Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

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Review

Direct additive manufacturing of ceramic molds and cores for advanced

investment casting: State of the art and future prospectsI
Lisa Freitag
Materials Science and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University (TAU), Korkeakoulunkatu 6, P.O. Box
589, Tampere, 33014, Finland

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Recent advances in additive manufacturing (AM) of ceramic materials are creating new opportunities to replace
Additive manufacturing the multiple steps of the conventional investment casting (IC) mold and core fabrication. Direct 3D printing
Refractories streamlines processing, reduces material use, and enables complex shapes. This review summarizes the current
Investment casting
state of the art in direct AM of ceramic molds and cores for precision casting applications. First, the direct
AM process is distinguished from conventional IC, AM-assisted IC using printed patterns, and AM for sand
casting. The main part reviews the AM technologies, materials, binders, and target alloys and evaluates the
obtained properties and applications. Challenges such as process-related limitations in the choice of material
and binder, as well as scalability and surface quality issues, are critically discussed. In addition, three emerging
research trends are highlighted: advanced molds and cores for demanding high-temperature alloy casting, more
sustainable binder selection, and functional gradients—specifically graded porosity.

1. Introduction Solving these problems while maintaining competitiveness requires

innovation and collaboration [5]. AM is an example of such innovative
Metal casting is a very old manufacturing technique and still today and potentially disruptive technology, enabling localized, customized
a key technology. Specifically, investment casting (IC) by means of production [6].
the lost-wax process is notable for complex near-net-shape components AM offers high complexity and freedom of design as well as sub-
with excellent surface finish ranging from intricate sculptures and jew- stantially reduced fabrication steps and material use without the need
elry to advanced cast parts for the automotive, aerospace and medical for molds and mechanical postprocessing. From an economic point of
industries. While forging or machining are limited by the material’s view, a high degree of differentiation of the components is feasible
hardness and can be quite wasteful, IC directly produces complex while keeping the production volume per unit low, since—apart from
shapes and details by pouring the molten metal into a refractory
the AM machine—no additional tooling costs are incurred [6]. Process
ceramic mold [1]. Another recently advancing approach for producing
variability is based on the creation of the desired geometry as a
metals with the desired intricate thin-walled shapes is metallic additive
computer aided design (CAD) model, divided into horizontal layers and
manufacturing (AM) [2], but it cannot yet provide shaped metals of
built layer by layer from the feedstock [7]. There are currently 7 classes
the same variety, sizes, microstructural, and mechanical properties as
of AM technologies (DIN/EN ISO/ASTM 52900:2022) [8]:
IC [3].
Metals used in the IC process range from aluminum to titanium
• Vat photopolymerization (VPP), e.g., Stereolithography (SLA):
alloys, with steel alloys having the highest market share [1,4]. IC of ad-
Selective curing of liquid photopolymer in a vat by UV or visible
vanced metals and alloys is valued for its high flexibility and ability to
light-activated polymerization
generate near-net shaped parts for applications such as chemical engi-
• Binder jetting (BJT): Joining of selective regions of a powder bed
neering, mobility, and infrastructure. At the same time, manufacturing
by a bonding agent
industries face several challenges. On the one hand, there is an urgent
demand to transform production processes towards sustainability and • Powder bed fusion (PBF), e.g., Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) :
reduce CO2 emissions by efficient use of resources and energy. On Melting of selected parts of a powder bed by thermal energy
the other hand, casting processes are inherently energy-intensive and • Sheet lamination (SHL): Joining thin layers of material layer by
geopolitical challenges further complicate the security of supply chains. layer

I This article is part of a Special issue entitled: ‘Shaping 9’ published in Open Ceramics.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link].

[Link]
Received 22 December 2025; Received in revised form 16 February 2026; Accepted 27 February 2026
Available online 28 February 2026
2666-5395/© 2026 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of European Ceramic Society. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
([Link]
L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

