Debre Tabor University

Gafat Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

ECEg 3071: Applied Electronics I

 CHAPTER-ONE
Basic semiconductor theory

After completing this chapter, you will be able to know

➢ Charge carriers in solids

➢ Semiconductor

➢ Energy level

➢ Modification of carrier densities

➢ The PN junction
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS:

• Electronics is defined as the science of the motion of charges in a gas,

vacuum, or semiconductor.

• Microelectronics refers to integrated circuit (IC) technology, which

can produce a circuit with multimillions of components on a single
piece of semiconductor material.
• An electrical device is any equipment or apparatus that uses electrical
energy to perform a specific function
❖ It can be:
i. Passive: e.g. Capacitor, inductor, Resistor ..
ii. Active :e.g. DC Power supply, battery, ac signal generator,
Transistor…
 Introduction

▪ An atom is a fundamental building block of all matter.

▪ It consists of electrons and nucleus (proton and neutrons).

▪ An electron is a negatively charged particle.

▪ It is moving around the nucleus.

▪ It is having negligible mass. Hence it is very mobile.

✓ Charge of an electron (e) = 1.6025 ∗ 10−19 coulomb

✓ Mass of an electron = 9.106 ∗ 10−31 kg

The electrons which are moving around the nucleus posses two types of energy.
1. Kinetic energy due to its motion
2. Potential energy due to the charge on the nucleus.

Energy band in solids

1. Valence band
2. Conduction band
3. Forbidden energy gap
o To break the covalent bond, the valence electron must gain a minimum energy, Eg,
called the bandgap energy.
(i)Valence band (VB)
✓ Electrons in the outer most orbit of an atom are called valence electrons.
✓ The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band.
✓ This band may be completely or partially filled.
✓ It is the highest occupied band.
(ii) Conduction band (CB)
✓ The electrons which left the valence band are called free electrons.
✓ The band occupied by these electrons is called the conduction band.
✓ This band is next in the valence band.
✓ It may either be empty or partially filled with electrons.
✓ In this band, electrons move freely and conduct electric current through the solid.
(iii) Forbidden energy gap
✓ The vb and cb are separated by a gap on the energy band diagram is known as
forbidden energy gap.
✓ There is no allowed energy state in the forbidden energy gap.
✓ If the width of the forbidden energy gap is greater means the valence electrons are
tightly bounded to the nucleus and vice versa.
 Electrical materials can be:
1. Conductor,
2. semiconductor or
3. Insulator.
A material may be placed in one of these three class depending upon its energy band structure.
Conductor-allows passage of electricity (easily conduct electrical current).
E.g. Silver, gold, copper, Al,……
Insulator- resist passage of electricity(not conduct electric current at normal conditions).
E.g. Plastic(rubber), Glass, ceramic, & wood etc.…..
Semiconductors- partially allows passage of electricity.
Eg. Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide.
 Figure. Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor

✓ An electron–volt is the energy of an electron that has been accelerated through a

potential difference of 1 volt, and 1eV= 1.6 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 joules.
Semiconductors can be:
❖ Elemental semiconductors are in group IV.
eg. Silicon(Si), Germanium(Ge)
❖ Compound semiconductors are in group III–V.
eg. Gallium arsenide(GaAs),
Gallium phosphide(GaP),
Aluminum phosphide(AlP),
Aluminum arsenide(AlAs),
Indium phosphide(InP)

Figure. Energy band diagram for a pure

silicon crystal with unexcited atoms. There
are no electrons in the conduction band.
Types of Semiconductor(SC):
1. Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor
2. Extrinsic semiconductor

1) An intrinsic semiconductor
▪ is a single-crystal semiconductor material with no other types of atoms within the
crystal.
▪ Conduction in intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects.

