Waves

Notes
• Waves
➢ A wave is a disturbance/oscillation which
transfers energy without transferring matter.
➢ A complete wave is a wave that starts at one
point and finishes at one point (node to
node).

• Mechanical Waves
➢ Mechanical waves are waves which require a medium to propagate.
➢ Motion of particles allow energy transfer.
➢ Particles oscillate around a fixed point.
➢ Mediums are any form of matter for a wave to travel in.
o Water
o Concrete
o Air

• Longitudinal & Transverse Waves

➢ A longitudinal wave is where the particles motion oscillates parallel to the direction
of motion of energy propagation.
➢ Also referred to as compressional waves.
➢ Transverse wave is when the particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular to the
direction of energy propagation.

• Electromagnetic Waves
➢ EM waves don’t need a medium to propagate.
 ➢ All EM waves travel at 3 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum or air.
➢ All EM waves are transverse waves.

• Features of a Wave
➢ Crest – the highest point of a wave.
➢ Trough – the lowest point of a wave.
➢ Equilibrium – the rest position of the wave.
➢ Displacement – the vertical distance of particles away from the equilibrium position
(m).
➢ Amplitude – the maximum displacement of particles from the equilibrium position
(m).
➢ Wavelength (𝜆) – the horizontal distance between two successive identical points on
a wave (m).
➢ Velocity - the velocity at which a wave propagates through a medium.
➢ Frequency (f) – the number of complete oscillations in one second through a fixed
point.
➢ Period (T) – the time taken for a particle to make one oscillation.

• Graphs of Waves
➢ A displacement vs displacement graph provides information about a wave of one
moment. It is a snapshot of a wave. Shows the distance from its equilibrium
position.

➢ A displacement vs time graph provides information about the particles motion as it

oscillates.
➢ Longitudinal waves can be represented on a graph.
➢ HOW CAN A LONGITUDINAL WAVE BE SHOWN AS A TRANSVERSE WAVE!!!
 ➢ In a pressure vs
distance graph,
compressions and
rarefactions are
shown by peaks and
troughs.

• Frequency & Period

➢ T and f have an inverse relationship.
𝟏
➢ 𝑻=𝒇
o Where,
▪ T – time taken for one oscillation
▪ 𝑓 – frequency

• Velocity, Frequency, & Wavelength

➢ v = 𝒇𝝀
o Where,
▪ v – velocity
▪ 𝑓 – frequency
▪ 𝜆 – wavelength

• Wave Behaviour
➢ A wave changes it behaviour when encountering an obstacle.
o Wave Reflection –when a wave meets a boundary.
o Wave Refraction –when a wave travels from a denser to less dense medium
(or vice-versa).
o Wave Diffraction –when a wave meets a barrier and travels through an
opening.
o Wave Superposition – when a wave meets another wave travelling in the
same medium.

• Wave Reflection
➢ When a wave meets a surface, causing it to bounce back and travel in a different
direction.
➢ Can happen for 1D, 2D, & 3D waves.
 ➢ A pulse is a single vibration.
➢ A pulse sent down with a fixed point, causes that pulse to reflect in the opposite
orientation.

➢ A pulse sent down with a loose end, causes the pulse to reflect in the same
orientation.
➢ Loose end implies space for rope to move with no friction.

➢ A pulse sent down in different densities can be reflected or transmitted.

• Wavefronts & Rays

➢ A form to keep track of the propagation of a wave.
➢ A wavefront is a line that joins all identical points in a phase, in a wave.
o A line joins all crests.
➢ A ray shows the direction of propagation and is always perpendicular to the
wavefront.
➢ Distance between two wavefronts is the wavelength.
➢ Wavefronts come in different shapes:
o Straight/Plane wavefronts
o Circular wavelengths
➢ The Law of Reflection states:
o “The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection”.
o “The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie on the same plane”.
• Wave Reflection
➢ It is when the wave changes direction of propagation due to the interaction with a
reflective surface.

• Wave Reflection from a Concave Surface

➢ A concave surface is a surface that curves in.
➢ The focus is responsible for collecting signals and
concentrating them to be retransmitted.

• Wave Reflection from a Convex Surface

➢ A convex surface is a surface that curves out.
➢ Convex mirrors are used in:
o car mirrors
o traffic mirrors
o security mirrors

• Wave Refraction
➢ It is when the wave changes direction of
propagation due to a change in velocity, when travelling through a medium.
➢ FREQUENCY REMAINS UNCHANGED!!!
➢ Conditions for refractions:
o velocity change
o wave must enter the second medium at an angle other than 90o
 Wave cannot
refract if angle of
incidence is 90o.