• Material jetting (MJT): Selective jetting of droplets of material (DSPC) based on BJT, was developed in 1991 by MIT and commercial-
and curing with heat or UV light ized by Soligen in 1993. Since 1999, DSPC machines are no longer on
• Material extrusion (MEX), e.g., Direct ink writing (DIW) : Extru- the market, but castings are offered as contract work instead. In DSPC,
sion of material via a nozzle layers of alumina (Al2 O3 ) powder are selectively joined by depositing
• Directed energy deposition (DED): Material deposition and melt- colloidal silica (SiO2 ) binder with a print head. After removing un-
ing by focused energy source bound powder, the shell mold is sintered and ready for casting [2,16].
This approach reduces costs and time, enables higher dimensional
The implementation of AM technologies in casting processes is not accuracy and tailored shell thickness and allows for direct printing of
a new idea. In fact, it has been mentioned as a target application since integral cores [16]. Since the pioneering DSPC, different materials and
the beginning of development of the AM technology now known as process variations have been added, as will be discussed in detail in the
BJT by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the early following section.
1990s, proposing direct 3D printing of integral molds and cores [2, For the sake of clarity, a detailed comparison of sand casting and IC
9,10]. Although current manufacturing trends and industry demands is warranted. Sand casting is traditionally a less accurate and precise
are accelerating research and development in this field, only certain casting technology. Usually, a two-piece mold of foundry sand, binder,
subfields of research have been summarized in review articles. Recent and additives is formed by compacting sand around a pattern. The final
specific reviews offer valuable information on the state of the art of sand casting mold contains the cavity of the target part on the inside,
VPP of ceramic cores [11,12] and AM of soluble ceramic cores [13]. but has more volume around the cavity. In comparison, the IC molding
The objectives of this review are to present a comprehensive overview is defined by a highly precise non-split single mold with lower shell
of existing AM technologies, ceramic materials, process parameters, thickness through controlled slurry coating on the wax pattern. Another
target alloys, obtainable properties, and applications of directly shaped important difference is related to the binding or hardening principle
IC molds and cores using AM. The selection of relevant studies will and the thermal treatment: sand casting molds are usually based on
be summarized along with a discussion of current research trends and self-hardening furan resin and do not require thermal treatment, while
challenges. IC molds and cores are sintered at higher temperatures to obtain their
final strength and high refractoriness [20]. Driven by environmental
2. Overview of IC process routes: conventional versus concerns and increased considerations of health and safety, research on
AM-supported IC and distinction from sand casting sand casting aims to replace furan- and phenol-based foundry binders
with less hazardous inorganic binders [21–24].
The conventional IC process comprises multiple steps to fabricate There is also a demand for process flexibility and part complexity in
a ceramic mold (Fig. 1, left side) [1,2,4]. The various process steps sand casting, and lower requirements compared with IC facilitate a low-
of traditional lost-wax IC allow flexibility in design, but this is at risk implementation in industry. It is evident that direct AM shaping
the expense of process simplicity and time efficiency. In addition, IC has become more and more established for sand casting molds and
cores must be produced separately by injection molding of slurry-based cores as well [16,25]. BJT and SLS are the most common fabrication
ceramic feedstocks into hard tooling (Fig. 1, right side) [14,15]. methods. Direct printing of sand casting molds and cores using BJT
For both mold and core fabrication, there is a heavy reliance on 3D printers of Voxeljet, ExOne and ZCorp resulted in promising case
tooling and molding, which consumes energy and material and is studies [22,26,27]. In recent years, the BJT process for mold and core
not economical for prototyping and customized casting of complex production has become state of the art on the commercial market. A
components in small series. As a result, substitution of IC process steps recent review [28] stated the dominance of BJT over SLS in research
has been an important research topic since the late 20th century, driven and industry, while SLS lost its importance due to higher costs, limited
by the rise of AM technologies [2,16]. As can be seen in Fig. 1, both the speed and scalability and lower alignment with sustainability goals.
wax pattern and the ceramic mold could be manufactured additively, The general advantages of replacing tooling and molding with AM
leading to a substitution of non-additive production steps while still are the same for sand casting and IC. Fig. 2 visualizes the cost effect
taking advantage of the casting benefits. of BJT versus conventional molding as a function of complexity and
Due to the simplicity of plastic processing using AM techniques, the the number of parts for sand casting of a train air brake. The AM
AM-assisted IC process was developed and is now considered state of approach is very cost effective for highly complex parts as well as for
the art in many foundries [16–18]. ‘‘AM-assisted IC’’ is also referred to small series, even of lower complexity [25]. This great benefit can thus
as ‘‘rapid IC’’, ‘‘indirect IC’’, ‘‘indirect AM based casting’’, or ‘‘hybrid be transferred to the IC process, especially since the complexity of IC
IC’’. These terms characterize an IC process in which the wax pattern molds and cores is usually very high.
is not produced by tooling and injection molding, but instead directly In principle, directly printed sand molds and IC molds can be
printed by means of AM, mainly by MEX and lesser by VPP [16]. produced using the same AM process and therefore differ mainly in the
AM-assisted IC is very beneficial due to the substitution of costly materials, design approach, and requirements. Nevertheless, different
injection mold tooling, especially for a small number of parts and materials and binders enable or limit the choice of AM technologies.
high complexity. It significantly reduces process time, costs, energy and SLS is less suitable for IC, because furan as a low-temperature binder
CO2 emissions [17]. As discussed by [18], there are, however, certain involved in the SLS process is not standard in IC compositions, which
challenges of AM-assisted IC. Shell cracking is more pronounced in AM- are usually sintered to stabilize the mold or core. Instead, the use of AM
patterns, due to a higher thermal expansion mismatch with the shell technologies that require thermal treatment, such as VPP, becomes an
compared with conventional IC waxes. Furthermore, it is difficult to interesting option for highly complex and precise parts. Despite certain
obtain the same pattern quality in terms of smoothness and accuracy. similarities with IC in the approach of BJT, state-of-the-art research
Even with the AM-assisted IC process, all of the following process on sand casting does not offer the same dimensional precision and
steps still remain, in particular the conventional shell mold produc- material variety as conventional IC molds, cores, and crucibles. There
tion. Nonetheless, there are exceptions, such as the combination of is still a high demand for research on the selection and improvement
AM-assisted pattern fabrication with ceramic gelcasting to achieve of AM processes, ceramic materials, and binders specifically suited for
an integral ceramic mold [19]. Usually, high-refractory molds are IC foundry application.
obtained by ‘‘investing’’ the wax/plastic pattern into ceramic slurry To state the key requirements of advanced IC molds and cores and
multiple times followed by stuccoing and drying. As a result, reducing the potential benefits of AM, a review of the IC of nickel superal-
the process steps of shell molding offers even greater potential for loys [29] highlights the following aspects: high strength relative to the
improved efficiency. The so-called ‘‘Direct Shell Production Casting’’ solidifying alloy, sufficient thermal shock resistance, high dimensional

