THE MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER:

To coordinate the access to the channel, multiple access protocols are

requiring. All these protocols belong to the MAC sub layer. Data Link layer
is divided into two sub layers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)- is responsible for error control & flow control.
2. Medium Access Control (MAC)- MAC is responsible for multiple access
resolutions

3.1 THE CHANNEL ALLOCATION PROBLEM

In broadcast networks, single channel is shared by several stations. This

channel can be allocated to only one transmitting user at a time. There are
two different methods of channel allocations:

1. Static Channel Allocation- a single channel is divided among various

users either on the basis of frequency (FDM) or on the basis of time
(TDM). In FDM, fixed frequency is assigned to each user, whereas, in
TDM, fixed time slot is assigned to each user.
2. Dynamic Channel Allocation- no user is assigned fixed frequency or
fixed time slot. All users are dynamically assigned frequency or time
slot, depending upon the requirements of the user
3.2 MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS
Many protocols have been defined to handle the access to shared link.
These protocols are organized in three different groups:
 Random Access Protocols
  Controlled Access Protocols
 Channelization Protocols

Fig 3.1 types of Multiple acess protocols

3.2.1 Random Access Protocols
There is no rule that decides which station should send next. If two
stations transmit at the same time, there is collision and the frames are
lost. The various random access methods are:
1. ALOHA
2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
3. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
4. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

[Link] ALOHA
ALOHA was developed at University of Hawaii in early 1970s by Norman
Abramson. It was used for ground based radio broadcasting. In this
method, stations share a common channel. When two stations transmit
simultaneously, collision occurs and frames are lost. There are two
different versions of ALOHA:
 Pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
 Fig 3.2 protocol flow chart for ALOHA
Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, stations transmit frames whenever they have data to send.
When two stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and frames
are lost. In pure ALOHA, whenever any station transmits a frame, it
expects an acknowledgement from the receiver. If acknowledgement is not
received within specified time, the station assumes that the frame has
been lost. If the frame is lost, station waits for a random amount of time
and sends it again. This waiting time must be random; otherwise, same
frames will collide again and again. Whenever two frames try to occupy the
channel at the same time, there will be collision and both the frames will be
lost. If first bit of a new frame overlaps with the last bit of a frame almost
finished, both frames will be lost and both will have to be retransmitted.

Fig 3.3 ALOHA Protocol

The probability of having k arrivals during a time interval of length t is given

by:

Pk (t)  (t)k et

k!
where λ is the arrival rate. Note that this is a single-parameter model; all
we have to know is λ.

Analysis of Pure ALOHA:

 Notation:
– Tf = frame time (processing, transmission, propagation)
– S: Average number of successful transmissions per Tf ; that
is, the
throughput or efficiency.
– G: Average number of total frames transmitted per Tf
– D: Average delay between the time a packet is ready for
transmission and the completion of successful transmission.
The following assumptions are
– All frames are of constant length
– The channel is noise-free; the errors are only due to collisions.
– Frames do not queue at individual stations
– The channel acts as a Poisson process.
Since S represents the number of “good” transmissions per frame time,
and G
represents the total number of attempted transmissions per frame time, then
we have:
 S = G ´ (Probability of good transmission)
• The vulnerable time for a successful transmission is 2Tf
• So, the probability of good transmission is not to have an “arrival”
during the vulnerable time .

Fig 3.4 collision of frames

Using
: (t)k et

Pk (t) 
And setting t = 2Tf and k = k!0, we get
(  2T )0 e 2Tf
P0 (2Tf )  f
 e2G
0!
G
becasue   . Thus, S  G  e2G
Tf

If we differentiate S = Ge-2G with respect to G and set the result to 0 and

solve for G, we find that the maximum occurs when G = 0.5, and for that S
= 1/2e = 0.18. So, the maximum throughput is only 18% of capacity

Slotted ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA.
In slotted ALOHA, time of the channel is divided into intervals called slots.
The station can send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one
frame is sent in each slot. If any station is not able to place the frame onto
the channel at the beginning of the slot, it has to wait until the next time
slot. There is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the
beginning of the same time slot.

Analysis of Slotted ALOHA

Note that the vulnerable period is now reduced in half. Using:
(t)k et
Pk (t) 
k!
And setting t = Tf and k = 0, we get
(  T )0 eTf
P0 (Tf )   eG
f

0!
 because
G
d,  . Thus, S  G  e G

Tf

Fig 3.5 Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA systems.

3.3..2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

` CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access. Carrier Sense means,
stations has an additional property with them, that they can sense the
channel (carrier) and tell if the channel is in use or not. What we want, that
at the start of the slot, stations should sense the channel first, and then act
accordingly.
CSMA was developed to overcome the problems of ALOHA i.e. to
minimize the chances of collision. The chances of collision reduces to a
great extent if a station checks the channel before trying to use it.
There are three different types of CSMA protocols:
1. 1-Persistent CSMA
2. Non-Persistent CSMA
3. P-Persistent CSMA

[Link] 1-Persistent CSMA

In this method, station that wants to transmit data, continuously

senses the channel to check whether he channel is idle or busy. If the
channel is busy, station waits until it becomes idle. When the station
detects an idle channel, it immediately transmits the frame. This method
has the highest chance of collision because two or more stations may find
channel to be idle at the same time and transmit their frames.

[Link] Non-Persistent CSMA

A station that has a frame to send senses the channel. If the channel
is idle, it sends immediately. If the channel is busy, it waits a random
amount of time and then senses the channel again. It reduces the chance
of collision because the stations wait for a random amount of time. It is
unlikely that two or more stations will wait for the same amount of time and
will retransmit at the same time.