▪ An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat (thermal)
energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valance band into the
conduction band, becoming free electrons.
▪ When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence band
within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole .
▪ For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one hole
left in the valence band, creating what is called an electron-hole pair.
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in the
valence band.
Figure: Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal.
Electrons in the conduction band are free electrons.
 Figure: Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal.
Free electrons are being generated
continuously while some recombine with
holes.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the densities(concentrations) of electrons and holes are

equal, since the thermally generated electrons and holes are the only source of such
particles.
The equation for intrinsic carrier concentration(ni) is as follows:

3 −𝐸𝑔ൗ
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 ൗ2 ℯ 2𝐾𝑇

Where,
ni = intrinsic carrier concentration
B = a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material,
Eg = the bandgap energy (eV),
T = the temperature (K),
k = Boltzmann’s constant (86 ×10−6 eV/K),
 2) Extrinsic Semiconductors:

▪ Since the electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor are relatively
small, only very small currents are possible.
▪ So, for increasing either the number of free electrons or the number of holes, some
impurity atoms are added with the pure semiconductor.
▪ This adding process is called doping.
▪ The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic semiconductors, or
doped semiconductors.

✓ impurities are from the group III and V elements.

✓ A pure semiconductor doped by trivalent (aluminum, boron and gallium) impurity is
known as P-type semiconductor.
✓ It will create acceptor impurity

✓ If pentavalent impurities (phosphorus(P), antimony (Sb) are added with extrinsic

semiconductor a N-type semiconductor crystal is formed.
✓ They will create donor impurity
The electron and hole concentrations in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by:

Where:

2 𝒏𝒐 =thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons,

𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑛𝑖
𝑝𝑜 = thermal equilibrium concentration of holes, and
𝑛𝑖 = the intrinsic carrier concentration.
▪ At room temperature (T = 300 K), each donor atom donates a free electron to the sc.
▪ If the donor concentration 𝑵𝒅 is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we can
approximate:
𝑛𝑜 ≅ 𝑁𝑑 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑁𝑑 ≫ 𝑛𝑖 so, hole concentration becomes

𝑛𝑖2൘
𝑝𝑜 = 𝑁𝑑
▪ Similarly, each acceptor atom accepts a valence electron, creating a hole.
▪ If the acceptor concentration (holes concentration) Na is much larger than the
intrinsic concentration, we can approximate

𝑝𝑎 ≅ 𝑁𝑎 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑁𝑎 ≫𝑛𝑖

𝑛𝑖2
Then electron concentration will be : 𝑛𝑜 =
𝑁𝑎
What is the Fermi Level?

The Fermi level (Eₓ) represents the energy level at which the probability of finding

an electron is 50%.

It tells us how the electrons and holes are distributed in the semiconductor.

•In intrinsic (pure) silicon → EF=Ei​ (mid-gap, around the center of the band gap)

•In p-type → EF​ shifts closer to the valence band

•In n-type → EF​ shifts closer to the conduction band

 ❖ If these charged particles move, a current is generated.
❖ These charged electrons and holes are simply referred to as carriers.

❖ The two basic processes which cause electrons and holes to move in a semiconductor are:
i. drift, which is the movement caused by electric fields, and
ii. diffusion, which is the flow caused by variations in the concentration, that is,
concentration gradients.
Such gradients can be caused by a nonhomogeneous doping distribution, or by the injection of
a quantity of electrons or holes into a region
 Figure: Directions of applied electric field and resulting
carrier drift velocity and drift current density in
(a) an n-type semiconductor and
(b) a p-type semiconductor

An electric field E applied in one direction produces a force on

𝐽𝑛 = −𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑑𝑛 = −𝑒𝑛 −𝜇𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝐸; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
the electrons in the opposite direction, because of the electrons’
n = electron concentration; p=hole conc
negative charge. The electrons acquire a drift velocity 𝒗𝒅𝒏 (in
e = magnitude of electronic charge.
cm/s) which can be written as

𝑣𝑑𝑛 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜇𝑛 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜇𝑝 = ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 Where : 𝜎 = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑒𝑝𝜇𝑝

So, drift current density Jn (A/cm2) given by: 𝝈 =conductivity of the semiconductor
𝑣𝑑𝑝 = +𝜇𝑝 𝐸 𝐽𝑝 = 𝑒𝑝𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 𝑒𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝐸 𝜌 = resistivity of the semiconductor