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L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

Fig. 1. Traditional investment casting (lost-wax) mold production and core production via ceramic injection molding versus AM-supported processes. The direct
additive manufacturing of the mold and core is highlighted.

stability, leachability of the core, low reactivity, high permeability, The results were further screened for exclusion of AM of the die, pat-
and low cost. The proposed future research focus should be on analyz- tern, or metal part, keeping only studies on direct AM of ceramic molds
ing and lowering reactivity through novel material compositions and and cores. Articles dealing specifically with sand casting, i.e. furan-
reducing shrinkage and creep by functional additives and processing based compositions and split molds, were generally excluded as well.
methods. Furthermore, the role of AM was emphasized: dimensional However, individual studies using resin-based binders for shaping pre-
control and customized porosity eliminate the main disadvantages of cise molds and cores or the fabrication of intricate split molds were
conventional manufacturing. At the same time, products with func- included, if the focus was clearly on IC. Further criteria for inclusion
tional material gradients could be printed in order to combine corrosion of studies were original research articles and proceedings in English.
resistant and advanced outer layers with a less expensive, leachable Reference lists of publications were checked for additional relevant
core body. studies. Applying the selection criteria described above, 131 relevant
scientific articles were identified and chosen for this literature review.
3. Studies of directly printed ceramic molds and cores
3.2. Summary of relevant studies

3.1. Methodology of literature search

Relevant studies with a focus on AM of molds and cores for IC
have been published since the early 1990s, but since the late 2010s the
A comprehensive search query was conducted in the Scopus number of studies has increased significantly, as shown in Fig. 3. This
database (All fields): (‘‘investment casting’’ OR ‘‘precision casting’’) is in line with the advancement of ceramic AM development during
AND (‘‘additive manufacturing’’ OR printing) AND (mold OR core). that time [30,31], including VPP—specifically SLA [32], BJT [33],
It was obvious that a search only within ‘‘Article title, Abstract, Key- PBF—specifically SLS [34] and MEX—specifically DIW (also: Robocast-
words’’ was not able to find all the relevant studies, which is why the ing) [35,36], which comprise the AM technologies used for mold and
search was carried out in all fields. One reason for the difficulty in core fabrication, as visualized in Fig. 4. The majority of publications
narrowing down the initial search query is the broad terminology of deal with AM of cores (83 %) and the most common AM technology is
AM technologies, which also changed over time. In order to consider VPP (68 %). The popularity of VPP can be attributed to its outstanding
all relevant publications to date, no time range has been specified. The achievable precision and complexity [37]. This is reflected in the
last search query was conducted on December 12, 2025, and found presence of reviews on VPP of cores [11,12], while there are no reviews
1293 documents. on AM of molds and only one review that presents an overview of

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Fig. 2. Costs of sand casting molds and cores for binder jetting versus conventional tooling depending on complexity and number of parts [25].
Source: The figure has been collected with due permission from the publisher.

Fig. 3. Number of selected studies on AM of refractories for IC, highlighting the ratio of studies on molds and cores.
Source: Retrieval date: December 12, 2025.

AM technologies for core fabrication along with an in-depth focus on and core design, followed by ZrSiO4 and Y2 O3 -based materials [29].
soluble cores [13]. Mixtures of SiO2 –Al2 O3 share 9.9 % and the remaining 18.4 % are
The percentage share of ceramic materials (Fig. 5) with Al2 O3 (36.9 shared by other oxide ceramics as well as mixtures with Al2 O3 and
%) and SiO2 (34.8 %) as the materials with the highest share is not SiO2 . Tables 1 and 2 summarize the reviewed studies on ceramic
surprising, given their widespread use, versatile properties, easy avail- molds and cores, respectively. Studies were organized in terms of
ability, and relatively low costs. They are the main ceramics in mold AM technologies, ceramic materials, and binders. For each ceramic

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L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

Table 1
Overview of reviewed studies focused on IC molds, including combined mold and core development, with AM technologies (AMT),
ceramic materials, binders and notable results such as flexural strength (FS) and open porosity (OP) (sintering temperature), and
casting trials.
AMT Ceramic material Binder Notable results
VPP Al2 O3 [38,39] Photosensitive resin [38–46] FS 78 MPa, OP 30 % (1550 ◦ C) [38]
Stainless steel casting [39]
SiO2 [40–44] Integrally cored mold [41,42]
FS 11 MPa (1300 ◦ C) [42]
IC of tungsten-copper (W–Cu) gyroids [43],
Al [40,44], Ni-based alloy, stainless steel [44]
Al2 O3 –SiO2 [45] Stainless steel casting [45]
ZrO2 [46] High shrinkage 22 %, Al casting [46]
BJT Al2 O3 [9,10,47,48] Colloidal SiO2 [9,10,47] Printed 3D grid [9,10]
SiO2 [9,10] Phenolic resin [48]
SiO2 –Al2 O3 [49] Na silicate, water-based [49] Al alloy casting [49]
Al2 O3 –ZrO2 [44] Al2 O3 –CaO, water-based [44] IC of Al, Ni-based alloy, stainless steel [44]
PBF Al2 O3 [50–52] Al phosphate [50] FS 13 MPa, OP 30 % (1600 ◦ C) [51]
Epoxy resin [51,53,54] IC of Ni-based superalloy [51], Mg alloy [52]
SiO2 [55] Na silicate [52] IC of Al alloy [55]
Al2 O3 –SiO2 [53,54] Colloidal SiO2 [55] Compressive strength 92 MPa, OP 22 % (1550 ◦ C) [53]
MEX Al2 O3 [56,57] Colloidal SiO2 [56,57] FS 12 MPa, OP 42 % (1100 ◦ C), IC of Al [57]
Y2 O3 [58] Methyl cellulose, 2 mol.% CaTiO3 , FS 43 MPa, OP 21 % (1500 ◦ C) [58]
Ammonium polyacrylate [58] Non-wetting with Ti alloy [58]

