SENIOR FIVE TERM 2

TOPIC 2/2: Soil Development and Management

Competency: The learner proposes feasible ways of using and managing soil through gathering
and analysing information about soil properties, formation, and quality to promote sustainable
development.

Soil is defined as the biologically active, porous medium formed in the uppermost layer of the
Earth’s crust. It is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, air, and living organisms,
serving as the natural medium for plant growth and a key component of ecosystems

Soil According to Geography

(i) Biologically active medium: Soil contains microorganisms, fungi, and bacteria that recycle
nutrients and sustain plant life.
(ii) Mixture of components: It is made up of minerals (sand, silt, clay), organic matter
(humus), water, and gases.
(iii) Uppermost crust layer: Soil forms at the Earth’s surface through weathering of rocks and
accumulation of organic material.
(iv) Dynamic system: Soil properties change over time due to climate, organisms, relief, and
human activity.
(v) Natural medium for plants: It provides nutrients, water, and anchorage for vegetation,
making it essential for agriculture and ecosystems.

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Functions of Soil in Geography
Function Role Impact

Plant growth medium Supplies nutrients, water, and Enables agriculture & vegetation
support

Water regulation Stores and filters water Prevents floods & sustains
ecosystems

Nutrient cycling Recycles organic matter Maintains fertility & biodiversity

Habitat Home for organisms Supports ecological balance

Foundation Base for human structures Provides stability for settlements

Construction material Raw material for building Strong foundations, good life
material such as bricks and
concrete, cement, stones

Pottery Clay is used for pots, tiles, Creation of jobs and useful articles

Minerals It the source of minerals such as Raw materials for industrial

gold, diamond, copper etc. development and source of
revenue and foreign exchange

Negative soil importance

- Dirties clothes, buildings etc.

- Dust damages electronics
- Soft soil hinder construction of roads
- Some soils prevent plant growth.

Components of soil

Mineral matter: Derived from weathered rocks, includes sand, silt, and clay particles that
determine soil texture.

Organic matter: Decomposed plant and animal material (humus) that enriches soil fertility and
structure.

Water: Occupies soil pores, dissolves nutrients, and makes them available to plants.

Air: Fills spaces between soil particles, providing oxygen for roots and microorganisms.

Living organisms: Microbes, fungi, earthworms, and insects that recycle nutrients and improve
soil health.

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Soil structure

Soil structure refers to the way soil particles (sand, silt, clay) are arranged and grouped into
aggregates. It determines how easily water, air, and roots move through the soil, making it a
critical factor for fertility and plant growth.

Features of Soil Structure

 Arrangement of particles: Soil particles bind together into clumps called peds or
aggregates.
 Types of structure: Common forms include granular, blocky, prismatic, columnar, and
platy.
 Influence on porosity: Well-structured soils have pores that allow water infiltration and
root penetration.
 Dynamic nature: Soil structure changes with cultivation, organic matter input, and
environmental conditions.
 Role in fertility: Good structure improves aeration, drainage, and nutrient availability.

Soil texture

Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in soil. It strongly
influences water retention, drainage, aeration, fertility, and how easily soil can be worked.

Table of soil texture

Soil Type Particle Dominance Water Holding Fertility Workability

Sand Large particles Low Low Easy
Silt Medium particles Moderate Moderate Moderate
Clay Small particles High High Difficult
Loam Balanced mix Optimal High Easy

Why Soil Texture Matters

 Water retention: Clay soils hold water longer, sandy soils dry quickly.
 Aeration: Sandy soils allow air circulation; clay soils may suffocate roots.
 Workability: Loam is easy to till; clay is heavy and hard to manage.
 Crop suitability: Different crops thrive in different textures (e.g., root crops prefer sandy
soils).
 Soil management: Texture guides fertilization, irrigation, and erosion control strategies.

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Water retention and its importance

Soil water retention is the ability of soil to hold water within its pores. It is crucial because it
determines how much water is available for plants, influences crop yields, reduces irrigation
needs, and supports overall soil health

Soil color and its importance

Soil color is one of the most visible properties of soil. While it doesn’t directly affect soil
behavior, it provides important clues about organic matter content, mineral composition,
drainage, and fertility.

Importance of Soil Color

 Indicator of fertility: Dark soils often support higher crop yields.

 Drainage assessment: Red/yellow soils suggest good drainage; gray/blue soils indicate
waterlogging.
 Environmental monitoring: Soil color helps identify erosion, pollution, or salinity issues.
 Soil classification: Used in pedology to distinguish horizons and soil types.
 Land management: Farmers and conservationists use color to guide irrigation,
fertilization, and crop selection.