[Link] P-Persistent CSMA

 In this method, the channel has time slots such that the time slot
duration is equal to or greater than the maximum propagation delay time.
When a station is ready to send, it senses the channel. If the channel is
busy, station waits until next slot. If the channel is idle, it transmits the
frame. It reduces the chance of collision and improves the efficiency of the
network.

[Link] CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

In this protocol, the station senses the channel before transmitting
the frame. If the channel is busy, the station waits. Additional feature in
CSMA/CD is that the stations can detect collisions. The stations abort their
transmission as soon as they detect collision. This feature is not present in
CSMA. The stations continue to transmit even though they find that
collision has occurred.
In CSMA/CD, the station that sends its data on the channel, continues
to sense the channel even after data transmission. If collision is detected,
the station aborts its transmission and waits for a random amount of time &
sends its data again. As soon as a collision is detected, the transmitting
stations release a jam signal. Jam signal alerts other stations. Stations are
not supposed to transmit immediately after the collision has occurred.

Fig 3.6 Flowchart for CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD can be in one of three states: contention, transmission, or idle.

Fig 3.7 Frame format for CSMA/CD

[Link] CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
This protocol is used in wireless networks because they cannot detect
the collision. So, the only solution is collision avoidance. It avoids the
collision by using three basic techniques:
 Interframe Space
 Contention Window
 Acknowledgements

Interframe Space: Whenever the channel is found idle, the station does not
transmit immediately. It waits for a period of time called Interframe Space
(IFS). When channel is sensed idle, it may be possible that some distant
station may have already started transmitting. Therefore, the purpose of
IFS time is to allow this transmitted signal to reach its destination. If after
this IFS time, channel is still idle, the station can send the frames.

Contention Window: Contention window is the amount of time divided into

slots. Station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its
waiting time. The number of slots in the window changes with time. It
means that it is set of one slot for the first time, and then doubles each
time the station cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time. In
contention window, the station needs to sense the channel after each time
slot.

Acknowledgment: Despite all the precautions, collisions may occur and

destroy the data. Positive acknowledgement and the time-out timer help
guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.

Fig 3.8 Flow chart for CSMA/CA Limited-

Contention Protocols
Computer NetworkComputer
EngineeringMCA

Limited Contention Protocols are the media

access control (MAC) protocols that combines
the advantages of collision based protocols and
collision free protocols. They behave like
slotted ALOHA under light loads and bitmap
protocols under heavy loads.

Concept

In computer networks, when more than one

station tries to transmit simultaneously via a
shared channel, the transmitted data is
garbled, an event called collision. In collision
based protocols like ALOHA, all stations are
permitted to transmit a frame without trying to
detect whether the transmission channel is idle
or busy. In slotted ALOHA, the shared channel
is divided into a number of discrete time
intervals called slots. Any station having a
frame can start transmitting at the beginning of
a slot. Since, this works very good under light
loads, limited contention protocols behave like
slotted ALOHA under low loads.
However, with the increase in loads, there
occurs exponential growth in number of
collisions and so the performance of slotted
ALOHA degrades rapidly. So, under high loads,
collision free protocols like bitmap protocols
work best. In collision free protocols, channel
access is resolved in the contention period and
so the possibilities of collisions are eliminated.
In bit map protocol, the contention period is
divided into N slots, where N is the total
number of stations sharing the channel. If a
station has a frame to send, it sets the
corresponding bit in the slot. So, before
transmission, each station knows whether the
other stations want to transmit. Collisions are
avoided by mutual agreement among the
contending stations on who gets the channel.
Limited contention protocols behave like
slotted ALOHA under low loads.

Working Principle

Limited contention protocols divide the

contending stations into groups, which may or
not be disjoint. At slot 0, only stations in group
0 can compete for channel access. At slot 1, only
stations in group 1 can compete for channel
access and so on. In this process, if a station
successfully acquires the channel, then it
transmits its data frame. If there is a collision
or there are no stations competing for a given
slot in a group, the stations of the next group
can compete for the slot.
 By dynamically changing the number of groups
and the number of stations allotted in a group
according to the network load, the protocol
changes from slotted ALOHA under low loads to
bit map protocol under high loads. Under low
loads, only one group is there containing all
stations, which is the case of slotted ALOHA. As
the load increases, more groups are added and
the size of each group is reduced. When the
load is very high, each group has just one
station, i.e. only one station can compete at a
slot, which is the case of bit map protocol.

The performance of limited contention

protocol is highly dependent upon the
algorithm to dynamically adjust the group
configurations to the changes in network
environment.

Wireless LAN Protocols-

3.4 ETHERNET

Ethernet, developed in 1976, is the most widely-installed LAN

technology, and typically uses coaxial or UTP cable. Ethernet technology
uses broadcast topology with baseband signaling and a control method
called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to
transmit data. The IEEE 802.3 standard defines Ethernet protocols for
(Open Systems Interconnect) OSI’s Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer
and physical layer network characteristics. The IEEE 802.2 standard defines
protocols for the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer.
 The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASE-T,
which provides transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps. 'Fast Ethernet' or
100BASE-T provides transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second
and is typically used for servers, LAN backbone systems and in
workstations with high-bandwidth needs. Gigabit Ethernet provides an even
faster level of backbone support at 1000 megabits per second (1 gigabit or
1 billion bits per second).
Ethernet is a passive, contention-based broadcast technology that
uses baseband signaling. Baseband signaling uses the entire bandwidth of
a cable for a single transmission. Only one signal can be transmitted at a
time and every device on the shared network hears broadcast
transmissions. Passive technology means that there is no one device
controlling the network. Contention-based means that every device must
compete with every other device for access to the shared network. In other
words, devices take turns. They can transmit only when no other device is
transmitting.
Physical layer configurations are specified in three parts
-Data rate (10, 100, 1,000) Mbps
-Signaling method –Baseband(Digital signaling) and Broadband(Analog
signaling)
-Cabling (2, 5, T, F, S, L)
– 5 - Thick coax (original Ethernet cabling)
– F – Optical fiber
– S – Short wave laser over multimode fiber
– L – Long wave laser over single mode
fiber Frame format

