1.

The major differences between Crystalline and amorphous solids (only three differences)
Property Crystalline Amorphous
Arrangement long range order short-range order
Pattern definite repeating pattern. disorder pattern
Melting Point sharp melting point no sharp melting points
Heat of fusion Definite and characterized Don’t have
True solid Not real solids (Pseudo solids)
Nature
Melt ------ (Slow Cooling) -----˃ Crystalline Melt ------ (Fast Cooling) ----˃ Amorphous
• Anisotropy (the ability to change the
value of physical properties when
measured in different directions)
• Isomorphous (means two or more
properties • Isotropy (The same values in all direction)
substance having same crystal structure)
• Polymorphous (A single substance
crystallize in two or more forms at
different condition)

 Physical Properties (infractive index, dielectric constant, electrical conductivity)

 MCQ (Examples)
 Isomorphous (Na, MgO, NaNO3, CaCO3, K2SO4, K2SeO4, Cr2O3, Fe2O3)
 Not Isomorphous (NaCl and KCl)
 Polymorphous
• Carbon crystallizes as Diamonds, Graphite and Fullerene
• Sulphur crystallizes as Monoclinic and Rhombic.
2. Give Short notes on Molecular Solids
 Solid that consists of atoms or molecules held together by relatively weak forces.
 Molecular Solids can be classified to the following
Parameter Non-Polar Polar Hydrogen bonded
Non-Polar molecule or H atom and most
Constituent particle Polar molecule
atom electronegative atom
Examples H2, CL2, I2, He, CO SO2, HCL, etc H2O, NH3, HF
Nature of interaction London Dispersion Dipole - Dipole interaction Hydrogen bond
State at RT Gas, I2 is solid Gas Volatile liquid
Nature of Solid Soft Soft Soft
Melting point Lowest ˃ non-Polar ˃ Polar
Conductivity Non conductor Non conductor Non conductor

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 3. The major differences between (Diamond, graphite, Fullerene)
Property Diamond Graphite Fullerene
Form Allotropic form of C Allotropic form of C Allotropic form of C
Diamond Cubic Crystal Hexagonal Crystal Spherical Large
Each carbon atom bonded Each carbon atom bonded C60 (Buckminster
Structure to other 4-carbon atoms to to other 3-carbon atoms to fullerene) is composed of
form Giant molecule or form inter linked six 20 hexagons and 12
network solid. members ring pentagons.
Hybridization SP3 SP2 SP2
Stability Stable The most stable Allotrope Comparatively unstable
Hardness Hardest (Strongest) Low hardness Low hardness
Conductivity Bad conductor Good conductor Good conductor

4. Give Short notes on Metallic Solids

 The constituent particles in metallic solids are metal ion and free movable electrons
 This force of attraction is called metallic bond.
 They are good conductors of heat and electricity in solid.
 They have high melting and boiling points.
 They possess luster and color.
 They are malleable and ductile.

Malleability ‫ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﺭﻕ‬ Ductility ‫ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺛﻧﻲ‬

The capacity of a material to resist deformation The ability of a material to undergo
under Compression without rupture deformation under tension Without rupture
It is the property by which a material may be It is the property of material by which it can
hammered be Drawn into wires

5. Give Short notes on Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

 The fraction of the space occupied by atoms.
 The volume of atoms in a unit cell divided by the volume of the unit cell

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 6. Give Short notes on Theoretical Density (p)

Seven Bravais Lattice

Braggs' law

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 Polymorphism
7. Polymorphism in iron and steel industry
 At room temperature, iron exists as ferrite or α-iron (BCC structure)
 On heating ferrite at 910 °C, iron change sits crystal systems to the face-centered (FCC)
phase, and to (Austenite) at 1400 °C
 A third crystal system structure exists that known as the δ-iron (delta-iron) (BCC structure)

 Steel is formed of iron containing less than 2% carbon.

 This amount of carbon cannot be accommodated in the α-iron or δ-iron since the BCC
structure is relatively crowded structure.
 Therefore, carbon is added to iron in temperature range 910-1400 °C (during steel industry).

8. Polymorphism in Phosphorus
Difference Between White Phosphorus and Red Phosphorus
Property White Phosphorus (P4) Red Phosphorus (P)
white when fresh.
State and color Red powder
Turn yellow on exposure
Odor like garlic, poisonous. odorless, non-poisonous
Hardness soft brittle
Density 1.8 gm/cc 2.3 gm/cc
Ignition
30 °C 260 °C
temperature
Melting point 44 °C under water Sublimate at 400 °C
Solubility Soluble in CS insoluble in CS
Action of air Burns spontaneously Stable, does not burn
Crystal system Cubic Cubic

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 9. Polymorphism in calcium silicate Ca2SiO4
 Calcium silicate is the most important cementing component in Portland cement.
 It exists in three stable polymorphs and one metastable phase.
 The ɣ-form has the worst cementing properties. It has also large volume compared with the
other forms.
 The metastable β-form has the best cementing
properties.
 For these reasons, rapid cooling of manufactured
cement is usually performed to 670 °C to get as much product in the metastable β-form as
we can.
 Complete hydrolysis of cement is performed to avoid un-hydrated cement in the β-form that
might changes lowly to the ɣ-form with cracking of the concrete.