Soil pH and importance

Soil pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline soil is, ranging from 0–14. It is critical because it
controls nutrient availability, microbial activity, and overall plant health, directly influencing
crop yields and ecosystem balance

Why Soil pH Matters

 Nutrient availability:
o Acidic soils may lock up nutrients like phosphorus.
o Alkaline soils can reduce availability of iron, manganese, and zinc.
 Microbial activity: Beneficial microbes thrive best in neutral to slightly acidic soils,
aiding decomposition and nutrient cycling.
 Plant growth: Different crops prefer different pH ranges (e.g., blueberries thrive in
acidic soils, while most vegetables prefer near-neutral).
 Disease control: Proper pH can reduce soil-borne diseases by supporting healthy
microbial communities.
 Soil health: Balanced pH prevents toxic buildup of aluminum or heavy metals in acidic
soils.

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Managing Soil pH

 To raise pH (reduce acidity): Apply lime (calcium carbonate).

 To lower pH (reduce alkalinity): Add sulfur, organic matter, or acid-forming fertilizers.
 Testing: Regular soil testing is essential since pH can vary across fields

Soil formation

Soil formation (also called pedogenesis) is the process by which rocks and sediments are
transformed into soil through the combined action of parent material, climate, organisms,
topography, and time

Factors of Soil Formation

(i) Nature of the parent rock. It provides the basis upon which soil forming processes operate.
The soil formed possess similar characteristic as those of the parent rock in terms of
structure , texture , minerology, porosity, colour etc. ·
- It is the parent rock which is weathered to produce a particular soil type. E.g. volcanic
rocks.
- The parent rock also determines the extent to which the agents of weathering can take
place to produce soils: Hard crystalline rocks resist weathering and produce skeletal or thin
soils e.g. scree soils on mountains. The soft parent rocks are easily weathered to produce
deep and mature soils.
(ii) Climate influences soil formation through the physical and chemical weathering processes
that break down and decompose the parent rocks.
- In dry climates (semi-arid areas) such as Northern Kenya, Central Tanzania, North Eastern
Uganda, Physical weathering has produced shallow and infertile soils of azonal nature. On
the other hand, chemical weathering processes that occur in the humid areas of East Africa
have led to the development of deep fertile soils such as clay, loamy such as Nitisols found
in the highland areas of East Africa.
- On other hand, high rainfall totals received in some parts of East Africa encouraged
leaching hence formation of Lateritic soils e.g. around lake Victoria shores, dry conditions
generally lead to the development of luvisols as in Eastern Kenya.
(iii) Relief/ Topography
- This influences soil formation by forming various slopes that control the rate of erosion and
deposition as well the mature soil and soil depth.
- Steep slopes are more susceptible to erosion and rapid transportation resulting into thin
skeletal soils although soil formation is rapid due to constant exposure of fresh surface
rock to weathering factors, the resultant soils are thin and skeletal due to rapid rates of
erosion.

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 - Gentle/moderate slopes have a relatively slower rate of erosion but encouraged deposition
leading to the formation of deep, mature and well drained soils such as loam soils.
- Valleys/flat areas have extensive deposition leading to the development of deep/thick soils
found along the Lake Victoria shores, river valleys etc. However, they have limited organic
matter due to the poor drainage; in addition the impeded drainage in the valleys leads to
partial decomposition that forms grey/gley soils.
(iv) Biotic factors. This refers to the influence of living organizations in soil formation.
- When plants/vegetation die and rot, they add humus to the soil and produce compounds
which may break down complex rocks to form soils.
- Burrowing animals like rabbits and moles, worms, etc. through their passages
underground also contribute to the soil formation by allowing air and moisture necessary
for chemical weathering.
- Human activities also influence soil formation through physical and chemical means.
Through milling and quarrying man accelerates the rate at which rocks are broken down
and therefore soil formation through addition of manure, fertilizers etc. man introduces
chemicals which help break down rocks and eventually form soils. Industrial pollution also
causes acidic rain which is also a contributing factor.
(v) Influence of time: Ample time is required to form mature soils. Along time is required for
weathering to occur as well as the soil forming processes in order to produce deep mature
soils. If time is short, immature, shallow soils will be formed.

Processes of Soil Formation

(i) Weathering: Breakdown of rocks into smaller particles (physical, chemical, biological).
(ii) Accumulation: Organic matter and minerals build up in soil layers.
(iii) Leaching: Movement of dissolved substances downward with water.
(iv) Transformation: Chemical changes like oxidation, reduction, and humification.
(v) Horizon development: Formation of distinct soil layers (O, A, B, C horizons).

Weathering

Weathering is the natural process that breaks down rocks and minerals into smaller particles
through physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms, making it the first step in soil
formation

Types of Weathering
Physical weathering:

Mechanical breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments without changing composition.

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The major processes of physical weathering include;·
• Exfoliation/onion peeling which is the peeling off of surface rock layers due to heating
during day causing expansion and cooling at night causing contraction. Exfoliated domes in
East Africa exist at Mubende and Nakasongola in Uganda, Serengeti etc. outstanding
exfoliation domes are the Hells gates at Naivasha and Mubanda rocks along Nairobi-
Mombasa Highway.