Fig 3.9 Frame format of Ehernet

Preamble is a sequence of 7 bytes, each set to “10101010”. Used to

synchronize receiver before actual data is sent
Addresses: -unique, 48-bit unicast address assigned to each adapter
• example: 8:0:e4:b1:2
• Each manufacturer gets their own address range
– broadcast: all 1s
– multicast: first bit is 1
Type field is a demultiplexing key used to determine which higher level
protocol the frame should be delivered to.
Body can contain up to 1500 bytes of data.

3.4.1 Ethernet working

When a node wants to communicate to another node, it transmits its

frame. The frame travels to every node on the segment. Each node inspects
the frame to see if it is addressed to him. If the frame is not addressed to
the node, the node ignores it. If the frame is addressed to the node, the
node opens the frame and reads its contents. The exception is a broadcast
address, which is a special message intended to be read by every node (like
a message on the P.A. as opposed to a comment from one person
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to another).Token Ring, the main alternative to Ethernet, uses a different

strategy to avoid computers talking at the same time.

Ethernet popularity is a result of several factors. Ethernet technology is:

 Inexpensive
 Easy to install, maintain, troubleshoot and expand
 A widely accepted industry standard, which means compatibility and
 equipment access are less of an issue
 Structured to allow compatibility with network operating systems
 (NOS)
 Very reliable
 The physical-layer specifications of the Ethernet family of computer
network standards are published by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), which defines the electrical or optical
properties and the transfer speed of the physical connection between a
device and the network or between network devices. It is complemented
by the MAC layer and the logical link layer. An implementation of a
specific physical layer is commonly referred to as PHY.
 The Ethernet physical layer has evolved over its existence starting in
1980 and encompasses multiple physical media interfaces and
several orders of magnitude of speed from 1 Mbit/s to 800 Gbit/s. The
physical medium ranges from bulky coaxial cable to twisted
pair and optical fiber with a standardized reach of up to 80 km. In
general, network protocol stack software will work similarly on all
physical layers.
 Many Ethernet adapters and switch ports support multiple speeds by
using autonegotiation to set the speed and duplex for the best values
supported by both connected devices. If autonegotiation fails, some
multiple-speed devices sense the speed used by their partner, [1] but this
may result in a duplex mismatch. With rare exceptions, a 100BASE-
TX port (10/100) also supports 10BASE-T while a 1000BASE-T port
(10/100/1000) also supports 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX. Most 10GBASE-
T ports also support 1000BASE-T,[2] some even 100BASE-TX or 10BASE-
T. While autonegotiation can practically be relied on for Ethernet over
twisted pair, few optical-fiber ports support multiple speeds. In any case,
even multi-rate fiber interfaces only support a single wavelength (e.g.
850 nm for 1000BASE-SX or 10GBASE-SR).
 10 Gigabit Ethernet was already used in both enterprise and carrier
networks by 2007, with 40 Gbit/s[3][4] and 100 Gigabit Ethernet[5] ratified.
[6]
In 2024, the fastest additions to the Ethernet family were 800
Gbit/s variants.[7]
 Naming conventions
 [edit]
 Generally, layers are named by their specifications: [8]
 10, 100, 1000, 10G, ... – the nominal, usable speed at the top of the
physical layer (no suffix = megabit/s, G = gigabit/s), excluding line
codes but including other physical layer overhead (preamble, SFD, IPG);
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some WAN PHYs (W) run at slightly reduced bitrates for compatibility
reasons; encoded PHY sublayers usually run at higher bitrates
 BASE, BROAD, PASS – indicates baseband, broadband,
or passband signaling respectively
 -T, -T1, -S, -L, -E, -Z, -C, -K, -H ... – medium (PMD): T = twisted pair, -T1 =
single-pair twisted pair, S = 850 nm short wavelength (multi-mode
fiber), L = 1300 nm long wavelength (mostly single-mode fiber), E or Z =
1500 nm extra long wavelength (single-mode), B = bidirectional fiber
(mostly single-mode) using WDM, P = passive optical (PON), C =
copper/twinax, K = backplane, 2 or 5 or 36 = coax with 185/500/3600 m
reach (obsolete), F = fiber, various wavelengths, H = plastic optical fiber
 X, R – PCS encoding method (varying with the
generation): X for 8b/10b block encoding (4B5B for Fast Ethernet), R for
large block encoding (64b/66b)
 1, 2, 4, 10 – for LAN PHYs indicates number of lanes used per link; for
WAN PHYs indicates reach in kilometers
 For 10 Mbit/s, no encoding is indicated as all variants use Manchester
code. Most twisted pair layers use unique encoding, so most often just -
T is used.
 The reach, especially for optical connections, is defined as the maximum
achievable link length that is guaranteed to work when all channel
parameters are met (modal bandwidth, attenuation, insertion
losses etc.). With better channel parameters, often a longer, stable link
length can be achieved. Vice versa, a link with worse channel
parameters can also work but only over a shorter
distance. Reach and maximum distance have the same meaning.
 Physical layers
 [edit]
 The following sections provide a brief summary of official Ethernet
media types. In addition to these official standards, many vendors have
implemented proprietary media types for various reasons—often to
support longer distances over fiber optic cabling.
 Early implementations and 10 Mbit/s
 [edit]
 See also: Classic Ethernet
 Early Ethernet standards used Manchester coding so that the signal
was self-clocking and not adversely affected by high-pass filters.