sintered target component based on fused SiO2 with a complex internal

hollow structure [41]. It was also the first study to mention superalloy
airfoils in gas turbine engines as the proposed application and marks
the beginning of an increased focus on AM of molds and cores for su-
peralloy casting. At the same time, PBF was used to fabricate molds for
Al alloy casting based on SiO2 with mediocre strength and unsuitably
low permeability [55] and mullite with high strength [53]. Further-
more, cores consisting of mullite, ZrSiO4 [161,162] and Al2 O3 [156]
were fabricated via MEX—thus, by the late 2010s, 4 different AM
technologies were used for the development of cores and molds for IC.
In addition to superalloys, Ti alloys represent another group of ad-
vanced alloys that require thermally stable, corrosion resistant ceramic
molds and cores. BJT was used to manufacture a ceramic core for Ti
alloy casting based on CaO with nano-ZrO2 , which led to formation of
CaZrO3 on the surface for improved hydration resistance [147]. This
innovative approach represents another step towards AM of molds and
cores suitable for high-melting and highly reactive alloys. After the
2017 study, more studies have been dedicated to BJT of cores consisting
of CaO or heavy CaCO3 with additions of ZrO2 [144–148]. One study
Fig. 4. Percentage share of AM technologies used in studies on AM of IC molds
focused on MEX of CaO/CaCO3 [163]. Y2 O3 as a target material for
and cores.
the IC of Ti alloys was used to produce molds by MEX [58] and cores
by BJT [149]. Contact angle measurements proved the non-wetting
behavior against Ti6Al4V [58].
material produced using a specific AM technology, notable results such In 2019, two notable studies showed a more in-depth characteriza-
as properties and casting tests were listed. Selected results will be tion of the relevant properties. [42] reported a flexural strength (FS) of
explained in more detail in this chapter. 11 MPa at a sintering temperature of 1300 ◦ C of their integrally cored
Starting with the first study on this topic, the initial development of SiO2 molds produced by VPP. With higher sintering temperatures, it
Three-Dimensional Printing—now known as BJT—already envisioned decreased due to phase changes and a high number of microcracks. BJT
the fabrication of both ceramic molds and cores for IC casting in the of Al2 O3 with inorganic binder [137] resulted in a high FS of 79 MPa
early 1990s by [9,10]. These pioneering papers presented BJT of Al2 O3 at a sintering temperature of 1500 ◦ C, reduced linear shrinkage and low
and SiO2 with colloidal SiO2 binder, resulting in a 3D grid with a surface roughness due to newly generated ZrO2 particles and an open
minimum feature size of 0.017 in (0.4318 mm). Thus, the feasibility porosity (OP) of 35 %. In 2020, the only study on pure ZrO2 of this
of producing intricate details was proved, but neither a printed mold review [46] revealed a complex IC mold by VPP for Al casting with
nor a core was revealed. About 10 years later, Al2 O3 was further used high FS (804 MPa, sintered at 1480 ◦ C), but high shrinkage (22 %) and
to develop ceramic molds by AM. A small part was manufactured by cast part roughness (10 μm). Characterization and obtained properties
PBF [50] and BJT was optimized using bimodal powders to achieve with different AM technologies and ceramic materials will be explained
individual lines with a smooth surface finish [47]. In 2010, [40] printed in more detail in Section 3.3.
a small SiO2 mold by VPP, combining a photosensitive binder with The advancement of AM for ceramic molds and cores in the 2020s
colloidal SiO2 . They successfully performed a casting test with Al alloy. becomes obvious with the substantial increase in the number of pub-
Driven by the early mold developments in the 1990s and 2000s, lished articles. Research on VPP of Al2 O3 and SiO2 dominates, but other
and the advancement of ceramic AM in general, the variety of AM technologies and materials were also further developed. Examples of
technologies, ceramic materials, and target alloys started to increase in the diversity of AM technologies and ceramic materials are displayed
the 2010s. The first study on integrally cored molds by VPP presented a in Figs. 6–9. Notably, successful superalloy castings were performed

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Fig. 5. Percentage share of main ceramic materials (additives <10 wt.% not considered) used in studies on AM of IC molds and cores.