• Block disintegration occur in hot regions and involves breakdown of jointed rocks into
rectangular shaped blocks due to heating during day causing expansion and cooling at night
causing contraction.

• Granular disintegration is a form of physical weathering where a rock breaks into small
particles called granules. It is mainly observed in rocks with different colored minerals such
granite rocks constitute of mica, quartz and feldspar which have different heat absorption
and linear expansivity capacities. Granular disintegration is found at Mubende and
Nakasongola in Uganda, Turkana in Kenya, etc.

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• Aridity shrinkage or slaking occurs on non-porous rocks like clay which absorbs water
during rainy season and expands, while during dry season lose water through evaporation
and crack. Repeated alternative expansion and contraction eventually cause them to
crumble into small elongated pieces. This kind of weathering is common in swamps or
areas with clay such as Masai-mara plains in Kenya, Nakasongola and Tororo in Uganda.

• Frost wedging/Frost shattering occurs in places where temperature falls below 00C such
glaciated mountain tops of Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Rwenzori. During day snow or ice melts
and water enters into rock cracks. During night water in these cracks solidifies and expands
causing pressure that breaks rocks into small pieces.

• Pressure release/unloading takes place on granite or metamorphic rocks. Expansion and

cracking takes place because large shear stresses under the surface that bends leading to
exfoliation of rocks/spalling/sheeting. This form of mechanical weathering can be caused by
freezing and thawing, unloading, thermal expansion and contraction, or salt deposition. It
common on Nakasongola and Mubende Inselbergs.
• Unloading/ pressure release while is the process by which newly exposed rock due to
mass wasting expand and break due to release of weight caused by pressure.

• Salt crystallization which is process where saline solutions in rock cracks and joints begin to
crystallize causing stress on the rock resulting into its disintegration

The factors that cause physical weathering

 Climate
- In areas of hot climate such as Turkana region in Northern Kenya, Central Tanzania,
during the day it is hot, exposed rocks are heated leading to expansion of the rock,
while during the night, temperatures rapidly fall leading to rapid cooling of rock
resulting into contraction. Such alternate expansion and contraction of a rock lead to
peeling or breaking of the rock through processes like exfoliation, granular
disintegration, block disintegration etc.
- In Semi - Arid areas such as Central Tanzania, during the short rainy season, non-
porous rocks like clay absorb water and expand while during the long dry season they
lose water and crack resulting into rock disintegration..

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 - In Semi- Arid areas there is limited cloud cover which leads to temperature
fluctuations i.e. hot/very hot during the day, cool/cold during the night leading to
expansion and contraction, resulting into breakdown of rocks.
- On high mountains of East Africa, the temperature fluctuations result into frost
weathering which is the process by which water collects in cracks during the day and
during the night water freezes, volume increases causing pressure and breaking of
the rock
 Nature of parent rock.
- Jointed rocks such as limestone in Turkana, Kotido and Moroto areas result into block
disintegration when rocks break into rectangular blocks when repeatedly heated or
cooled.
- Mineral composition- Rocks having different minerals absorb heat and lose heat at
different rates when heated or cooled respectively resulting into granular
disintegration.
- Color of the rock- dark colored rocks absorb a lot of heat in Semi - Arid areas when
heated leading to their disintegration.
- Differences in rock hardness. Soft rocks such as limestone in semi-arid areas like
Turkana, Kotido easily break down when exposed to rapid cooling and contraction
due to hot temperatures during day and cold during the night.
 Relief
- Steep slopes tend to experience a lot of soil erosion that expose rocks to process of
physical/mechanical weathering.
- Steep slopes tend to be affected by mass wasting that expose the rock to
unloading/pressure release which is in form of mechanical weathering.
- Limited vegetation cover in semi-arid areas like Turkana, central Tanzania, Moroto
exposes the rock to extreme temperature fluctuation resulting into rapid expansion
during day and rapid contraction at night leading to rock disintegration.
 Biotic factors
- Movement of heavy animals like elephants, antelopes, zebra in Kidepo National Park
lead to breaking of rocks
- Burrowing animals like squirrels, Hog and insects like locust, termites destroy
vegetation thus exposing rocks to physical weathering due to temperature
fluctuations.
- Effects of plants adapted to semi-arid areas like cactus, acacia grow strong roots into
and break rocks
- Human activities such as quarrying cause disintegration of rock
 Time: the longer the time the more physical weathering occurs.

Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rocks due to chemical reaction that takes place
between the rock minerals, water and atmospheric gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide
causing changes in chemical composition. Chemical weathering dominates areas of heavy

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rainfall and high temperatures such as L. Victoria basin, Kigezi highlands, Kenya highlands,
coastal areas like Mombasa.