Classic ethernet mac sub layer

 Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet used primarily in LANs. It
provides data rates between 3 to 10 [Link] operates both in the
physical layer and in the MAC sublayer of the OSI model. In the physical
layer, the features of the cables and networks are considered. In MAC
sublayer, the frame formats for the Ethernet data frame are laid down.
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 Classic Ethernet was first standardized in 1980s as IEEE 802.3 standard.
 Frame Format of Classic Ethernet
 Classic Ethernet frames can be either of Ethernet (DIX) or of IEEE 802.3
standard. The frames of the two standards are very similar except for
one field. The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are −
 Preamble − It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse
for transmission. In case of Ethernet (DIX) it is an 8 byte field and in case
of IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field in an IEEE 802.3
frame that contains an alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with
two ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address
of destination stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of
the sending station.
 Type/Length − This is a 2 byte field. In case of Ethernet (DIX), the field
is type that instructs the receiver which process to give the frame to. In
case of IEEE 802.3, the field is length that stores the number of bytes in
the data field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper
layers. The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error
detection information.



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
Ethernet Performance


 Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in

LANs. The performance of Ethernet is analysed by computing the
efficiency of the channel under different load conditions.
 Let us assume an Ethernet network has k stations and each station
transmits with a probability p during a contention slot. Let A be the
probability that some station acquires the channel. A is calculated as −
 A = kp (1−p)kp
 The value of A is maximized at p = 1/k. If there can be innumerable
stations connected to the Ethernet network, i.e. k → ∞, the maximum
value of A will be 1/e.
 Let Q be the probability that the contention period has exactly j slots. Q
is calculated as −
 Q = A (1−A)j−1
 Let M be the mean number of slots per contention. So, the value of M
will be −

the mean contention interval, 𝑤 will be 2τ/A.

 Given that τ is the propagation time, each slot has duration 2τ. Hence

 Let P be the time is seconds for a frame to propagate.

 The channel efficiency, when a number of stations want to send frame,
can be calculated as −


 Let F be the length of frame, B be the cable length, L be the cable
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length, c be the speed of signal propagation and e be the contention
slots per frame. The channel efficiency in terms of these parameters is −

Fast Ethernet
In the fast-evolving world of computers, speed plays a vital role in the present
and has become paramount. As the technology is advancing and the demands
on the networks are increasing significantly, the quest for transferring the data
at faster rates has become a priority. A very crucial evolution in networking
technology developed to meet the escalating features and demands head-on -
enters the Fast Ethernet.
Fast Ethernet has transformed the landscape of communication enabling
unparalleled speeds and unleashing a new era of connectivity through speed.
In this article, we will look into depth exploration of the concepts from their
fundamental definitions to profound modern technologies landscapes. Before
understanding and getting into the concept, there are some primary
terminologies we need to look to understand Fast ethernet better.
Primary Terminologies Related to Fast Ethernet
 Ethernet: Ethernet is a family of wired computers and It is a widely used
networking technology that mainly defines the path of the data
transmission over a wired connection. It works on the principle of packet
switching and uses the ethernet protocol. Ethernet technology allows
network-connected devices to communicate without packet collisions. In
an Ethernet network, data is broken into packets.
 Data Transfer Rate (DTR): Data Transfer rate also known as Data
Throughput. It is the speed at which the data is transmitted from one
device to another within the connected network. DTR is mainly measured
in bits per second(bps) or in major kilobits per second(Kbps).
 Band Width: It mainly refers to the maximum rate of data transfer
across a connected network medium. These represent the capacity of the
medium which can carry data up to what extent. Bandwidth is actually the
volume of information that can be sent over a connection in a measured
amount of time – calculated in megabits per second (Mbps).
Understanding Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet is a networking technology which is enhancement of traditional
ethernet by increasing the data transfer rates. Fast Ethernet represents a huge
development over traditional Ethernet, addressing the growing demand for
better data transfer rates in networking environments. The original Ethernet
standard, defined by means of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 specification, operated at a speed of 10 Mbps. However,
because the call for faster network speeds grew, the need for an advanced
Ethernet standards became apparent.
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Fast Ethernet, standardized below the IEEE 802.3u specification, brought
several enhancements to get its higher data transfer rates. One of the key
improvements changed into the use of different signaling methods and media
types compared to traditional Ethernet. Fast Ethernet helps both twisted pair
and fiber optic cabling.
Types of Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet is mainly of several types or standards, each having their own
specifications, implementations and characteristics. The two most common
types of Fast Ethernet are:
 100Base-TX
 100Base-FX

