphs

- Shows the component of each item to see how the sub-components make up the individual
items
- Keyword: Total
- Components of expenses from the total monthly expenses

1.2.3 Comparative Bar Graphs

- Used when there is a need to do the comparison for each item and also when reference to
differences
- Keyword: Comparison between
- Comparison between male and female participation in the gym between 3 different gyms

1.2.4 Line Graphs

- Simple/ standard line graph & Multiple line graph
- Used to track how one variable changes with respect to a second variable, usually time
- Sales of a company for the last 5 years
- Also be used to show the comparison between two items over time
 - Comparison between the sales of 2 most popular brands of ice cream

**For multiple line graphs, use 2 diff colours

**Usually if the variable is time, means hv to use line graphs

1.2.5 Pie Charts

- To show how a whole amount is divided into parts, the percentage of representation of the
whole unit.
- Keyword: composition
- % of profit contributed by each department from the total profit earned
- Need to calculate the % cz hv to label % inside each sector

Note to rmb:
1. Title
2. Label the sectors with the name & % only
3. % in whole numbers
4. Sectors must be from the biggest to the smallest in clockwise order
5. Pie chart sectors must have colour

1.2.6 Dot Plot

- Best for a small set of discrete numerical or categorical data where the values are reasonably
close in size
- It provides a quick view of the shape of the distribution
- Show the number of items for each category
- Title
- Data can be rounded up as needed (Don’t do if ques doesn’t require)

1.2.7 Stem & Leaf Plot

- Best for a small set of discrete numerical data where the values are reasonably close in size
- Provide a quick view of the shape of distribution
1. Stem & Leaf
2. Split stem & leaf (can see distribution, more obvious and detailed)
3. Back-to-back stem & leaf
- KEY need to have units

1.2.8 Histogram
- Consists of a set of vertical bars but is specially used to represent grouped data with interval
only.
- Frequency distribution table is a table displaying the number of values that fall within a
specific class or categories called class intervals.
- The bars must be joined together
CHAPTER 2: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
1. Explain the meaning of the measures of central tendency (MCT)
2. Apply calculations for MCT measurement for the following data types:
a. Ungrouped data
b. Grouped data w/o interval
c. Group data w interval
3. Interpret the Cumulative Frequency Curve for all data types

2.1 Introduction to Measures of Central Tendency (MCT)

3 MCT:
1. Mean - arithmetic average
2. Median - central value (positional value)
3. Mode - highest occurrence or most frequent data

**All calculations must be in 4d.p.

Discrete Data Continuous Data

- 4 d.p. Or whole number (depends on - 2 d.p. With units

ques)

- Mean = 2.2548 - Mean = 13.58kg

- Mean = 3 books

2.2 MCT Measurement for Ungrouped Data

∑𝑥
Mean 𝑥 = 𝑛

Median using (n+1) method

MCT Observation

Mode - Outlier no effect on mode

Median - Outlier no effect on median

- Change in median is due to “n” not outlier

Mean - Outlier does not affect mean

- Bigger outlier: increase mean
- Smaller outlier: decrease mean
2.3 MCT Measurement for Grouped Data without Interval

∑𝑓𝑥
Mean 𝑥 = ∑𝑓

Median using (∑f +1) method

2.4 MCT Measurement for Grouped Data with Interval

Mean - Using mid-points (x) of each interval

Median - From Ogive or using formula
Mean - From histogram using the ‘X’ method or using formula

For grouped data with intervals, before any MCT calculations are done, the table needs to be updated:
1. Class intervals must have a boundary
2. Midpoints for each class interval
3. Cumulative frequency for each class interval
4. Frequency x midpoint

Purpose of Boundary
- To find class width, UB - LB
- LB - for histogram
- UB - for ogive
- To find midpoint of each class

Purpose of Midpoint, x
- To find fx - to find mean

Purpose of Cumulative Frequency

- To find median
- To draw ogive
 1
Midpoint = 2
(𝐿𝐵 + 𝑈𝐵)
Class width, C=UB-LB
Chapter 3- Measures of Dispersion
1. Introduction to Measures of Dispersion (MOD)
2. Range
3. Inter Quartile Range
4. Variance & Standard Deviation
5. Box & Whisker Plot