Types of chemical weathering

Solution
This is where soluble mineral components in rocks are dissolved by water e.g. rock salts are
carried in solution leaving behind joints, cracks/widened hollows in rocks.
Oxidation
This is the reaction between oxygen and mineral components in rocks such as iron, aluminum
facilitated by the hot temperatures and existence of water. This has led to the formation of
laterites for example on the flat-topped hills of Buganda, Rocks containing Iron (ferrous state)
change to ferric state.
Hydrolysis
This is the reaction between the hydrogen ions from water and mineral ions from rocks to form
new compounds. It the major process in of decomposition of feldspars in igneous rocks e.g.
granite.
Carbonation
This involves rain water dissolving atmospheric carbon dioxide to producing carbonic acid. This
reacts with calcium and magnesium carbonates in the rocks to form to form soluble
bicarbonates that are lost in solution.
Hydration
This is a process in which certain minerals absorb water and expand causing internal stress and
fracturing of the rock. Examples include the conversion of hematite to limonite, mica in
sedimentary rocks like sandstone.
Spheroidal weathering
This is the swelling/expansion of the outer shell of a rock mass by penetration of water forcing
them to expand, loosen and peel successively away.
Reduction/gleying
It is the removal of oxygen from a substance or addition of hydrogen to it, It occurs in
swampy/water logged areas at the shores of lake Victoria. It involves aerobic bacteria absorbing
the limited oxygen leaving behind hydrogen that reacts with the rocks to form new compounds
i.e. the clay rich rocks turn into blue greyish colour.
Chelation
This involves Base Exchange between plants and rocks which cause chemical changes and rock
disintegration.
The factors that favor chemical weathering

Mineral composition of the rock

- Rocks that contain calcium carbonate/limestone dissolve in water that contain carbonic acid
e.g. at Tororo in eastern Uganda and Nyakasura
- Rocks like feldspar hydrolyze in water into other compounds such as potassium ions,
kaolinite (clay) and silica.
- Rocks that contain iron are oxidized in presence of water and oxygen.

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- Rock-salt (halite), gypsum and limestone (including chalk)dissolve in presence of water.
- Igneous rocks are easily hydrated and hydrolyzed because they are composed of silicate
minerals, such as quartz and feldspar which readily combines with water.

Nature of rocks
Presence of cracks in jointed rocks increases surface area to agents of chemical reaction
Permeable rocks allow water and oxygen to penetrate leading to hydrolysis and/or oxidation

Climate
- Rainfall provides water for hydrolysis of rocks
- High temperature speeds up chemical reaction in rocks
Relief
- Chemical weathering is dominant on gentle slope and low land because these allows
percolation of water in the rocks to allow chemical weathering
- Steep slopes promotes removal of weathered materials by erosion exposing rocks to agents
of chemical weathering
Biotic factors
- Plants produce humic acid that facilitate rock decomposition
- Man influences chemical weathering by releasing acidic gases/substances to the
atmosphere which cause acidic rain/water. Acidic water promotes hydrolysis of rocks
Time
The longer the time the more physical weathering occurs

Landforms resulting from chemical weathering in East Africa

These include

Stalactite and stalagmite

These are formed through carbonation. Rain water combines with carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere to form weak carbonic acid which dissolves calcium carbonate to form calcium bi
carbonate. When solution reaches underground cave, calcium carbonate is deposited on roof of
the cave to form stalagmite e.g. at Nyakasura in Western Uganda.
Pillars
These are vertical stands of calcium carbonate formed in underground caves when stalactites
and stalagmites continue to grow towards each other and eventually join. Examples arc found
at Nyakasura and Tanga.
Caves
A cave is a natural underground space. It is formed when there is chemical dissolution of
limestone or dolomite. The rock is dissolved by natural acid in ground water that seeps through
the bedding planes, faults and joints.

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Grikes and Clints
Grikes are hollows or depressions while Clints are ridges formed as a result of carbonation.
They formed in limestone areas with rocks of different chemical composition. Lime stone is
dissolved by acidic rain to form depressions/ hollows called Grikes while dissolved rocks form
ridges called Clints/ Limestone pavement.

Examples are found on the western side of Tororo rock, Karasuka in Karamoja, Nyakasura etc.

Arenas/Sink holes
A sink hole is a natural depression or hole in earth’s surface formed when lime stone is
dissolved. It is formed through the processes of removal of soluble rock by percolating water
and the collapse of roof cave.
Dolines:
These are larger than sinkholes. These are shallow circular depressions formed either by
solution of the surface lime stone or by collapse of underlying caves. In latter case they are
called collapse doline.
Polje.
This is an elongated basin having a flat floor and steep walls. The poljes are formed by
coalescence of several sinkholes when being formed through carbonation and solution. In some
poljes, small residual hills known as hums are formed.
Limestone gorge is deep steep-sided valley formed when acid rain seeps into the cracks in
limestone rocks or when a larger river erodes/ weathers soft limestone rocks by solution.
Duricrust is a hard crust (layer) found on the surface formed from mineral precipitation i.e.
deposition of insoluble materials from a solution. The most common in East Africa is lateritic
duricrust formed when the weathered layer become impregnated with iron solution due to
leaching. On removal of top layer laterite hardens into duricrust like on flat topped hills of
Buganda/ laterite terms·. , - -·.,._

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Tors are landforms created by chemical weathering of a rock along joints followed by removal
of the weathered material.