1. 100Base-TX
 100Base-TX utilizes twisted pair copper cabling specified as Cat5e cables
for the ease of data transmission.
 It is mainly used in Local Area Networks(LANs)
 It works on both Full duplex and Half Duplex Modes and it supports data
transfer rates up to 100 Mbps.
 This is used in the connecting devices like computers. printers and LAN
environment.
2. 100Base-FX
 100Base-FX is another type of Fast Ethernet that is in different cabling
which is fiber optic cabling for Data transmission
 It is mainly used in long run cables of range 120 Kms and it requires
electro magnetic interference.
 It supports up to 100 Mbps of DTR and it also offers the higher bandwidth.
 This is used commonly in connecting devices across different buildings or
in the environment where copper cabling is out of reach.
Significance of Fast Ethernet
The Significance of Fast Ethernet lies in the impact on networking capabilities,
performance and Efficiency. Some Key points mentioned are the significance of
Fast Ethernet below:
 Increased Data Transfer Rates
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 Enhanced Network Performance
 Cost Effectiveness
 Scalability
 Flexibility
 Support for Bandwidth intensive applications ( Video Conferencing,
Multimedia streaming, Large File Transfers).
Applications of Fast Ethernet
The applications of Fast Ethernet are diverse in various industries and
scenarios. The following are some of the applications for Fast Ethernet:
 Data Centers: Fast Ethernet is commonly deployed in data center
environments to connect servers, storage devices, and networking
equipment. It facilitates rapid data transfer between servers and storage
arrays, supporting mission-critical applications and services hosted in the
data center.
 Surveillance Systems: Fast Ethernet is utilized in surveillance systems
for transmitting high-definition video feeds from IP cameras to monitoring
stations or recording devices. It ensures real-time monitoring and
recording of surveillance footage, enhancing security and surveillance
capabilities.
 Educational Institutions: Fast Ethernet is employed in educational
institutions, such as schools and universities, to support networked
learning environments. It enables access to online educational resources,
collaborative tools, and e-learning platforms, enriching the educational
experience for students and educators.
 Telecommunications: Fast Ethernet is used in telecommunications
networks for backhaul connections between central offices, cell towers,
and network aggregation points. It enables the efficient transfer of voice,
data, and video traffic over large-scale telecommunications networks.

Wireless LANs

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a local area network
that uses radio communication to provide mobility to the network users while
maintaining the connectivity to the wired network. A WLAN basically, extends a
wired local area network. WLAN’s are built by attaching a device called the
access point(AP) to the edge of the wired network. Clients communicate with
the AP using a wireless network adapter which is similar in function to an
ethernet adapter. It is also called a LAWN is a Local area wireless network.
The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks. The
coverage of WLAN is within a campus or building or that tech park. It is used in
the mobile propagation of wired networks. The standards of WLAN are
HiperLAN, Wi-Fi, and IEEE 802.11. It offers service to the desktop laptop, mobile
application, and all the devices that work on the Internet. WLAN is an affordable
method and can be set up in 24 hours. WLAN gives users the mobility to move
around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network. Most
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latest brands are based on IEE 802.11 standards, which are the WI-FI brand
name.
History
A professor at the University of Hawaii who’s name was Norman Abramson,
developed the world’s first wireless computer communication network. In 1979,
Gfeller and u. Bapst published a paper in the IEE proceedings reporting an
experimental wireless local area network using diffused infrared
communications. The first of the IEEE workshops on Wireless LAN was held in
1991.
WLAN Architecture
Components in Wireless LAN architecture as per IEEE standards are as follows:
1. Stations: Stations consist of all the equipment that is used to connect all
wireless LANs. Each station has a wireless network controller.
2. Base Service Set(BSS): It is a group of stations communicating at the
physical layer.
3. Extended Service Set(ESS): It is a group of connected Base Service
Set(BSS).
4. Distribution Service (DS): It connects all Extended Service Set(ESS).

WLAN Architecture
Types of WLANs
As per IEEE standard WLAN is categorized into two basic modes, which are as
follows:
1. Infrastructure: In Infrastructure mode, all the endpoints are connected to
a base station and communicate through that; and this can also enable
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internet access. A WLAN infrastructure can be set up with: a wireless
router (base station) and an endpoint (computer, mobile phone, etc). An
office or home WiFi connection is an example of Infrastructure mode.
2. Ad Hoc: In Ad Hoc mode WLAN connects devices without a base station,
like a computer workstation. An Ad Hoc WLAN is easy to set up it provides
peer-to-peer communication. It requires two or more endpoints with built-
in radio transmission.
Working of WLAN
WLAN transmits data over radio signals and the data is sent in the form of a
packet. Each packet consists of layers, labels, and instructions with unique MAC
addresses assigned to endpoints. This enables routing data packets to correct
locations.
How is a WLAN Created ?
A WLAN is a collection of nodes interconnected with each other for the purpose
of data sharing, transmitting messages over the internet, connecting for peer-2-
peer connectiob etc. As discussed above in types, it can be created in following
2 ways :
1. Connecting through one base station and that could be the router that
acts as a doorway to the internet, and every other nodes (devices like
computer, smartphones) can connect to the internet and to each other
through it.
2. Peer-2-Peer connection using the wifi direct technology. This is more
suitable for situations when we require to connect two or more devices
without internet and only for purpose of data exchange, connecting over a
same local network.
Is a WLAN Secure ?
Whether or not WLAN is secure depends on multiple factors of implementation
configured by the network administrator. However, by default it has multiple
security vulnerabilities. So the security team should consider all the factor and
configure accordingly.
Following are 3 ways to ensure best security practices :
1. Encryption: Ensure that the network is using highest level of encryption
2. Authentication: There are multiple authentication mechanism, its good to
use protocols that rely on 802.1x standards like WPA-EAP (Wireless
Protected Acess-Extensible Authentication Protocol) for organisation as
this method ONLY gives access when correct username and passwords
are inputed. And usernames and passwords are not shared and are
individual specific only.
3. Monitor Rougue APs: The Rougue APs (Access Points) are similar set of
networks that user can unknowingly connect to where all the activities of
the user will be tracked and monitored by the bad actor who set up the
network. Hence the security team can be on the lookout for such
configured networks occasionally.
Characteristics of WLAN
1. Seamless operation.
2. Low power for battery use.
3. Simple management, easy to use for everyone.
4. Protection of investment in wired networks.
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5. Robust transmission technology.
Advantages of WLAN
1. Installation speed and simplicity.
2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Reliability.
5. Mobility.
6. Robustness.
Disadvantages of WLAN
1. Slower bandwidth.
2. Security for wireless LANs is the prime concern.
3. Less capacity.
4. Wireless networks cost four times more than wired network cards.
5. Wireless devices emit low levels of RF which can be harmful to our health.