• Snell’s Law
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒗 𝝀 𝒏
➢ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
= 𝒗𝟏 = 𝝀𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
➢ A dense medium is a medium where waves travel
slow.
➢ A less medium is a medium where waves travel fast.

Wave slows down Shallow water is denser

than deep water.
=
(waves travel faster in deep
Bends towards normal water)

• Refractive Index
➢ Is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a material.
𝒄
➢ 𝒏=𝝂
o
Where,
▪ n – refractive index of a material
▪ c – speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108 ms-1)
▪ v – speed of light in a material (ms-1)
➢ Objects with high refractive indexes are SOMETIMES Space and air have a
referred to as high optical density. refractive index of 1.

• Wave Diffraction
➢ It is the spreading of waves into space beyond a gap or obstacle.
 ➢ Spreading of sound waves:

➢ The greater the wavelength, the greater the spreading.

o Sound waves can diffract through a door opening but not light waves.
o This is because a sound wave is
larger than the width of the gap.
o Light waves simply pass but do
not diffract.
➢ THERE IS NO CHANGE IN VELOCITY,
WAVELENGTH, OR FREQUENCY!!!

• Wave Superposition
➢ When two waves/pulses travelling in the same medium, interfere each other.
➢ Superposition is adding waves.
➢ The resultant wave exists for a moment when two waves
meet.
➢ There are two types of interference:
o Constructive Interference
o Destructive Interference
• Standing Waves
➢ It is a pattern which results from the interference of two identical waves travelling
along the same medium in the opposite direction.
➢ A node is a point that stays stationary as the
wave propagates.
➢ An antinode is a point that experiences
maximum displacement as the wave
propagates.
1
➢ Distance between two nodes is 2 𝜆.

• Resonance
➢ It is when an object exposed to a driving force is equal to their resonant frequency.
➢ Maximum possible energy is transferred to the resonating object.
➢ High amplitude can damage object.
➢ Hitting the right frequency can cause a glass to shatter
➢ All objects that are able to vibrate, do so at their natural frequencies.
o Vibrations in a guitar, drum, and other instruments.
➢ A forced vibration is when an object makes another object vibrate.
o Vibration of a tuning fork produces a vibration on a nearby tuning fork.
o Vibration on a speaker causes nearby air molecules to vibrate, producing
sound.

• Path Difference
➢ Is the extra distance travelled compared to another.
➢ Constructive Interference:
o PD = 𝒏𝝀
▪ n = integer
➢ Destructive Interference:
𝟏
o PD = 𝝀 (𝒏 + 𝟐)

• Sound Waves
➢ Is a mechanical longitudinal wave.
➢ When sound waves vibrate, vibrations create
pressure variations within that medium.
 ➢ Frequency of wave is determined by frequency of original vibration.

• Characteristics of Sound Waves

➢ Velocity
o Require a medium to travel through.
o Fastest in solids, then gases, then liquid.
o Speed of sound in air is 343ms-1 (25oC, 1 atom)
➢ Frequency/Pitch
o Higher frequency - more vibrations - higher pitch
o High frequency – high pitch
▪ E.g. alarm and whistle
o Low frequency – low pitch
▪ E.g. hitting a gong and a horn
➢ Amplitude/Volume
o Amplitude determines volume.
o High amplitude – loud sound
o Low amplitude – soft sound

• Intensity of Sound Waves

➢ Is the amount of sound energy passing through a
unit area in one second.
➢ Is the power per unit area.
➢ Is a 3D wave, meaning it spreads energy evenly.
➢ Spreads energy evenly spherical surface area.

• The Inverse Square Law

➢ Intensity decreases in proportion to the square of distance from the source.
o Distance is doubled – intensity is decreased by a factor of 4.
• Behaviour of Sound Waves
➢ Reflection of Sound
o Sound is either reflected or absorbed when it meets a surface.
o Smooth and hard surfaces reflect better than soft and rough surfaces.
o Can result in reverberation or an echo.
➢ Reverberation
o Prolongation of a of a sound wave.
▪ When sound is reflected at 17m or less.
➢ Echo
o Reflection from a hard surface and rebounds to its original source.
▪ When reflected at 17m or more.
➢ Reflection of high frequency sound (ultrasound) can be used to produce images of
foetus in the womb.
➢ High frequency waves diffract less than low frequency waves.