Table 2
Overview of reviewed studies focused on IC cores, with AM technologies (AMT), ceramic materials, binders and notable results
such as flexural strength (FS) and open porosity (OP) (sintering temperature).
AMT Ceramic material Binder Notable results
VPP Al2 O3 [59–90] Photosensitive resin Lattice structure, FS 66 MPa, OP 70 % (1650 ◦ C) [88]
SiO2 [71,91–121] [14,59–136] FS 23 MPa, OP 24 % (1300 ◦ C) [119]
Al2 O3 –SiO2 [70,122–125] 10 wt.% SiO2 , FS 36 MPa, OP 48 % (1500 ◦ C) [122]
SiO2 –ZrO2 [14,126–129] 20 wt.% ZrO2 , FS 12 MPa, OP 28 % (1250 ◦ C) [14]
Al2 O3 –ZrO2 [130] 15 wt.% ZrO2 , FS 27 MPa, OP 60 % (1500 ◦ C) [130]
ZrSiO4 [71] Binder choice for low viscous ZrSiO4 suspensions [71]
SiO2 –ZrSiO4 [131,132] 15 wt.% ZrSiO4 , FS 12 MPa, OP 26 % (1250 ◦ C) [132]
Al2 O3 –Y2 O3 [133] 16 wt.% Y2 O3 , FS 16 MPa, OP 41 % (1600 ◦ C) [133]
Al2 O3 –Y2 SiO5 [134] 15 wt.% Y2 SiO5 , FS 20 MPa, OP 39 % (1350 ◦ C) [134]
Al2 O3 –ZrSiO4 [135] 15 wt.% ZrSiO4 , FS 62 MPa, OP 31 % (1400 ◦ C) [135]
Al2 O3 –SiO2 –Y2 O3 [136] 80:10:10 wt.%, FS 34 MPa, OP 31 % (1380 ◦ C) [136]
BJT Al2 O3 [137–140] Colloidal [137,139], ZBC [137] ZBC addition, FS 79 MPa, OP 35 % (1500 ◦ C) [137]
SiO2 [141,142] Phenolic resin [138,140,143–146] Slurry-based BJT, FS 11 MPa (1275 ◦ C) [142]
Al2 O3 –SiO2 [143] Furan resin [141] Water-soluble, salt-based, FS 62 MPa (760 ◦ C) [143]
CaO/CaCO3 [144–148] Water-based [142,149] 6 % SiO2 , FS 5 MPa, OP 25 % (1450 ◦ C) [146]
Y2 O3 [149] PVP [147–149] 5 % CaTiO3 , FS 34 MPa, OP 33 % (1550 ◦ C) [149]
PBF Al2 O3 [150] Polyamide [150] SiO2 infiltration, FS 13 MPa, OP 26 % (1300 ◦ C) [150]
SiO2 [151–154] Epoxy resin [151–155] SiO2 infiltration, FS 21 MPa, OP 28 % (1225 ◦ C) [153]
Al2 O3 –SiO2 [141] Phenolic resin [141] FS 14 MPa (1000 ◦ C), IC of Al impeller blade [141]
SiO2 –ZrSiO4 [155] 10 % ZrSiO4 , FS 17 MPa, OP 28 % (1200 ◦ C) [155]
MEX Al2 O3 [156–159] Methyl cellulose, water [156] FS 87 MPa, OP 46 % (1600 ◦ C) [156]
SiO2 [160] PVP [157–159] FS 10 MPa, OP 9 % (1300 ◦ C) [160]
Al2 O3 –SiO2 [161,162] Silicone resin [157,160] FS 16 MPa (1000 ◦ C) [162]
CaO/CaCO3 [163] PVA, silica-based [161,162] 10 % ZrO2 , FS 12 MPa, OP 41 % (1400 ◦ C) [163]
ZrSiO4 [161] Water-based, PEG [163] FS 12 MPa (1000 ◦ C) [161]

using a SiO2 -based VPP core [96] and a Al2 O3 -based PBF integrally health and the environment is reflected by the use of inorganic and
cored mold [51]. Tungsten-copper (W–Cu) castings were produced with water-based binders instead of furan- and phenol-based compositions
a SiO2 -based VPP mold [43]. in BJT [9,10,44,47,49,137,139,142,149], PBF [50,52,55] and MEX
Research trends include improvement in solid loading in VPP [67, [56,156].
74,111,120,129], impregnation or infiltration of printed ceramics to
enhance strength [44,70,80,104,117,150,153], control of anisotropy 3.3. Assessment of the studies in terms of relevant properties for ceramic
[98,103,121], graded porosity [57,73,74,88], and the use of additives molds and cores
to mitigate shrinkage [81,92,101,105,112,115,137,145,146]. Another
research focus is the development of water-soluble cores based on CaO As comprehensively summarized by [29], the integral properties for
[144–148,163] or ceramics combined with soluble salts as binders [85, the characterization of IC molds and cores are flexural strength (FS),
89,139,140,143,157–159], which do not require leaching by sodium open porosity (OP), microstructure, thermal expansion, thermal diffu-
hydroxide (NaOH), hydrogen fluoride (HF) or other aggressive chem- sivity, linear shrinkage, and the reaction product during casting. De-
icals. A similar motivation to replace substances with toxic effects on manding IC conditions require both molds and cores to withstand high

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L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

Fig. 6. Highly precise sintered SiO2 core produced by VPP [116].

Source: The figure has been collected with due permission from the
publisher.