The 802.11 Architecture and Protocol

Stack,
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
Last Updated : 06 Mar, 2024



The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture
and defines the MAC and physical layer specifications for wireless LANs
(WLANs). Wi-Fi uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for
connecting the devices in LAN. Given the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can
move unrestricted within the network coverage zone. The 802.11 structure is
designed to accommodate mobile stations that participate actively in network
decisions. Furthermore, it can seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and 4G
networks.
The Wi-Fi standard represents a set of wireless LAN standards developed by the
Working Group of IEEE LAN/MAN standards committee (IEEE 802). The term
802.11x is also used to denote the set of standards. Various specifications and
amendments include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11e, 802.11g, 802.11n etc.
Table of Content
 Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services
 Services provided by the WLAN
 Frame Format of IEEE 802.11
 WiFi Alliance
 Advantages and Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Applications of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture

Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected
to the wireless LAN. It can be of two types:
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 Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
wireless routers that bridge connections for base stations.
 Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.
Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its
functionalities and acts as a connection between wireless medium and
distributed systems.
Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and
integrated LANs to create an ESS.
Frame: It is a MAC protocol data unit.
SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN.
All-access points and devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to
communicate.
SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be
fragmented or aggregated to form a PDU.
PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the
corresponding layer at the other end. They contain a header specific to the
layer.
Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is
a hardware component that connects devices to the network.
Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks

IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services

In the year 1990, IEEE 802.11 Committee formed a new working group, the IEEE
802.11 standard which defines protocols for Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs). Just like how Ethernet provides services for wired media, IEEE 802.11
architecture is designed to provide features for wireless networks.
An AP supports both wired and wireless connections. The 802.11 standard calls
the upstream wired network the distribution system (DS). The AP bridges the
wireless and wired L2 Ethernet frames, allowing traffic to flow from the wired to
the wireless network and vice versa. Each wireless network has a unique SSID.
The 802.11 architecture provides some basic services for WLANs whose
implementation is supported by MAC layer:
Basic Service Set
The Basic Service Set configuration consists of a group of stations and relies on
an Access Point (AP), which serves as a logical hub. Stations from different BSSs
interact through the AP, which functions as a bridge, linking multiple WLAN cells
or channels.
Operating Modes
Depending upon the mode of operation, BSS can be categorized into the
following types:
 Infrastructure BSS: Communication between stations takes place
through access points. The AP and its associated wireless clients define
the coverage area and form the BSS.
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Infrastructure BSS

 Independent BSS - Supports mutual communication between wireless

clients. An ad-hoc network is spontaneously created and does not support
access to wired networks.

Independ
ent BSS

Independent Basic Service Set

In the IBSS configuration, also referred to as independent configuration or ad-
hoc network, no single node is required to act as a server. The stations
communicate directly with one another in a peer-to-peer basis. Generally, IBSS
covers a limited area instead of a large network. Typically covering a specific
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area, IBSS is used for specific, short-term purposes with a limited number of
nodes.
Extended Service Set
ESS connects multiple BSSs and consists of several BSS cells, which can be
interlinked through wired or wireless backbones known as a distributed
system. Multiple cells use the same channel to boost aggregate throughput to
network. The equipment outside of the ESS, the ESS and all of its mobile
stations comprise a single MAC layer network where all stations are virtually
stationary. Thus, all stations within the ESS appear stationary from an outsider's
perspective.
Other components include:
 Distribution System (DS): Links APs within the ESS.
 Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks.

Architecture for IEEE 802.11 Configuration

 Roaming: In an environment with multiple access points (like a large
office building or campus), a device can move from the range of one AP to
another and still maintain its connection. This is possible due to the
underlying architecture of the IEEE 802.11 standard which allows for
roaming between APs.
 Authentication and Association: Before a station can send or receive
data frames on a WLAN, it needs to establish its identity with an AP. This
process is called authentication. After authentication, the station then
establishes a data link-layer connection with the AP through a process
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called association.