Differences between physical and chemical weathering

- In physical weathering there is no change in the chemical nature of the rocks that are
broken into small particles while in chemical weathering there in a change in chemical
composition of a rock
- Physical weathering occur in form of block disintegration, exfoliation, granular
disintegration, frost weathering while chemical weathering involves decomposition/decay
of rocks into new compounds by reactions like oxidation, hydrolysis, hydration etc.
- Physical weathering commonly occur in arid areas with high temperature fluctuation while
chemical weathering commonly occur in areas of adequate rainfall
- Physical weathering no new compounds formed while chemical weathering new
compounds are formed

Biological weathering: Breakdown caused by living organisms.

Examples: Plant roots cracking rocks, lichens producing acids, burrowing animals.

Soil Profile
A soil profile is the vertical section of soil that shows all its layers (called horizons) from the
surface down to the parent material. It reveals the history of soil formation and is essential for
understanding soil fertility, drainage, and land use.

Soil horizons

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Features of soil horizons

(vi) O Horizon (Organic layer):

 Composed of leaf litter, decomposed plants, and organic matter.

 Dark in color, rich in nutrients.

(vii) A Horizon (Topsoil):

 Mixture of minerals and organic matter.

 Zone of root growth and high biological activity.
 Most fertile layer for crops.

(viii) E Horizon (Eluviation layer):

 Light-colored, sandy layer.

 Minerals and nutrients leached downward by water.

(ix) B Horizon (Subsoil):

 Zone of accumulation (illuviation).

 Contains clay, iron, and other minerals washed down from above.
 Less organic matter, denser than topsoil.

(x) C Horizon (Parent material):

 Weathered rock fragments.

 Little biological activity.
 Source of minerals for upper horizons.

(xi) R Horizon (Bedrock):

 Unweathered rock beneath the soil.

 Foundation of soil formation.

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Soil Profile Horizons and Their Land Use Implications
Horizon Characteristics Land Use Importance

O Horizon (Organic Rich in decomposed plant Supports forestry, grazing, and organic
layer) material, dark color farming

A Horizon Fertile, high biological activity, Best for crop cultivation and gardening
(Topsoil) root zone

E Horizon Leached, lighter color, low Often unsuitable for intensive farming,
(Eluviation layer) nutrients may need fertilization

B Horizon (Subsoil) Accumulated clay, iron, Important for water storage; affects
minerals deep-rooted crops

C Horizon (Parent Weathered rock fragments Determines long-term soil fertility and
material) mineral supply

R Horizon Solid rock Limits rooting depth; influences

(Bedrock) construction and engineering projects

How Soil Profile Influences Land Use

(i) Agriculture:
o Thick, fertile A horizons → ideal for farming.
o Shallow soils with exposed bedrock → poor for crops, better for grazing or
forestry.
(ii) Forestry:
o Deep organic and nutrient-rich layers support tree growth.
(iii) Construction:
o Soil depth and stability (B and C horizons) determine suitability for building
foundations.
(iv) Water management:
o Subsoil layers (B horizon) influence drainage, irrigation, and groundwater
recharge.
(v) Conservation:
o Soil profiles help identify erosion risks and guide reforestation or terracing.

Key Considerations

 Land use must match soil profile characteristics to avoid degradation.

 Misuse (e.g., farming on shallow or sandy soils) can lead to erosion, nutrient loss, and
reduced productivity.
 Sustainable practices (crop rotation, mulching, agroforestry) maintain soil horizons and
extend land use potential.