Fig. 7. Al2 O3 -based integrally cored ceramic mold fabricated by PBF (a), computed tomography images (b, c) and resulting nickel-based superalloy turbine blade
(d) [51].
Source: The figure has been collected with due permission from the publisher.

transverse stresses during solidification of alloys; generally a minimum to 1300 ◦ C, but decreased at higher temperatures, due to cristobalite
FS of 20 MPa is needed [65]. OP (>20 %) is essential for permeability formation and generated microcracks during the phase transforma-
to achieve gas transport through the mold, while it is also needed tion [42,119]. This generally limits the obtainable strength of pure
in the core for good leachablity [164]. Thermal properties contribute SiO2 , but [119] reported optimum FS of 23 MPa and OP of 24 % at a
to thermal shock resistance, which is a function of several proper- sintering temperature of 1300 ◦ C. By increasing the solid loading of SiO2
ties, including mechanical properties, shape, and microstructure [165]. to 68 vol.%, [111] achieved a suitable FS of 19.5 MPa and OP of 24 %
Mold-metal reactions must be minimized in order to obtain defect-free also at a lower sintering temperature of 1200 ◦ C. [126] implemented in
castings with optimum microstructure and mechanical properties. situ ZrO2 to form a ZrSiO4 network in the microstructure and obtained
This subsection will mainly focus on FS and OP, as they are required a FS of 19 MPa after a re-sintering process at 1500 ◦ C, combined with an
for both molds and cores and are among the key characteristics for appropriate OP of 27 %. Additions of SiC resulted in FS > 20 MPa, but
successful casting in general. These properties are also of interest reduced the OP [94]. Other additives, e.g., Al2 O3 [93,98], ZrO2 [97,
because of their generally contradictory behavior. Occasionally, shrink- 101,110] and mullite fibers [105] or whiskers [115] as well as an
age, thermal properties, surface quality, and other key results will be impregnation with Al2 O3 sol [104,117] or SiO2 sol [113], provided
highlighted. A selection of notable properties achieved with different suitable properties.
AM technologies and materials is shown in Tables 1 and 2. For VVP of Al2 O3 , target values of FS and OP were obtained
Most of the published data on properties of AM molds and cores by many studies [38,59–70,72,74–84,86–90]–also with SiO2 additions
can be found for VPP of SiO2 and Al2 O3 . Adjusting the composition up to 10 % (FS 36 MPa, OP 48 % (1500 ◦ C))–while higher additions
and processing parameters, various studies have aimed at high FS and generated a detrimental liquid SiO2 phase [122]. The highest values (FS
OP. For pure SiO2 , FS increased with higher sintering temperature up 66 MPa, OP 70 % (1650 ◦ C)) were reported by [88] via 3D printing of

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L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

Fig. 8. Y2 O3 molds and complex parts produced via MEX [58].

Source: The figure has been collected with due permission from
the publisher.

Fig. 9. Heavy CaCO3 core via BJT for a rotor part, 3D model (a), green part (b), sintered core (c) [145].
Source: The figure has been collected with due permission from the publisher.

micro lattice structures. Those ordered internal pore structures resulted to be compatible with the laser used. Compared to VPP, a higher
in high OP without compromising mechanical properties. variety of binders is suitable, with the option of using a sacrificial
Regarding shrinkage optimization for Al2 O3 molds and cores via polymer binder to enable indirect PBF or to directly process ceramic
VPP, [38] observed low shrinkage when sintering up to 1450 ◦ C, but in- materials with the high-energy laser beam, so a binder is not necessarily
creased shrinkage at service temperatures of 1550 ◦ C. Thus, 1550 ◦ C was needed [34]. Most studies reported a suitable OP, but rather low FS
chosen as the optimum sintering temperature despite higher shrinkage. < 20 MPa [51,141,150]. The relatively low strength is a drawback of
Similarly, a larger amount of fine particles increased shrinkage due to PBF-fabricated cores, but can be mitigated by high sintering temper-
greater sinterability. In contrast, coarse particles can cause segregation atures and post-processing [13]. Al2 O3 –SiO2 molds sintered at high
problems in VPP suspensions [166]. Consequently, important factors temperatures achieved favorable compressive strengths [53]. [153] ob-
such as processing requirements and application temperature should tained SiO2 cores with SiO2 infiltration, leading to a suitable FS 21 MPa,
always be taken into account and balanced with the adjustment for OP 28 % (1225 ◦ C). With 10 % ZrSiO4 addition and vacuum infiltration,
low shrinkage. Additives such as CaO [87] and Al [81] were used to FS reached 17 MPa after sintering at 1200 ◦ C due to sintering neck
reinforcement, accompanied by good high-temperature FS as well as
mitigate the shrinkage of Al2 O3 .
low creep deformation [155].
For BJT, there are less studies on the properties of the SiO2 and
MEX is a versatile AM technology that allows the selection of
Al2 O3 molds and cores. Due to the inherent characteristics of the
many different ceramic materials and binders [35]. Although the num-
material and the associated selection of the sintering temperature, a
ber of studies related to molds and cores is limited, some exemplary
suitable FS and OP were obtained for Al2 O3 [137–140], while the
properties can be listed here. Al2 O3 was used for both molds and
strength was lower for SiO2 [141,142]. In contrast to VPP, a greater cores [56,57,156–159]. Using an aqueous binder based on colloidal
variety of binder compositions can be used, allowing the selection SiO2 , [56] obtained a mold with optimum process parameters for
of functional binders, e.g., ZBC as a ZrO2 precursor [137]. Another dimensional accuracy (10 mm wall thickness, linear filling pattern).
advantage is the higher number of usable materials, as photoinitiability However, the honeycomb infill pattern had the best comprehensive
is not required. BJT of cores based on CaO or heavy CaCO3 with the properties in terms of FS (12 MPa) and OP (42 %) and low shrinkage.
addition of ZrO2 [144–148] exhibited a suitable OP of 25 % and met With aqueous methyl cellulose slurries having a ceramic solid loading
production requirements, despite the rather low FS of 5 MPa [146]. of about 50 vol.%, [156] obtained excellent FS (87 MPa), OP (46 %)
Y2 O3 with 5 % CaTiO3 addition achieved an excellent FS of 34 MPa, and appropriate shrinkage (7 %) at a high sintering temperature of
OP of 33 % (1550 ◦ C) [149]. However, improved sinterability by adding 1600 ◦ C. Salt-based Al2 O3 for soluble cores also achieved appropriate
CaTiO3 was at the expense of dimensional stability against shrinkage. FS > 20 MPa [38,157,159]. Although the OP of such materials was low,
PBF was used mainly for SiO2 and Al2 O3 molds and cores, since the water-soluble composition does not require conventional leaching
material selection is more restrictive than with BJT. The powder has through pores and Al casting was performed successfully [159].