• Standing Waves & Music

➢ Instruments create standing waves, which create resonance.
➢ Music created is dependant on which standing waves are created and which
instruments are used.
➢ A guitar with fixed end strings cause destructive interference, until one wave
remains.
➢ Length, tension, density, and thickness are controllable factors.

• Standing Waves in a String

➢ Resonant frequencies are frequencies at which standing waves are produced.
➢ Harmonics are different forms of standing waves.
➢ First harmonic is the simplest standing wave with a fundamental frequency.
➢ Overtones are higher level harmonics.

n – harmonic number
 𝟐𝒍
➢ 𝝀𝒏 = 𝒏
𝒏𝒗
➢ 𝒇𝒏 = 𝟐𝒍
o Where,
▪ 𝜆 – wavelength (m)
▪ l – length of string (m)
▪ n – number of harmonic (1, 2, 3, …)
▪ f – frequency (Hz)
▪ v – velocity (ms-1)

• String Fixed at One End

𝟒𝒍
➢ 𝝀𝒏 = 𝒏
𝒏𝒗
➢ 𝒇𝒏 = 𝟒𝒍

• Standing Waves in Air Columns

➢ Seen in instruments, such as flute or
clarinet.
➢ When a flutist blows in, a column
opens up at both ends, which set up
antinodes at both ends.
➢ When a clarinet has one end open, setting an antinode at one side and a node on
the other.

A pipe open at one end can only set

up odd number of harmonics, must
have a node and an antinode on
either side.

Same wavelength and frequency

formula as a string with one fixed
end.

• The Doppler Effect

➢ Is the observed change in frequency of a wav due to relative motion between a
source and an observer.
➢ Happens when a source and observer experience relative motion.
➢ It explains the change in pitch when a car passes by.
 ➢ No change in pitch – if observer and
source are stationary.
➢ If we stand in front of a moving source,
the waves are compressed – decrease in
wavelength, increases frequency, higher
pitch.
➢ If we stand behind the moving source,
the waves are stretched – increase in
wavelength, decrease in frequency,
lower pitch.
➢ Case 1: Moving Observer
o If observer is moving towards source, no change in wavelength.
o Relative motion between observer and source is:
▪ v’ = v + v o
𝒇(𝒗+𝒗𝟎 )
▪ 𝒇′ = (When an observer approaches the source)
𝒗
𝒇(𝒗−𝒗𝟎 )
▪ 𝒇′ = (When an observer moves away from the source)
𝒗
➢ Case 2: Moving Source
o There is no change in wavelength if the source is moving towards the
observer.
o When the source is moving away from the observer.
𝒗
▪ 𝒇′ = 𝒇 ( )
𝒗+𝒗𝒔
o When the source is moving towards the observer.
𝒗
▪ 𝒇′ = 𝒇 ( )
𝒗−𝒗𝒔
➢ Case 3: Motion of Both Objects
o When both observer and source are moving.
𝒗+𝒗
o 𝒇′ = 𝒇 ( 𝒗−𝒗𝟎)
𝒔
▪ vo - + if observer is moving towards the
source (negative if moving away)
▪ vs - + if source is moving away from the
observer (negative is moving

• Beats
➢ Beats are rhythmic fluctuations of sound intensity.
➢ Beats occur when there is a wave interference/superposition of two sound waves of
a similar frequency.
➢ A slight difference in frequency will cause alternating constructive/destructive
interference, causing a regular pattern.
➢ Used to tune instruments.
o Musicians aim to match the instrument frequency with a tuning fork.
o Matching frequencies won’t cause beats.
➢ 𝒇𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒕 = |𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏 |
o Where,
▪ fbeat – beat frequency (Hz)
▪ f1 – frequency of the first sound wave (Hz)
 ▪ f2 – frequency of the second sound wave (Hz)

• Ray Model of Light

➢ Ray is represented by an arrow.
➢ Beams are a stream of light that consists of many rays.

• Mirrors
➢ There are 3 types of
mirrors:
o Plane mirrors
o Concave mirrors
o Convex mirrors

• Reflection on a Plane Mirror

➢ A plane mirror is smooth and flat allowing specular reflection.
➢ A plane mirror always produces virtual images.
• Specular vs Diffuse Reflection

➢ Reflect parallel. ➢ Reflected in a scattered

➢ Forms clear image. manner.
➢ Forms a distorted or no
image.