❖ The total drift current density is

1
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑛 + 𝐽𝑝 = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑝 𝐸 = 𝜎𝐸 = 𝐸
𝜌
 Diffusion Current Density
In diffusion process, particles flow from a region of high concentration to a region of lower
concentration. This is a statistical phenomenon related to kinetic theory.
❖ The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of
electrons can be written as (for one dimension)
where
𝑱𝒏 = 𝒆𝑫𝒏 𝒅𝒏ൗ𝒅𝒙 e = magnitude of the electronic charge,
𝒅𝒏/𝒅𝒙 = gradient of the electron
concentration, and
𝑫𝒏 = electron diffusion coefficient.
❖ The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of holes can be
Figure: (a) Assumed electron concentration versus
written as (for one dimension)
distance in a semiconductor, and the resulting 𝒅𝒑ൗ 𝒅𝒑
𝑱𝒑 = −𝒆𝑫𝒑 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
=gradient of the hole concentration,
electron diffusion and electron diffusion current and
density, 𝑫𝒑 is the hole diffusion coefficient.

(b) assumed hole concentration versus distance in a

✓ This change in sign is due to the difference in sign of the electronic
semiconductor, and the resulting hole diffusion and
charge between the negatively charged electron and the positively
hole diffusion current density
charged hole
 p-n Junctions (Diodes)
If you take a block of silicon and dope half of it with a trivalent impurity and the other half with a pentavalent
impurity, a boundary called the pn junction is formed between the resulting p -type and n -type portions of a
semiconduction diode.
P-type N-type • All the h+ from the p-type side and e- from the n-
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – + type side undergo diffusion
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + – → Move towards the opposite side (less
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – + concentration)
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + –
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – + • Recombination → The minority carriers are quickly
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + – annihilated by the large number of majority carriers
• All the carriers on both sides of the junction are
Bring p-type and n-type material into contact depleted from the material leaving
• Only charged, stationary particles (within a given
+ – + – + – – + + – + – + region)
– + – + – – + + – + – + –
+ – + – + – – + + – + – + • A net electric field
– + – + – – + + – + – + – →This area is known as the depletion region
+ – + – + – – + + – + – + →Size of the depletion region depends on the
– + – + – – + + – + – + –
diffusion length
Depletion Region
P-type N-type
 (b) For every electron that diffuses across the junction
(a) At the instant of junction
and combines with a hole, a positive charge is left in
formation, free electrons in the n
the n region and a negative charge is created in the p
region near the pn junction begin
region, forming a barrier potential. This action
to diffuse across the junction and
continues until the voltage of the barrier repels further
fall into holes near the junction in
diffusion.
the p region.
❖The positively charged region and the negatively charged region comprise the space-
charge region, or depletion region, of the pn junction, in which there are essentially no
mobile electrons or holes.
❖Because of the electric field in the space charge region, there is a potential difference
across that region (Fig.b). This potential difference is called the built-in potential
barrier, or built-in voltage, and is given by
𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅
𝑽𝒊𝒃 = 𝑲𝑻ൗ𝒆 𝐥𝐧 ൘𝒏𝟐 = 𝑽𝑻 𝒍𝒏
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒌𝑻
𝒊
where 𝑽𝑻 ≡ , k = Boltzmann’s constant, T =
𝒆
𝑉𝑇 is called the thermal voltage absolute temperature, e = the magnitude of the
and is 𝑽𝑻 ≅ 0.026 V at R.T. electronic charge, and Na and Nd are the net
acceptor and donor concentrations in the p- and
n-regions, respectively
Biasing a pn-junction
2. Reverse bias, VA<0 3. No Applied Bias,
1. Forward bias, VA>0 ● Barrier is increased. VA=0
● No diffusion current occurs (not • Unbiased - No
● is the condition that permits current external voltage
sufficient energy to cross the
is applied.
through a diode. barrier).
● Barrier is reduced, so more e- and h+ may ● Depletion region expands • Idrift = Idiff
● is the condition that prevents
diffuse across
current through the diode.
● Exponential increase in diffusion current
● If the external reverse-bias voltage is
𝑉𝐷
increased to a large enough value,
● 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 −1
reverse breakdown occurs.
Where,
VA
• 𝐼𝑠=reverse-bias saturation current;
• 𝑛=emission coefficient or ideality
factor, 1 ≤ n ≤ 2. p n

• 𝑉𝑇 =thermal voltage,
𝑉T =0.026V@[Link]
 Forward biased P-N Junction Diode
In this case, two types of electric fields exit within the diode- External
electric field across the diode terminals due to external bias voltage and
Internal electric field across depletion region due to barrier potential.