3.1 Introduction to Measures of Dispersion

- Refers to the variability of the distribution
- How spread out or scattered from its average value
- How far is the data spread away from the mean

MOD:
1. Range
2. Inter-Quartile Range
3. Variance
4. Standard Deviation

Note to rmb:
**All MOD must have relevant units
**All MOD must have 4d.p.
**All final ans for continuous data must be in 2 d.p. with units
Chapter 4- Measures of Skewness
4.1 Introduction to Measures of Skewness
CHAPTER 5: NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
1. When can apply Normal Distribution Curve
2. 68-95-99.7 Rule
3. Sketch a Normal Distribution Curve (4 important elements)
4. The z-score (standard score)
5. Uses of z-score to compare

5.1 What is Normal?

A distribution is known as reasonably/ somewhat symmetrical if it is not skewed and the shape of the
distribution (histogram) resembles a Bell Curve.

Approximately 95% of the data would lie in the range of [𝑥-2s, 𝑥+2s].

Many measurable numerical variables (continuous data) such as height & weight have distributions
that can be approximated by a bell-shaped curve, known as normal distribution.

5.2 68-95-99.7 Rule

- 68% of values will lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean [𝑥±s].
- 95% of values will lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean [𝑥±2s].
- 99.7% of values will lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean [𝑥±3s].

Use solid line cz we are including data

4 Important Elements:
1. Percentage
2. Label (z-score)
3. Calculation (formula)
4. Answer (Values)

(90, 110) = 90<x<110 (not included)

[90, 110] = 90≪x≪110 (included)

For a normal curve, use [ ]

Two third of all: 68%

Virtually all: 99.7%
σ is the standard deviation of the population.
s is the standard deviation of the sample.

5.3 z-score

● A standard score (z-score) indicates by how many standard deviations, σ an observation is

above or below the mean.
● It is the actual distance (on a standardized scale) of that value away from the mean.
● The z-score is a dimensionless quantity. Hence, no units.
● Any score can be standardized using the formula:

If a data set is known to be approximately normal/ bell-shaped in its distribution, then its mean &
standard deviation can be used to infer how extreme any individual data value might be.

The bigger the z-score, the more extreme the data will be.

It can also be used to compare 2 different sets of data to see how the data is spread away from the
mean.
CHAPTER 6: PROBABILITY - AN INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction to Probabilities
2. Probability of an Event
3. Types of Events
4. Notations and Definitions
5. Complementary Event Law

6.1 Introduction to Probabilities

● Probability is the branch of mathematics that studies the possible outcomes of given
events together with the outcomes’ relative likelihoods and distributions.

● Probability means the chance that a particular event (or set of events) will occur expressed
on a linear scale from 0 (impossibility) to 1 (certainly), also expressed as a percentage
between 0 and 100%.

● Statistic is the analysis of events governed by probability.

6.2 Probability of an Event

𝑛(𝐸)
P(E) =
𝑛(𝑆)

● Experiment is a situation involving chance or probability that leads to results called outcomes.
● Outcome is the result of a single trial of an experimet. (sample space)
● Event is one or more outcomes of an experiment.
● Probability is the measure of how likely an event is.

6.3 Types of Event

Types of Event Meaning

Mutually Exclusive Both events cannot happen at the same time.

Non-Mutually Exclusive Events which can occur together or at the same time.

Independent Events Occurrence of 1 event does not affect the other event.

Dependent Events (Conditional Where the outcome of one event is dependent on another
Probability Events) event.

Complementary An event either occurs or it does not occur.

** rmb the examples

6.4 Complementary Events

When the event is defined as A, so the complementary event will be NOT A (𝐴)
P(A) + P(𝐴) = 1
**IF NO, then UNKNOWN
CHAPTER 7: PROBABILITY-SAMPLE SPACE
1. Introduction to sample space
2. List & Grids
3. Venn Diagrams
4. Tree Diagrams
5. 2-way table
6. Identify which method to use based on the nature of the question

7.1 Introduction to Sample Space

● The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes for that experiment.
● The sum of the probabilities of the distinct outcomes within a sample space is 1.