• Reflection on a Concave Mirror

➢ Thought as several plane mirrors along a curved plane.
➢ All parallel rays reflect towards the focus.
➢ Does not determine
image formation.

• The Mirror Formula

➢ Applies for both
concave and convex mirrors.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
➢ 𝒇
=𝒖+𝒗
o Where,
▪ f – focal length ( + for concave & - for convex mirrors)
▪ u – distance between object & mirror
▪ v – distance between image & mirror ( - for virtual)

• Reflection Terminology
➢ Location
o distance between the image & the mirror.
o Located with reference the centre or focal point.
➢ Orientation
o upright or inverted.
➢ Size
o Reduced, enlarged, or maintains size.
𝒉𝒊 −𝒗
o 𝑴= =
𝒉𝟎 𝒖
▪ M – ratio of magnification
▪ hi – height of image ( + if upright & - if inverted)
▪ ho – height of object ( + if upright & - if inverted)
 ➢ Type
o Real image:
▪ Produced by reflection or refraction when rays converge.
▪ E.g. image projected on a cinema screen.
o Virtual image:
▪ Produced when light rays only strike a certain point.
▪ E.g. Reflection from a plane mirror.

• Reflection on a Convex mirror

• Critical Angle
➢ When travelling, from a dense medium to a less dense medium, the angle of
incidence angle forms an angle of refraction of 90o.
• Total Internal Reflection
➢ Occurs when incidence angles greater than the critical angle.

➢ Occurs when:
o Travelling from a denser to a less dense medium.
o The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
➢ Examples:
o Internet – transmission of data at high speeds
o Telecommunication – faster and clearer connection
o Non-invasive diagnosis
o Treatment

• Refraction in Lenses
➢ A converging lens refract light, so the rays converge at the focus.
➢ A diverging lens refracts light, so the rays diverge. The rays can be traced back to the
focus.
➢ THE RAY IS BENT TWICE WHILE TRAVELLING THROUGH THE LENS!!!
➢ MORE DETAILED RAY DIAGRAM!!!
• Refraction on Convex Lenses

• Refraction on Concave Lenses

• Dispersion of Light
➢ A white light is a combination of all colours of light with different wavelengths.
➢ If white light passes through an object, the component colours are refracted by
different amounts, this is called chromatic dispersion.
➢ Violet light refracts the most while red light refracts the least.
➢ Rainbows are a result of colour dispersion as light is refracted through many
raindrops.

• Light Intensity
➢ Light spreads uniformly into 3D space, the energy is distributed in a surface area of a
sphere.
𝑷
➢ 𝑰=
𝟒𝝅𝒓
Definitions
WORDS DEFINITIONS
Wave a disturbance/oscillation which transfers
energy without transferring matter.
Mechanical waves waves which require a medium to propagate.
Longitudinal wave when the particles motion oscillates parallel to
the direction of motion of energy propagation.
Transverse wave when the particles of the medium oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of energy
propagation.
Crest the highest point of a wave.
Trough the lowest point of a wave.
Equilibrium the rest position of the wave.
Amplitude the maximum displacement of particles from
the equilibrium position (m).
Wavelength the horizontal distance between two successive
identical points on a wave (m).
Frequency the number of complete oscillations in one
second through a fixed point.
Period the time taken for a particle to make one
oscillation.
Wave Reflection when a wave meets a boundary.
Wave Refraction when a wave travels from a denser to less
dense medium (or vice-versa).
Wave Diffraction when a wave meets a barrier and travels
through an opening.
Wave Superposition when a wave meets another wave travelling in
the same medium.
Pulse a single vibration.
Wavefront a line that joins all identical points in a phase, in
a wave.
Ray shows the direction of propagation and is
always perpendicular to the wavefront.
Refractive Index the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
the speed of light in a material.
Standing wave a pattern which results from the interference of
two identical waves travelling along the same
medium in the opposite direction.
Resonance when an object exposed to a driving force is
equal to their resonant frequency.
Intensity the amount of sound energy passing through a
unit area in one second.
Reverberation the prolongation of a of a sound wave.
Echo the reflection from a hard surface and
rebounds to its original source.
Doppler Effect the observed change in frequency of a wav due
to relative motion between a source and an
observer.
Beats rhythmic fluctuations of sound intensity.
Critical angle when the angle of incidence angle forms an
angle of refraction of 90o.
Total Internal Reflection when incidence angles greater than the critical
angle.
Formulas