10. Polymorphism in titanium dioxide (TiO2)

 TiO2 is an important pigment material and exists in 3 different crystalline forms;
Rutile Tetragonal a=b≠c stable
Anatase Tetragonal a=b≠c Metastable
Brookite Orthorhombic a≠b≠c Metastable

Anatase -------------- (Heating) -----------------˃ Rutile

lower density (3.9 g/cc) Higher density (4.2 g/cc)
due to packing differences
 The Rutile and Anatase polymorphs are good photo active UV semiconductor
 They used extensively as a photo catalyst to mineralize a variety of environmental organic
pollutants in industrial waste water.
 The photocatalytic properties of TiO2 cause
photo toxicity due to generation of hydroxyl
radicals and hydrogen peroxide. These species
cause DNA destruction.
 So, the use of TiO2 in suns creams prohibited

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 Defect in solids
11. Give Short notes on Point Defects
 The point defect in crystal solid defect can be divided into the following:
1. Stoichiometric that classified into
I. ionic
Schottky defect Frenkel defect
Ionic compounds having high coordination Ionic compounds having low coordination
number number
Cations and Anions having almost similar Size Anions having much larger Size than Cations
Small ion left its position vacant and exist at
Equal number of cations and anions are missing
interstitial position
The density is lower The density is unchanged
NaCl, KCl, CsCl, AgBr, CaCl2, ZrO2. ZnS, AgBr, AgCl
II. Non-ionic
interstitial vacancy
occupies position in-between lattice sites unoccupied lattice site
On crystallization On heating
Occupy interstitial Missing atom
Increases density Decreases density

2. Non-stoichiometric defects
 A high temperature phase of ZnOx, (x<1), has electrons in place of the O2 vacancies. These
electrons are color centers
 Some non-stoichiometric solids are engineered depending on creation of vacancies into:
a) n-type semi-conductors
ZnO lose oxygen on heating, and the excess Zn metal atoms in the sample are ready to
give electrons.
b) p-type semi-conductors
NiO gain oxygen on heating in air, resulting in having Ni3+ sites acting as electron trap
3. Impurities
 Real solid materials are not perfect it contains impurities there are:
 Desirable impurities such as dopant
 Undesirable impurities such as contaminant.

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 12. Give Short notes on Line and planner defects
 Line defects (Dislocations)
 Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are Misaligned
Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation
extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal spiral planar ramp resulting from shear
structure deformation
perpendicular to dislocation line Parallel to dislocation line

 Planner defects
 Close packed planes and direction are preferred
Twin Boundary Stacking Faults
Essentially a reflection of atom positions For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing
across the twin plane sequence error (Ex. ABCABABC)

13. Types of Imperfections

 Point defects (Vacancy atoms, Interstitial atoms, Substitutional atoms)
 Line defects (Dislocations)
 Area defects (Grain Boundaries)
Area defects
 Solidification: result of casting of molten material – 2 steps
 Nuclei form
 Nuclei grow to form crystals–grain structure
 (Grain Boundaries)
 Regions between crystals
 Transition from lattice of one region to that of the other slightly disordered
 low density in grain boundaries
• high mobility
• high diffusivity
• high chemical reactivity

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 The Energy Band Theory
 Based On Formation of Molecular Orbitals
 Formation of Li2 molecule.

14. Band Structure (Conduction Band)

Comparison Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
Energy gap (Eg) no band gap < 3 eV > 3 eV
Examples Na, Cu, Zn Si, Ge C(diam), glass

Diagram

15. Compare between different type of Semiconductors

Comparison Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors
It is prepared by doping a small quantity
It is pure semiconducting material and
Definition of impurity atoms to the pure
no impurity atoms are added to it
semiconducting material.
impure Si and Ge crystals with As, Sb
Examples Pure Si and Ge crystals
or B, AL atom
No. of free e- in the conduction (n) = no. No. of free e- in the conduction (n) ≠ no.
Characteristics
of holes in valence band (p) of holes in valence band (p)
Electrical
Low High
conductivity

MCQ
 Doping: Adding impurities to the silicon or Germanium crystals to increase the number of
carriers.

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

 10. Compare between different type of Extrinsic Semiconductors (impure)
n - type P - type
It is impure semiconducting material It is impure semiconducting material
Definition with electron rich impurity atoms are with electron deficient impurity atoms
added to it are added to it
Doping Group 5 elements Group 3 elements
Examples Phosphorous (P) Boron (B)
Donors Acceptors
 Donates an extra e- that can freely  Accepts e– and provides extra h+ to
travel around freely travel around
 Leaves behind a positively charged  Leaves behind a negatively charged
Characteristics nucleus (cannot move) nucleus (cannot move)
 Over all, the crystal is still electrically  Overall, the crystal is still electrically
neutral neutral
 Called “n-type” material (added  Called “p-type” silicon (added
negative carriers) positive carriers)

Diagram

11. Applications of semiconductors

1) rectifier
 is a device that allows current to flow in one direction, but not the other.
 Joining a p-type to an n-type semi-conductor produces a p-n junction, which can function
as a rectifier.

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan

2) Solar Cell
 Is a device that used to convert light energy into electrical energy

Temperature, resistivity, and Conductivity (MCQ)

 The Temperature Dependence of the Electrical Resistivity of Metals and Semiconductors.

 The conductivity of a metal decreases relatively slowly with increasing temperature

 The conductivity of the semiconductor increases much more rapidly

Ass. Prof. Abdel-Aziz Zidan