Due to external electric field, holes in P type semiconductor region are

repelled from the positive terminal and electrons in N type semiconductor
region are repelled from the negative terminal of the source. Therefore width
of depletion region is reduced compared to unbiased P-N junction diode.

The decreased barrier potential is helpful to the majority carriers in

crossing the junction. Hence more majority carriers drift across the
junction which results a current in forward biased diode. Such current is
known as forward current and it is order of milli-ampere. The forward
current increases with increasing the forward bias voltage.
 Reverse biased P-N Junction Diode
Due to external electric field, holes in P type semiconductor region are
attracted toward the negative terminal and electrons in N type
semiconductor region are attracted toward the positive terminal of the
source. Therefore depletion region becomes wider compared to
unbiased P-N junction diode.
The increased barrier potential is helpful to the minority carriers in
crossing the junction. Hence a current flows due to minority carries in
reverse biased P-N junction diode. Such current is known as reverse
saturation current. The reverse saturation current is order of nano-
ampere in case of Si and micro-ampere in case of Ge.
If the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the current through P-N
junction diode increases abruptly. This phenomenon is known as
breakdown of the diode and the voltage at which it occurs is known as
breakdown voltage.
❖ There are two types of mechanism of breakdown- Avalanche
breakdown and Zener breakdown.
 Mechanism of Breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown
The increased electric field across the diode causes increase in Avalanche Effect
the velocities of minority carriers. These high energy carriers break
covalent bonds and therefore more electron-hole pairs are generated. ✓ Lightly doped semiconductor
Again these generated carriers are accelerated by the external electric ✓ Carriers generated by collisions
field and they break more covalent bonds during their travel. This gives ✓ Breakdown voltage is high
rise to a high reverse current through the diode. Such mechanism of
breakdown is known as Avalanche Breakdown.

Zener Breakdown
When diode is heavily doped, the depletion layer becomes Zener Effect
extremely thin (order of micrometer). If reverse bias voltage is increased,
the electric field across the depletion region becomes very high. This
✓ Heavily doped semiconductor
high electric field causes covalent bonds to break i.e., to create electron- ✓ Carriers generated by high electric
hole pairs within the depletion region. Hence a large no. of charge field
carriers are generated which results very high current. Such mechanism
of breakdown is known as Zener Breakdown. ✓ Breakdown voltage is low
Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

V-I Characteristics of a P-N Junction Diode

Thank You!
 Review questions
1. Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at T = 300 K. given that Boltzmann’s constant 𝑘 =
3
−
(86 × 10−6 𝑒𝑉/𝐾), 𝐵 = 5.23 × 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 2 , 𝐸𝑔 = 1.1𝑒𝑉
Solution
3 −𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 2 𝑒 2𝐾𝑇
3 −1.1
= 5.23 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 3002 2∗86∗10−6 ∗300
𝑒
𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑚−3
2. Calculate the majority and minority carrier concentrations in silicon at T =300Kfor (i) 𝑁𝑑 = 2 ×
1016 𝑐𝑚−3 and (ii) 𝑁𝑎 = 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 .
3. Consider n-type GaAs at T = 300 K doped to a concentration of Nd =2×1016 cm−[Link] mobility values
of μn = 6800 cm2/V–s and μp = 300 cm2/V–s. (a) Determine the resistivity of the material. (b) Determine the ap
plied electric field that will induce a drift current density of 175 A/cm2.
4. Assume a silicon sample at room temperature.
a) Calculate the separation between 𝐸𝑐 and 𝐸𝑓 for n-type silicon having a phosphorus impurity concentration
of 1 ∗ 1017 𝑐𝑚−3 . Find both electron and hole concentrations.
b) Calculate the separation between 𝐸𝑐 and 𝐸𝑓 for p-type silicon having an aluminium impurity concentration
of 1 ∗ 1017 𝑐𝑚−3 . Find both electron and hole concentrations.