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The conditions that influence soil profile development
(i) Nature of the parent Rock
- Hard rocks which are not easily weathered such as granite lead to formation of thin
soils and poorly developed profiles while soft rocks which are easily weathered such
as volcanic ash and limestone lead to the development of a deep soil profile.
- Rocks with joints and cracks are also easily broken down to produce deep/mature soil
profiles as compared to those without
- Dark coloured rocks responsive to heat are also easily weathered to produce deep
/well developed profiles as compared to light coloured rocks which are difficult to
break up.
- Basic igneous rocks which are difficult to weather as well as some sedimentary rocks
(composed of previously weathered materials are difficult to breakdown and produce
shallow soils in immature/ poorly developed soil profiles.
' Permeable/ porous rocks are easily weathered by chemical processes to produce deep
mature soil profile as compared to impermeable rocks which may produce shallow
soil profiles etc.
(ii) Climate
- It determines the character and rate of weathering.
- In hot humid climates, chemical weathering occurs at a fast rate leading to the
formation of deep soils and well developed/ mature soil profiles.
- In hot dry climates physical weathering predominates leading to the formation of
thin/ skeletal soils/ azonal soils which do not have well developed profiles.
(iii) Vegetation
- Thick vegetation cover decays and leads to the formation of humus which is added to
horizon A of the soil profile
- Plant roots also lead to the disintegration of rocks and the formation of soil in a soil
profile.
- Forested areas such as Mabira, Kakamaga, Kissi in Kenya therefore tend to have deep
soils in well- developed profiles while areas with thin vegetation cover have thin
skeletal soils and poorly developed profiles.
(iv) Drainage
- Water logged conditions do not allow the easy development of a soil profile such as
Lutembe wetlands, Katonga, Awoja wetlands, etc.
- Well drained areas lead to the formation of a well-developed mature soil profile such
as areas around L. Victoria
(v) Human activities
- Such as mining, quarrying, road construction etc. lead to the breakdown of rocks and
the formation of deep soils characteristic of well-developed profiles e.g. mining in

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 Tororo, cultivation around L. Victoria.
(vi) Living organisms
- In the soil such as ants, earthworms and mammals like rats and moles also break down
rocks as the construct their passages underground leading to the formation of deep
soils and well developed soil profiles
(vii) Time
- Ample time is required to the formation of mature, fertile and deep soils in a well-
developed soil profile.
- If time is short immature/ azonal soils will formed with poorly developed /shallow soil
profiles.
(viii) Topography.
- Steep-s lopes are- more susceptible to soil erosion, and thin soil profile
- Gentle slopes - erosion is slower, there is a lot of deposition of soil eroded on steep
slopes and water percolates to assist in soil profile development leading to deep,
mature soil profile.
- Valleys; lowlands; extensive deposition and percolation of water lead to deep mature
soil profiles where there are waterlogged conditions there is immature soil profile.

The Soil Catena

Catena means a chain or connected series

A soil catena is the natural sequence of different soil types that occur down a slope, all formed
under the same climate and from the same parent material, but differing because of
topography, drainage, and erosion/deposition patterns.
Features soil catena

 Same parent material: All soils originate from the same rock or sediment.
 Same climate: They form under identical climatic conditions.
 Variation due to slope: Differences arise from drainage, erosion, and deposition.
 Linked sequence: Each soil type is related to the next, forming a chain across the slope.

An example of the soil catena from Buganda shows the following soil types, at the top is
laterite/lateritic capping characterized by thin skeletal soils; follwed by a vertical slope/free face
with bare rock; followed by concave slope with deep loam soils and lastly in the broad valleys
are fine clay soils rich in organic matter.

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The factors which have led to the development of soil catena in East Africa

Relief
The nature of a slope/topography influences the development a soil catena for example in Buganda the
hill top/ridge tends to accumulate organic matter that allows formation of an adequate thickness of soil.
Steeper slope or crest sections tend to be freely drained, while at the bottom of slopes or toe slopes
there is usually higher in moisture content due to poor drainage. Toe slope soils are not only higher in
moisture content, but are also known to be richer in clay and organic matter.

Drainage
The moisture content of the soil influences the development of the catena as soil changes along the
slope. Well drained mature soils are found on the gentle slope while thin, stony dry, immature soils are
found on the steep slopes. Clay/boggy soils are generally found in the valley bottoms where drainage is
poor/water logged.

Nature of parent rock

The characteristics of parent rock in terms of hardness, porosity, structure etc. will determine the rate of
erosion thereby influencing the type of soil formed downslope. In addition the different soil along the
slope could be the result of different parent materials.

Human activities
Man’s activities like deforestation, settlement, agriculture etc. result in removal of surface vegetation
which encourage erosion on the upper slopes and deposition on the lower slopes.

Vegetation cover
Soil catena development is faster in areas without vegetation cover since the rate of erosion is fast.
Thick vegetation slow down the rate of erosion and the rate of soil catena development.
Time
Time is required to form a well developed soil catena
Climate
Heavy rainfall in East Africa in areas around Lake victoria promote leaching leading to the development

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of lateritic soils at the hill top. Heavy rainfall encourage erosion on the upper slopes and deposition on
the lowers slopes and valleys. Water logging due to heavy rainfall results in clay soils.

Soil Productivity
Soil productivity refers to the capacity of soil to support plant growth and yield crops
sustainably. It is a measure of how well soil can provide essential nutrients, water, and a
suitable environment for roots and microorganisms.
Differences between soil fertility and soil productivity

Aspect Soil Fertility Soil Productivity

Meaning Ability to supply nutrients Ability to produce crops/yields
Focus Nutrient status & soil chemistry Actual crop output
Nature Potential property Realized property
Influenced by Nutrients, pH, organic matter Fertility + climate, irrigation,
technology, management
Measurement Soil tests (nutrient levels, pH) Crop yield per unit area
Example A soil rich in nutrients but A soil with moderate fertility but well-
waterlogged (fertile but managed irrigation (productive)
unproductive)
Key Insight

 All productive soils must be fertile, but not all fertile soils are productive.
 Productivity is broader — it includes fertility plus external factors like climate, irrigation,
and farming practices.

