AERODYNAMICS

MODULE 2 — FINITE WING THEORY

BAE/BAS402 | VTU | 4th Semester
Based on: Anderson J.D. — Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Ed.)

MODULE 2 SYLLABUS (VTU)

Vortex filament — Biot-Savart Law | Bound vortex & Helmholtz theorems | Prandtl's
Classical Lifting Line Theory | Derivation of CL and CDi | Elliptical lift distribution | General
lift distribution | Effect of aspect ratio | Finite wing numerical problems

1. INTRODUCTION — FROM 2D TO 3D WINGS

Why finite wings behave differently from airfoils (2D):
• A 2D airfoil (infinite wing) has no wing tips — the flow is purely 2-dimensional.
• A finite (3D) wing has tips, causing high-pressure air below the wing to spill over to the low-
pressure side above.
• This creates tip vortices, trailing vortices, and a phenomenon called induced drag.
• Induced drag is also called 'drag due to lift' — it does NOT exist in 2D flow.

KEY CONCEPT
For a finite wing: Total Drag = Profile Drag (skin friction + pressure drag) + Induced Drag
(Di). The induced drag is the price we pay for generating lift in 3D.

2. VORTEX FILAMENT AND BIOT-SAVART LAW

2.1 What is a Vortex Filament?
• A vortex filament is a curved line in the flow field about which fluid elements rotate.
• It has a strength called circulation, denoted by Γ (Gamma).
• Helmholtz's 1st Theorem: A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid — it must either form a closed
loop or end at a solid boundary.
• Helmholtz's 2nd Theorem: The strength (circulation) of a vortex filament is constant along its
entire length.
• Helmholtz's 3rd Theorem: In an inviscid flow, a vortex filament moves with the fluid (no
diffusion).
2.2 Biot-Savart Law — Derivation Concept
Physical Analogy: The Biot-Savart law in aerodynamics is directly analogous to the Biot-Savart law in
electromagnetics (current element → vortex filament; magnetic field → velocity field).

Consider a vortex filament of strength Γ. A small element dl of this filament induces a velocity dV at a
point P located at position vector r from dl.

dV = (Γ / 4π) × (dl × r̂ ) / r²

where r is the perpendicular distance from the filament to point P.

For an INFINITE Straight Vortex Filament:

Integrating along the entire filament from −∞ to +∞:
V = Γ / (2πh)
where h = perpendicular distance from point P to the filament axis.

For a SEMI-INFINITE Vortex Filament (starting from point A to +∞):

V = Γ / (4πh)
The semi-infinite filament induces exactly HALF the velocity of the infinite filament at the same
perpendicular distance.

VTU EXAM TIP — Often Asked Directly

Derive the expression for velocity induced by (i) infinite vortex filament and (ii) semi-infinite
vortex filament using Biot-Savart law. Remember: Infinite → Γ/(2πh), Semi-infinite →
Γ/(4πh)

3. PRANDTL'S CLASSICAL LIFTING LINE THEORY

3.1 Physical Model — The Horseshoe Vortex
Prandtl modeled a finite wing as a system of horseshoe vortices. Each horseshoe vortex consists of:
1. A bound vortex (along the wing span — represents the circulation generating lift)
2. Two trailing vortices (going downstream to infinity from each wingtip)

Key idea: Replace the actual wing with a single bound vortex at the quarter-chord line, with two trailing
vortices extending to infinity downstream.

Lifting Line Concept

Prandtl's model stacks many horseshoe vortices together at the quarter-chord line to form a
'lifting line'. The circulation Γ varies along the span: Γ = Γ(y), where y is the spanwise
 coordinate from −b/2 to +b/2.

3.2 Induced Angle of Attack (α_i)

The trailing vortices induce a downward velocity (downwash) at the wing called w(y). This downwash
tilts the local relative wind downward by an angle α_i:
α_i = w(y) / V∞ [for small angles in radians]

Using Biot-Savart law, the downwash induced at spanwise location y₀ by the entire trailing vortex sheet
is:
w(y₀) = −1/(4π) × ∫[−b/2 to +b/2] (dΓ/dy) / (y₀ − y) dy

α_i(y₀) = −1/(4πV∞) × ∫[−b/2 to +b/2] (dΓ/dy) / (y₀ − y) dy

3.3 Fundamental Equation of Prandtl's Lifting Line Theory

The effective angle of attack at any spanwise station y₀ is:
α_eff = α_geometric − α_i(y₀)

Using thin airfoil theory at each spanwise station (local lift = ρV∞Γ):
CL_local = a₀ × (α − α_L=0 − α_i)

Also by Kutta-Joukowski theorem: L' = ρV∞Γ, so Γ = (1/2)V∞ × c × CL_local

Combining, we get the FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION:

Γ(y₀) = πV∞ c(y₀) [ α(y₀) − α_L=0(y₀) − 1/(4πV∞) ∫−b/2 to +b/2
(dΓ/dy)/(y₀−y) dy ]

THIS IS THE CORE OF PRANDTL'S THEORY

The equation above is an integro-differential equation in Γ(y). The unknown is the spanwise
circulation distribution Γ(y). Once Γ(y) is found, ALL aerodynamic quantities (CL, CDi, α_i)
can be calculated.

4. ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION — THE IDEAL CASE

4.1 Assumed Circulation Distribution
Assume the spanwise circulation follows an elliptical distribution:
Γ(y) = Γ₀ √[1 − (2y/b)²]
where Γ₀ is the circulation at the root (y = 0) and b is the wing span.
4.2 Result: Constant Downwash
For elliptical distribution, the induced angle of attack is CONSTANT across the span:
α_i = Γ₀ / (2bV∞) = CL / (πAR)
This is a remarkable result — the downwash is uniform across the entire span only for elliptical
distribution.

4.3 Lift Coefficient for Finite Wing

The total lift coefficient for the finite wing with elliptical distribution:
CL = π × AR × α_i

More usefully, the lift slope for the FINITE wing is related to the 2D lift slope a₀ = 2π by:
a = a₀ / (1 + a₀/(π AR))

a = 2π / (1 + 2/AR) [since a₀ = 2π for thin airfoil]

Physical Meaning
As AR → ∞ (infinite wing), a → a₀ = 2π (back to 2D thin airfoil result). Finite wings always
have a LOWER lift slope than infinite wings. Low AR wings (like delta wings) have much
lower lift slope.

4.4 Induced Drag Coefficient for Elliptical Distribution

The induced drag coefficient is:
CDi = CL² / (π AR)

This is the MINIMUM induced drag achievable for a given CL and AR. Only elliptical distribution
achieves this minimum.

EXAM FORMULA — Memorize These

α_i = CL / (π AR) CDi = CL² / (π AR) a (finite wing lift slope) = a₀ / (1 + a₀/πAR) CL = a₀ (α
− α_L=0) / (1 + a₀/πAR)

5. GENERAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION (Non-Elliptical Wings)

5.1 Fourier Series Approach
For a general wing, the circulation distribution is expressed as a Fourier sine series:
Γ(θ) = 2bV∞ Σ An sin(nθ) [n = 1, 2, 3, ...]
where the transformation y = −(b/2) cosθ maps the span from y = −b/2 to +b/2 into θ = 0 to π.

5.2 Span Efficiency Factor (e) — Oswald Efficiency Factor

For a general (non-elliptical) lift distribution, the induced drag is HIGHER than the elliptical minimum.
We account for this with the span efficiency factor e:
CDi = CL² / (π e AR) where 0 < e ≤ 1

• For elliptical distribution: e = 1 (minimum induced drag)

• For all other distributions: e < 1 (more induced drag)
• Ellipse is the most aerodynamically efficient spanwise distribution

5.3 Modified Induced Drag for General Wings (with δ and τ factors)
In VTU problems, the general wing results use Fourier coefficients. The key results are:
CDi = CL² (1 + δ) / (π AR)
CL = a₀ (α − α_L=0) / (1 + a₀(1+τ)/πAR)

where δ and τ are small positive numbers (deviation from elliptical, given in data tables).

NUMERICAL TIP
In VTU problems you will be given: AR, taper ratio, δ = τ, angle of attack, and α_L=0. For
symmetric airfoil: α_L=0 = 0. For thin airfoil: a₀ = 2π per radian. Use CDi = CL²(1+δ)/(π AR)
directly.

6. EFFECT OF ASPECT RATIO

6.1 Aspect Ratio Definition
AR = b² / S = b / c̅ (for rectangular wings: AR = span / chord)

6.2 Effect on Lift Slope

Higher AR → Lift slope closer to 2π (more like 2D airfoil)
Lower AR → Significantly reduced lift slope

6.3 Effect on Induced Drag

• CDi = CL² / (π e AR): Induced drag is INVERSELY proportional to AR
• High AR wings (gliders, sailplanes): very low induced drag, high efficiency
• Low AR wings (fighter jets, delta wings): high induced drag but better for high-speed maneuvers
• Commercial aircraft use AR ≈ 7–12 as a compromise
 Prove this (VTU 2023)
CDi = CL²/(πAR): Induced drag coefficient is directly proportional to square of lift coefficient
and inversely proportional to aspect ratio. This follows directly from the elliptical distribution
result.

7. SOLVED NUMERICALS (VTU REPEATED PROBLEMS)

Problem 1 — The Classic VTU Repeated Numerical (Appeared in 2023, 2024,
2025)
Problem Statement
A finite wing has aspect ratio AR = 8 and taper ratio = 0.8. The airfoil section is thin and
symmetric. Calculate the lift coefficient CL and induced drag coefficient CDi when the wing
is at an angle of attack α = 5°. Assume δ = τ = 0.055.