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L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

Fig. 10. Graphical overview of the key findings of the state-of-the-art AM-fabricated molds and cores for IC and future prospects.

One study on SiO2 cores by MEX using silicone resin as a binder the imperative need for support structures for overhangs, which could
obtained a FS of 10 MPa and low OP of 9 % (1300 ◦ C) [160]. MEX of generate surface defects during removal [168], the toxicity of some
ZrSiO4 with PVA and SiO2 -based binder had a slightly higher FS of monomer resins [169], and the current limitations for process scaling.
12 MPa at a lower sintering temperature of 1000 ◦ C, but OP was not One way to circumvent the scalability limitation is the fabrication
reported [161]. Using the same binder formulation and Al2 O3 –SiO2 , and assembly of single VPP parts on a wax tree, followed by dip-
[161,162] obtained 16 MPa (1000 ◦ C). coating and stuccoing to stabilize the mold for casting [39], but this
Regarding more specialized materials suitable for Ti alloy casting, partial AM approach still includes the elaborate investing process steps
Y2 O3 molds and CaO cores were produced via MEX. CaO with ZrO2 for complete mold production. Despite these limitations, VPP is an
and water-based binder containing PEG achieved a FS of 12 MPa and established AM process for ceramics and has the potential to become
an OP of 41 % (1400 ◦ C) [163], which is higher than the properties of more widespread and less expensive [37].
state-of-the-art CaO-based cores by BJT. MEX of Y2 O3 with 2 mol.% BJT has the advantage of good scalability, high process efficiency,
CaTiO3 achieved an excellent FS of 43 MPa and an appropriate OP of and potential to use a variety of inorganic and water-based binders in
21 % (1500 ◦ C) [58]. the printing process. It also allows for the recycling of unused powder.
The disadvantages are higher porosity and lower resolution, as well
4. Discussion as design challenges for the removal of unbound powder in complex
hollow parts [33,37,168]. The high porosity can be an advantage for
This section discusses relevant studies in terms of limitations and molds and cores if it does not come at the cost of low strength or overly
challenges as well as emerging research trends. Fig. 10 summarizes the high shrinkage.
main findings of this review, including implications for future research. PBF was used to produce complex molds and cores and has the
ability to form large components without support structures and with
4.1. Limitations and challenges the efficient use of feedstock materials. However, it cannot achieve
proper initial strength and relies on post-processing. The high invest-
IC places particularly high demands on the complexity and surface ment costs for materials and equipment are another drawback [13].
quality of ceramic molds and cores [1], therefore VPP (SLA) offers a Other AM technologies have proven to be more favorable in terms of
high potential in terms of surface quality and accuracy [37]. However, comprehensive properties and process efficiency.
the requirements for suitable photocurable ceramic resins are extensive, MEX enables a high degree of freedom and the ability to process
e.g., light transmission in a specific wavelength range, low refractive multiple materials simultaneously. Another benefit is the possible direct
index contrast with organic resin, low viscosity, high solid loading, printing of functional closed porosity or internal cavities to enhance
small particle size [32,37,167]. There are also disadvantages such as thermal shock resistance, whereas on the other hand, dense structures

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L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