Factors Affecting Soil Productivity

(i) Soil fertility: Availability of nutrients (N, P, K, micronutrients).

(ii) Soil texture & structure: Influences water retention, aeration, and root penetration.
(iii) Soil depth: Deeper soils allow better root development and water storage.
(iv) Soil pH: Controls nutrient availability and microbial activity.
(v) Organic matter: Improves structure, water-holding capacity, and nutrient cycling.
(vi) Moisture & drainage: Balanced water supply is vital for crops.
(vii) Biological activity: Microbes and fauna enhance nutrient cycling and soil health.

Importance of Soil Productivity to Farmers

 Food security: Productive soils ensure reliable crop yields, supporting local and global
food supplies.
 Economic stability: Higher productivity reduces input costs (fertilizers, irrigation) and
increases profits.

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 Sustainability: Maintaining soil productivity through practices like crop rotation and
organic amendments prevents long-term degradation.
 Resilience: Productive soils buffer against droughts and climate variability by retaining
water and nutrients.

Importance of Soil Productivity to Foresters

 Tree growth: Soil productivity determines forest health, timber quality, and
regeneration capacity.
 Biodiversity: Productive soils support diverse plant species, which in turn sustain wildlife
habitats.
 Carbon storage: Healthy, productive soils enhance carbon sequestration, mitigating
climate change.
 Sustainable forestry: Productivity guides reforestation, afforestation, and forest
management practices.

Importance of Soil Productivity to Environmentalists

 Ecosystem services: Productive soils regulate water cycles, filter pollutants, and support
biodiversity.
 Climate regulation: Soil productivity is linked to carbon cycling and greenhouse gas
balance.
 Land conservation: Protecting soil productivity prevents erosion, desertification, and
land degradation.
 Human well-being: Productive soils underpin sustainable development, balancing
agriculture, forestry, and conservation needs.

Measures to improve soil productivity

(i) Add organic matter: Incorporating compost, manure, or green manure improves soil
structure, water retention, and nutrient cycling.
(ii) Balanced fertilization: Applying the right mix of macro- and micronutrients prevents
nutrient depletion and supports healthy crop growth.
(iii) Crop rotation: Alternating crops reduces pest buildup, improves soil fertility, and
enhances biodiversity.
(iv) Cover cropping: Planting legumes or grasses between main crops prevents erosion, adds
nitrogen, and improves soil organic matter.
(v) Erosion control: Techniques like terracing, contour plowing, and mulching protect topsoil
from being washed away.
(vi) Irrigation management: Efficient water use prevents salinization and ensures crops
receive adequate moisture.
(vii) pH adjustment: Liming acidic soils or adding sulfur to alkaline soils optimizes nutrient
availability.

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(viii) Reduced tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance preserves structure, reduces erosion, and
maintains microbial activity.
(ix) Agroforestry: Integrating trees with crops improves soil fertility, reduces erosion, and
enhances biodiversity.

Soil Degradation

Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality and productivity due to natural processes and
human activities.

Effects soil degradation

(i) Reduced soil fertility and crop yields.

(ii) Loss of biodiversity and soil organisms.
(iii) Increased flooding and desertification.
(iv) Threats to food security and livelihoods.

Causes of soil degradation

(i) Erosion: Loss of topsoil by wind and water.

(ii) Nutrient depletion: Continuous cropping without replenishment.
(iii) Salinization: Build-up of salts from poor irrigation practices.
(iv) Acidification: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers or acid rain.
(v) Pollution: Contamination by industrial waste, pesticides, and heavy metals.
(vi) Deforestation: Removal of vegetation cover, exposing soil to erosion.
(vii) Overgrazing: Livestock pressure reduces vegetation and compacts soil.

Soil Conservation
Soil conservation refers to practices that protect, maintain, and restore soil health to ensure
long-term sustainability.

Measures for soil conservation

(i) Afforestation & reforestation: Planting trees to protect soil from erosion.
(ii) Contour farming: Plowing along slope contours to reduce runoff.
(iii) Terracing: Creating steps on slopes to slow water flow.
(iv) Cover cropping: Growing plants to protect soil between main crops.
(v) Crop rotation: Alternating crops to maintain fertility and reduce pests.
(vi) Organic amendments: Adding compost or manure to improve soil structure.
(vii) Mulching: Covering soil with plant residues to retain moisture and reduce erosion.
(viii) Controlled grazing: Managing livestock to prevent overgrazing.
(ix) Efficient irrigation: Prevents salinization and waterlogging.