Services provided by the WLAN

IEEE defines 9 services that need to be provided by the WLAN:
Service Provider Used to Support

Distribution
Association MSDU delivery
System

LAN access and

Authentication Station
security

De- LAN access and

Station
authentication security

Distribution
Disassociation MSDU delivery
System

Distribution
Distribution MSDU delivery
System

Distribution
Integration MSDU delivery
System

MSDU Delivery Station MSDU delivery

LAN access and

Privacy Station
security

Re- Distribution
MSDU delivery
associaction System

NOTE:
Frame Control
It is 2 bytes long and defines type of frame and control information. The types
of fields present in FC are:
 Version: Indicates the current protocol version.
 Type: Determines the function of frame i.e. management(00), control(01)
or data(10).
 Subtype: Indicates subtype of frame like 0000 for association request,
1000 for beacon.
 To DS: When set indicates that the destination frame is for
DS(distribution system).
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 From DS: When set indicates frame coming from DS.
 More frag (More fragments): When set to 1 means frame is followed
by other fragments.
 Retry: If the current frame is a re-transmission of an earlier frame, this
bit is set to 1.
 Power Mgmt (Power Management): It indicates the mode of a station
after successful transmission of a frame. Set to '1' field indicates that the
station goes into power-save mode. If the field is set to 0, the station
stays active.
 More data: It is used to indicate to the receiver that a sender has more
data to send than the current frame.
 WEP: It indicates that the standard security mechanism of 802.11 is
applied.
 Order: If this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be processed in
strict order.
Duration / ID
It contains the value indicating the period of time in which the medium is
occupied (in µs).
Address 1 to 4
These fields contain standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48 bit each). The
meaning of each address is defined by DS bits in the frame control field.
SC (Sequence Control)
It consists of 2 sub-fields i.e. sequence number (12 bits) and fragment number
(4 bits). Sequence number is used to filter duplicate frames.
Data
It is a variable length field which contains information specific to individual
frames which is transferred transparently from a sender to the receiver.
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
It contains 32 bit CRC error detection sequence to ensure error free frame.
Note: To know more about the features of IEEE 802.11 MAC frame visit this
article.

Wi-Fi Alliance
Wi-Fi Alliance is a global non-profit organization that performs the task of
monitoring products from different manufacturers which are certified on the
basis of IEEE 802.11 standard. There is always a concern whether products from
different vendors will successfully interoperate. Early 802.11 products suffered
from interoperability problems because the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) had no provision for testing equipment for compliance with its
standards. Hence, Wi-Fi Alliance’s main objective is to establish a single global
standard for high-speed wireless LANs and ensure interoperability among
802.11 devices.
Before 1999, Wi-Fi Alliance was known as Wireless Ethernet Compatibility
Alliance (WECA). It created a test-suite to certify interoperability for 802.11
products and launched the Wi-Fi CERTIFIED program in March of 2020. This
program offers a renowned designation of quality and interoperability, ensuring
that certified products provide the best quality and user experience.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
There are some list of Advantages and Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11
Architecture are given below :
Advantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Fault Tolerance: The centralized architecture minimizes the bottlenecks
and introduces resilience in the WLAN equipment.
 Flexible Architecture: Supports both temporary smaller networks and
larger, more permanent ones.
 Prolonged Battery Life: Efficient power-saving protocols extend mobile
device battery life without compromising network connections.
Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Noisy Channels: Due to reliance on radio waves, signals may experience
interference from nearby devices.
 Greater Bandwidth and Complexity: Due to necessary data
encryption and susceptibility to errors, WLANs need more bandwidth than
their wired counterparts.
 Speed: Generally, WLANs offer slower speeds compared to wired LANs.

Applications of IEEE 802.11 Architecture

 Home Networking: Connecting devices, laptops, smart TVs, speakers,
gaming consoles etc.
 Wi-Fi Hotspots: Free or paid internet access to visitors in coffee shops,
hotels, airports, malls and restaurants.
 Connectivity in Campus: Provide internet access in university, colleges,
schools or corporate campuses.

The 802.11 Physical Layer

802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency
radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users
connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
The physical layer architecture of IEEE 802.11 has the following components −
 Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that
are connected to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types −
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP)
are generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smart
phones etc.
 Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
 Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations
communicating at physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories
depending upon mode of operation −
o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other
devices through access points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer
basis in an ad hoc manner.
 Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
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 Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency
radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users
connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.
The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the
logical link control sublayer and upper layers of the OSI network. It is
responsible for encapsulating frames and describing frame formats.
MAC Sublayer frame of IEEE 802.11
The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −
 Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It
contains control information of the frame.
 Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the
frame and its acknowledgement occupy the channel.
 Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing
addresses of source, immediate destination and final endpoint
respectively.
 Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper
layers. The maximum size of data field is 2312 bytes.
 Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection
information.
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Avoidance of Collisions by 802.11 MAC Sublayer

In wireless systems, the method of collision detection does not work. It uses a
protocol called carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA).
The method of CSMA/CA is −
 When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the
channel is idle or busy.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
 If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount
of time and then sends the frame.
 After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
 The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it
receives the acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a
successful transmission.
Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.

Co-ordination Functions in 802.11 MAC Sublayer

IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer uses two co-ordination functions for collision
avoidance before transmission −
 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) −
o It is a mandatory function used in CSMA/CA.
o It is used in distributed contention-based channel access.
o It is deployed in both Infrastructure BSS (basic service set) as well
as Independent BSS.
 Point Coordination Function (PCF) −
o It is an optional function used by 802.11 MAC Sublayer.
o It is used in centralized contention-free channel access.
o It is deployed in Infrastructure BSS only

805.1 1 Frame Structure, Services.