with high infiltration resistance can also be achieved [170]. High solid In addition to novel materials, there is also a high demand for
contents can reduce shrinkage, leading to precise parts. While DIW can innovative binders; preferably, they should be readily available, in-
form complex shapes at room temperature, other MEX technologies expensive, compatible with the ceramic material and AM technology,
such as fused filament fabrication require high temperature process- and non-toxic to the environment and humans. Phenol- and furan-
ing and elaborate debinding. DIW comes with its own challenges, in based binders commonly used in sand casting not only emit harmful
particular, the high control requirements of the paste composition to volatile organic compounds, but also exhibit long curing time and
achieve optimum rheological properties for good printability and shape low strength [21–24]. Inorganic binders based on sodium silicate,
retention, as well as mechanical performance [35]. phosphates, and geopolymers are currently investigated for sand cast-
The AM technologies discussed above provide different opportu- ing [184–188]. Sodium silicate can only be used for low-temperature
nities for the direct fabrication of IC molds and cores depending on casting, e.g., Al alloys [186]. The use of phosphates might be feasible
the targeted ceramic materials, metal alloys and applications. VPP for Ti casting molds when combined with a protective coating [187].
reveals comprehensive research on cores based on SiO2 and Al2 O3 . In However, their refractoriness is limited and consequently is not suffi-
particular, Al2 O3 cores by VPP fulfill the main demands for IC casting. cient for advanced molds and cores for the IC of reactive alloys with a
However, interfacial reactions with Ni superalloys and Ti alloys limit high melting point.
their performance [171–174]. There is ongoing research on advanced Water-based binders are another versatile option, as they can be
ceramics and composites for molds and cores, which has not yet been combined with several inorganic binders and functional additives to
realized in AM processes. BJT and MEX might offer the highest poten- enhance their performance. For BJT of refractory ceramics, an exother-
tial to fabricate both complex and scalable parts based on a variety mic acid–base reaction of a solid binder based on MgO and citric acid,
of different materials and binders. The same AM technologies were activated by water was proposed [189,190]. Despite the relatively low
also highlighted as the most versatile candidates in a recent review strength, this approach showed the potential for functionalization using
on water-based cores via AM [13]. More research is needed, especially the example of in situ spinel formation and evaluated the effects on
for BJT and MEX, as well as novel ceramic materials, additives, and the microstructure and properties of refractories. Sintering aids can
binders. significantly reduce shrinkage and improve dimensional stability in
water-based BJT [191]. For slurry-based BJT and DIW, water-based
4.2. Research trends feedstock formulations can be developed based on established research
of ceramic slurries for non-AM technologies. Nevertheless, the slurries
AM technologies can significantly improve the complexity and pre- must be highly tailored to the demands of nozzle-based processing.
cision in mold and core design. In order to transfer AM approaches Thanks to its highly flexible shaping capabilities, AM creates new
successfully to IC applications, the properties of novel printed molds ways to functionalize molds and cores. This comprises modifications in
and cores need to be critically evaluated. This creates the basis for materials and processing that result in unique structures and properties.
a suitable choice of AM technologies, materials, binders, and pro- An approach to achieve this is the implementation of functional gradi-
cess adjustments, depending on the target application, and guides ents [192,193]. For refractory ceramics, many of the target properties,
further research directions. While research on process parameters, feed- e.g., permeability and thermal shock resistance, depend on porosity,
stock design, and control of essential properties such as shrinkage and pore sizes and shapes [29,194]. Porosity is also essential to compensate
porosity, mentioned in Section 3.2, remains relevant, three emerging for the usual particle size restrictions in AM processes. Although large
research directions will be discussed further. First, the necessity of de- particles are advantageous for refractory materials, AM often limits
veloping AM-based molds and cores using advanced ceramic materials their use due to process requirements or leads to compromised surface
for casting high-temperature alloys will be explained. Next, the focus quality and strength [189]. Consequently, customizing the porosity is
on more sustainable binder choices for foundry applications will be of great interest in terms of AM of refractories. MEX has been used to
outlined based on current attempts in sand casting to replace harmful, fabricate refractory components with tailored macro- and microporous
highly volatile phenol- and furan-based binders [21,22]. The third structures that exhibited high thermal shock resistance despite the use
research trend deals with the functionalization of molds and cores of only fine particles [170,195].
through graded structures with an emphasis on porosity gradients. For IC molds and cores, the layer-by-layer coating of the lost-wax
These future developments have the potential to expand the state of the process allows for a certain degree of material and process adjustments.
art of IC and differ greatly from current AM solutions for sand casting, However, AM accelerates this functionalization potential and provides
which are limited in the choice of binders and feasible casting alloys. better dimensional control [29]. Porosity-graded components aimed
IC of highly reactive Ti alloys places particularly high demands on at mold and core applications have been shaped by VPP [73,74,88]
the mold material and thus on the mold design to achieve appropriate and MEX [57], and the emerging field of functionally graded AM will
properties using highly specialized materials [175]. Similarly, [176] certainly advance these developments [193]. In addition, modeling and
highlighted the importance of mold design for superalloy casting in simulation tools will play an increasing role in identifying susceptible
improving the performance of turbine engines. Highly thermally stable areas of molds and cores already during AM production, sintering, and
ceramic refractories with a high melting point exhibit low reactivity. IC casting, thereby enabling closed-loop process improvement. Gener-
Recent examples of highly corrosion resistant materials comprise per- ative design offers added value through light structures and material
ovskites such as calcium zirconate (CaZrO3 ) [173,177,178], barium savings [196]. Once the challenges and open research questions dis-
zirconate (BaZrO3 ) [174,179,180], strontium zirconate (SrZrO3 ) [171, cussed in Section 4 have been addressed, the strengths of AM in terms
181], as well as novel composite refractories, e.g., Sr–Y oxides [182]. of flexibility and design-oriented processing can be fully exploited for
A direct printing process of advanced IC molds and cores would be IC molds and cores.
the method of choice to overcome the limitations of traditional IC
molding and enable further functionalization and complexity. Studies 5. Conclusions and outlook
on AM of perovskites are still limited, e.g., VPP of BaTiO3 [183] and
lead zirconate titanate (PZT) [167]. Research on novel mixtures and/or In summary, the state-of-the-art direct AM of ceramic molds and
composite materials based on perovskites and other chemically inert cores comprises various AM technologies and ceramic materials, but
metal oxides for ceramic molds is highly relevant for high-performance research focused on advanced molds and cores for highly reactive alloys
casting, and AM will play a major role in enabling a customized, is still in its early stages. The following conclusions and perspectives
economical design of advanced molds and cores [29]. can be drawn:

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L. Freitag Open Ceramics 26 (2026) 100934

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