Given Data:
• AR = 8
• Symmetric airfoil ⇒ α_L=0 = 0
• Thin airfoil ⇒ a₀ = 2π per radian = 0.1097 per degree
• α = 5° = 5 × π/180 = 0.08727 rad
• δ = τ = 0.055

Step 1 — Calculate CL:

CL = a₀ (α − α_L=0) / [1 + a₀(1+τ)/(π AR)]
CL = (2π × 0.08727) / [1 + (2π × 1.055)/(8π)]
CL = 0.5484 / [1 + 0.2638]
CL = 0.5484 / 1.2638
CL ≈ 0.434

Step 2 — Calculate CDi:

CDi = CL² (1+δ) / (π AR)
CDi = (0.434)² × 1.055 / (π × 8)
CDi = 0.1884 × 1.055 / 25.133
CDi = 0.1987 / 25.133
CDi ≈ 0.00791

ANSWER
 CL ≈ 0.434 | CDi ≈ 0.00791

Problem 2 — Comparing Two Wings (2023 Paper)

Problem Statement
A rectangular wing with AR = 6, induced drag factor δ = 0.055, and zero-lift angle = −2°. At
α = 3.4°, CDi = 0.01. Calculate CDi for a similar wing with AR = 10. Assume δ = 0.105 for
AR = 10.

Step 1 — Find CL for AR = 6 wing:

CDi = CL²(1+δ) / (π AR)
0.01 = CL² × 1.055 / (6π)
CL² = 0.01 × 6π / 1.055 = 0.1787
CL = 0.4227

Step 2 — Find effective angle and CL for AR = 10 (same α):

Since same airfoil at same geometric angle of attack, CL will be different due to different AR.
Using: α_eff = α − α_L=0 = 3.4 − (−2) = 5.4° = 0.09425 rad
CL (AR=10) = 2π × 0.09425 / [1 + 2π(1+0.105)/(10π)]
CL (AR=10) = 0.5923 / [1 + 0.221] = 0.5923 / 1.221 = 0.485

Step 3 — CDi for AR = 10:

CDi = (0.485)² × 1.105 / (10π)
CDi = 0.2352 × 1.105 / 31.416 = 0.00827

ANSWER
CDi for AR = 10 wing ≈ 0.00827 (lower than AR=6 as expected)

8. DOWNWASH AND INDUCED DRAG — Physical Understanding

8.1 What is Downwash?
• Trailing vortices from wingtips induce a downward velocity component behind and at the wing.
This is called downwash, denoted w.
• Downwash is NOT uniform along the span for a general wing.
• Downwash tilts the local flow direction, reducing the effective angle of attack seen by the wing.
• This tilt also tilts the local lift vector backwards, creating a drag component — the induced drag.
8.2 Why Induced Drag Exists
In 2D (infinite wing): No tip vortices → No downwash → No induced drag.
In 3D (finite wing): Tip vortices exist → Downwash present → Effective angle of attack reduced → Lift
vector tilted backward → Induced drag.

Di = L × tan(α_i) ≈ L × α_i (for small angles)

CDi = CL × α_i = CL² / (π AR) [for elliptical distribution]

Relationship: Downwash → α_i → CDi

Downwash (w) → Induced angle: α_i = w/V∞ → Induced drag: CDi = CL × α_i. All three are
interconnected — increase one, you increase all.

9. HELMHOLTZ THEOREMS & BOUND VORTEX

9.1 Three Helmholtz Vortex Theorems
3. The strength (circulation Γ) of a vortex filament is constant along its length.
4. A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid — it must form a closed loop or end on a boundary.
5. In inviscid flow, the vortex moves with the fluid (no creation or destruction).

Consequence for wings: The bound vortex (on the wing) MUST connect to trailing vortices, which
extend to infinity downstream. This gives the horseshoe vortex model.

9.2 Bound vs Free Vortex

• Bound Vortex: Attached to the wing surface; represents the circulation that generates lift. It is
'bound' to the body and cannot move freely.
• Free Vortex: The trailing vortices that are free to move with the fluid downstream. These induce
downwash.

10. COMPLETE FORMULA SHEET — MODULE 2

Quantity Formula
Biot-Savart (infinite) V = Γ / (2πh)

Biot-Savart (semi-infinite) V = Γ / (4πh)

Induced angle of attack α_i = CL / (π AR) [elliptic]

Induced drag (elliptic) CDi = CL² / (π AR)

Induced drag (general) CDi = CL²(1+δ) / (π AR)

Lift slope (finite wing) a = a₀ / (1 + a₀/πAR)

Quantity Formula
CL (general wing) CL = a₀(α − α_L=0) / [1 + a₀(1+τ)/πAR]

Aspect Ratio AR = b²/S

Span efficiency CDi = CL² / (π e AR), e ≤ 1

Circulation (K-J theorem) L' = ρV∞Γ per unit span

11. EXAM STRATEGY — MODULE 2

What to Prepare (Priority Order)
1. Biot-Savart derivation for infinite & semi-infinite — 10 marks guaranteed 2. Prandtl's
lifting line theory — fundamental equation derivation — 10-12 marks 3. Elliptical distribution:
α_i and CDi derivation — 10 marks 4. The AR=8, τ=δ=0.055 numerical — appears in
almost every paper! 5. Explain downwash and induced drag (short notes type) — 5-8 marks
6. Helmholtz theorems — short definition type — 4-5 marks

What NOT to waste time on

Vortex lattice method (appears rarely) | Complex Fourier coefficient calculation | Detailed
derivation of Fourier series approach (just know the final formulas)

All the best! — Study smart, not just hard ⚡