Methods of Sample Space:

1. List or Grids
2. Venn Diagram
3. Tree Diagram
4. 2-Way table

7.2 Lists or Grids

Grids are normally used for 2 unbiased dice.
Sample space: Using a grid - show the totals of the 2 dice or show the outcomes of the 2 dice.

Lists are normally used when arranging items in a row (permutations).

There are 3 people: Short, Middle, Tall.
Sample space: Using list - to show possible arrangement.
List: TMS, TSM, MST, MTS, SMT, STM

NOTE: For Lists and Grids, the probability of each outcome is equally likely.
Equally likely means the same probability.
7.3 Venn Diagram
● Venn diagrams/ Set diagrams are diagrams that show all possible logical relations between a
few sets.
● Attributes that are exclusive to each group are listed in the circles.
● Attributes that are shared by both groups are listed in the intersecting space.

7.3.1 Venn Diagram - Set

Mathematical Notations
ξ Denote the universal set, which is all of the items which can appear in any set.
Usually represented by the outside rectangle on the Venn diagram.

∩ A ∩ B represents the intersection of sets A and B.

This is all the items which appear in set A and in set B.

∪ A ∪ B represents the union of sets A and B.

This is all the items which appear in set A or in set B or in both sets.

P' or P (apostrophe) denotes the complement of a set.

Is all the items which are not in set A.

⊂ A ⊂ B means that set A is a subset of set B.

Means that every member of set A also appears in set B.

∅ is the empty set - a set with no items in it.

For eg, if A is the set of numbers which are both odd and even then A = ∅.

n(S)=57 The number of elements in set S is 57.

|S|=57 The number of elements in set S is 57.

If draw element inside the Venn diagram, have to put a dot.

7.4 Tree Diagram
A tree diagram is normally used when there is a sequence of events.

7.5 2-Way Table - Table of intersections

It is often used to record and analyse the relation when there are 2 variables with 2 outcomes.
Eg:
1. Gender (Male/ Female) & Walk (Walk/ Not walk)
2. Economics (Macro/ Micro) & Intake (March/ July)
3. Snack (Biscuit/ Not biscuit) & Drink (Tea/ Not tea)
CHAPTER 8: PROBABILITY LAWS
1. 5 laws:
I. Complementary Law
II. Additional Law
III. Conditional Law
IV. Multiplication Law
V. Multiplication Law for Independent Events

2. Use various methods of sample space:

I. Lists & Grids
II. Venn Diagram
III. Tree Diagram
IV. 2 Way Table

8.1 Complementary Law

When the event is defined as A, so the complementary event will be NOT A (𝐴)
P(A) + P(𝐴) = 1 or P(𝐴) = 1 - P(A)

8.2 Addition Law

To find the probability of event A or B, we must first determine whether the events are mutually
exclusive/ non-mutually exclusive.

Addition Rule:
Non-mutually exclusive events: P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B)
Mutually exclusive events: P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)

Keyword: OR
When two events, A and B, are non-mutually exclusive, P(A ∩ B) ≠ 0
When two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive, P(A ∩ B) = 0

8.3 Conditional Probability

● The conditional probability of an event B in relationship to an event A is the probability that
event B occurs given that event A has already occurred.
● The notation for conditional probability is P(B|A), read as the probability of B given A.

𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐵)
= 𝑃(𝐵)

Keyword: GIVEN/ IF
**Sample space shld be available for conditional questions.
**Look for the event inside the conditions, so, determine the conditions first.
Effects of conditions to events

1. What information can we obtain from conditional probability?

- Effect of the first event on the second
- Whether or not the events are dependent

2. When a question: “A or B is more likely to say yes?’ What does it mean?

- Does saying yes depends on being A or B
- A&B is the condition. Saying yes is the event.

3. What if the conditional probability and the probability of the event are the same?
P(E|A) = P(E|B) = P(E). What does it mean?
- The event E is independent and does not depend on either A or B.

8.4 Multiplication Law - Independent and Dependent Events

The probability of simultaneous occurrence of two independent events is the product of their separate
probabilities.

For Independent Events,

P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)

For Dependent Events,

P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B|A)
or
P(A ∩ B) = P(B) × P(A|B)

Keyword: AND
8.5 Summary of Probability