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In computer networks, "805.1" refers to IEEE 802.1, a working group that

defines standards for local area networks (LANs) and metropolitan area
networks (MANs). The standard focuses on protocols for network management,
bridging, VLANs (Virtual LANs), and various other networking services.
Within the context of IEEE 802.1, the term "Frame Structure" and "Services" are
critical concepts that help define how data is transmitted and managed across
the network. Let me break them down for you:
1. Frame Structure (IEEE 802.1)
A frame is the smallest unit of data transmission in the network layer. It
typically includes several parts that define how the data is organized and
transmitted across the network. In IEEE 802.1, the frame structure typically
consists of the following components:
 Preamble: A sequence of bits that signals the start of a frame and helps
synchronize the transmission.
 Destination Address: The MAC address (Media Access Control) of the
receiving device.
 Source Address: The MAC address of the sending device.
 EtherType/Length: Identifies the protocol encapsulated in the frame or
specifies the length of the data field.
 Data Payload: The actual data being transmitted.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS): A field used for error checking and
ensuring the integrity of the data.
The IEEE 802.1 standard often works with frames that follow the structure
defined in IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) or IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), but it focuses on
higher-layer services such as network management, bridging, VLANs, and
security.
2. Services in IEEE 802.1
IEEE 802.1 defines various services that help ensure the smooth functioning of
network communication. These services can be broken down into several areas:
 Bridging Services: These are used to manage the forwarding of frames
between different segments of a network, allowing devices on separate
segments to communicate with each other. Bridges help manage traffic
between VLANs and prevent collisions by segmenting traffic.
 Virtual LAN (VLAN) Services: IEEE 802.1Q is the standard that defines
VLAN tagging. It allows a single physical network to be logically
segmented into multiple virtual networks (VLANs). This segmentation
helps manage traffic, enhance security, and improve performance.
 Network Management: IEEE 802.1 provides services for managing the
network, such as configuration, monitoring, and fault detection.
 Authentication and Security: The IEEE 802.1X standard defines port-
based network access control (NAC) for securing access to the network. It
uses authentication protocols (like EAP) to ensure that only authorized
devices can access the network.
 Priority Services: Quality of Service (QoS) services within IEEE 802.1
ensure that high-priority traffic (such as voice or video) is given
preferential treatment over lower-priority traffic.
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3. Examples of IEEE 802.1 Standards
 802.1D: Defines the Media Access Control (MAC) bridging standard,
which is used for the operation of Ethernet switches.
 802.1Q: Defines VLAN tagging for Ethernet frames, enabling VLAN
functionality in networks.
 802.1X: Specifies port-based access control, typically used for
authenticating devices on networks.
 802.1p: Provides priority tagging for QoS, enabling prioritization of traffic
in a network.
In summary, IEEE 802.1 provides essential services and frame structure
components to enhance the management, security, and performance of local
area networks and metropolitan area networks, particularly in environments
where VLANs, bridging, and access control are needed.

Services

1. Bridging Services
 Bridging is a fundamental service that enables communication between
different segments of a network. It involves forwarding data frames
between network segments based on MAC addresses.
 802.1D defines MAC Bridging, which allows for interconnecting different
LAN segments, improving network traffic efficiency by reducing collisions
and improving bandwidth utilization.
 Switches are used to perform bridging, connecting multiple devices on
different segments, ensuring communication between them.
2. Virtual LAN (VLAN) Services
 IEEE 802.1Q defines the standard for VLAN tagging. This allows
network administrators to segment a physical network into multiple
virtual networks (VLANs). Each VLAN behaves like an independent
network, even though they share the same physical infrastructure.
 Benefits: VLANs can help organize traffic, enhance security, and improve
network performance by controlling traffic flows and isolating broadcasts.
 VLAN tagging ensures that each Ethernet frame carries information about
the VLAN to which it belongs, enabling proper routing across switches.
3. Quality of Service (QoS) Services
 802.1p specifies QoS (Quality of Service) mechanisms by providing
priority levels for frames to be transmitted over the network. This ensures
that critical data (such as voice or video) can be prioritized over less time-
sensitive traffic (such as emails or file transfers).
 With 802.1p, frames are marked with priority bits, allowing switches to
manage traffic effectively based on priority levels and ensuring minimal
delay for critical applications.
4. Port-Based Network Access Control (802.1X)
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 802.1X defines a port-based authentication framework for securing
network access. This is widely used for network access control (NAC)
in wired and wireless networks.
 Devices wishing to connect to the network must authenticate themselves
before being granted access. This is typically achieved using protocols like
EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol).
 802.1X helps secure the network from unauthorized access, ensuring
that only authenticated devices or users can connect to the network.
5. Network Management Services
 802.1 also specifies several services related to network management,
such as monitoring, fault detection, configuration, and troubleshooting.
 These services ensure that the network operates smoothly by providing
administrators with tools to manage the network effectively. This might
include managing VLANs, monitoring traffic, detecting network anomalies,
and troubleshooting issues.
6. Bridge Network Protocol (802.1D)
 The 802.1D standard, while focused on bridging, also encompasses some
additional services for network management and path selection (spanning
tree algorithm). This helps in determining the best route for data to avoid
network loops and ensures redundancy for network reliability.
7. Multicast Services
 802.1 includes multicast management services to optimize the way data
is delivered to multiple destinations on the network.
 These services can be used for applications like streaming or
conferencing, where the same data needs to be sent to multiple
endpoints efficiently.
Summary of IEEE 802.1 Services
The main services provided by IEEE 802.1 are:
 Bridging (802.1D) for interconnecting network segments.
 VLAN Support (802.1Q) for network segmentation.
 Quality of Service (QoS) (802.1p) for prioritizing traffic.
 Port-based Authentication (802.1X) for security.
 Network Management for monitoring and fault detection.
 Multicast support for efficient data delivery.
These services are essential in ensuring that modern networks are secure,
efficient, and can handle complex traffic demands across various devices and
locations.