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Case study of the nature, causes, effects and control measures soil degradation from a
developed country
A strong case study of soil degradation in a developed country is the Dust Bowl in the United
States (1930s). It illustrates how poor land management combined with climatic extremes led
to massive soil erosion, crop failure, and migration. Control measures like conservation farming,
reforestation, and sustainable land management were later introduced to restore productivity.

Case Study: The Dust Bowl (USA, 1930s)

Nature of Soil Degradation

 Severe wind erosion stripped away millions of tons of topsoil.

 Vast areas of farmland became barren and unproductive.
 Soil fertility declined drastically, leading to widespread crop failure.

Causes

 Over-cultivation: Farmers plowed large areas of prairie grassland for wheat production.
 Monocropping: Continuous wheat cultivation depleted soil nutrients.
 Lack of conservation practices: No crop rotation, cover crops, or windbreaks.
 Climatic factors: Prolonged drought and high winds exacerbated erosion.

Effects

 Agricultural collapse: Crop yields dropped sharply, leading to food shortages.

 Economic hardship: Thousands of farmers lost livelihoods, triggering mass migration
(the “Okie” migration to California).
 Environmental damage: Dust storms destroyed ecosystems, reduced biodiversity, and
worsened air quality.
 Social impact: Rural communities were devastated, increasing poverty and
unemployment.

Control Measures

 Soil Conservation Service (1935): Established to promote sustainable farming.

 Contour plowing: Reduced runoff and erosion.
 Crop rotation & cover cropping: Restored soil fertility and organic matter.
 Shelterbelts (windbreaks): Trees planted to reduce wind erosion.
 Reforestation & grass reseeding: Helped stabilize soils and restore ecosystems.

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Case study of the nature, causes, effects and control measures soil degradation from a
developing country

A clear case study of soil degradation in a developing country is Punjab, India, where intensive
agriculture, overuse of chemical inputs, and poor land management have led to severe soil
fertility decline, erosion, and salinization. Control measures include crop diversification, organic
amendments, and sustainable irrigation practices.

Case Study: Soil Degradation in Punjab, India

Nature of Soil Degradation

 Decline in soil fertility due to nutrient depletion.

 Widespread salinization and waterlogging from excessive irrigation.
 Soil erosion in cultivated areas.
 Loss of organic matter and microbial diversity.

Causes

 Intensive monocropping: Continuous wheat–rice rotation depletes nutrients.

 Excessive chemical fertilizer use: Leads to soil acidification and micronutrient
imbalance.
 Over-irrigation: Causes waterlogging and salinity buildup.
 Deforestation & habitat destruction: Reduced vegetation cover accelerates erosion.
 Population pressure: Expanding agriculture without conservation practices.

Effects

 Reduced crop yields: Declining productivity threatens food security.

 Economic stress: Farmers face higher costs for fertilizers and irrigation.
 Environmental damage: Loss of biodiversity, soil organisms, and increased greenhouse
gas emissions.
 Health impacts: Contaminated water from fertilizer runoff affects rural communities.
 Long-term sustainability risk: Soil degradation undermines agricultural resilience.

Control Measures

 Crop diversification: Moving away from wheat–rice monocropping to pulses, oilseeds,

and vegetables.
 Organic amendments: Use of compost, manure, and green manures to restore fertility.
 Balanced fertilization: Incorporating micronutrients and reducing chemical dependency.
 Efficient irrigation: Adopting drip irrigation and reducing groundwater overuse.
 Agroforestry & afforestation: Planting trees to stabilize soil and improve biodiversity.
 Government policies: Soil health cards, subsidies for organic inputs, and awareness
campaigns.

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Revision questions
1. Examine the weathering processes taking place in East Africa.
(Define weathering, identify and describe each weathering types, give occurrence of each
type of weathering in East Africa))
2. Physical weathering dominates in the arid areas of East Africa. Discuss
(Define physical weathering, identify arid areas in East Africa, factors that promote the
types of physical weathering in East Africa, describe chemical weathering as alternative to
physical weathering)
3. (a) Distinguish between physical and chemical weathering
(Define the terms physical and chemical weathering and then give differences between
physical and chemical weathering)
(b) Describe the factors which have favored chemical weathering in East Africa.
4. Describe the chemical weathering process in humid areas in East Africa
(Define the term chemical weathering, identify humid areas in East Africa, describe factors
that favored chemical weathering, describe chemical weathering processes)
5. Examine the factors that influence the type and rate of weathering in East Africa
(Define weathering, identify the types of weathering, then explain the factors that influence
the type and rate of weathering)
6. To what extend does the rate and character of weathering depend on the nature of rocks?
(Define weathering, bring out the extent to which the nature of rocks (mineral composition,
rock hardness, color of rock, rock joints) influence the character of rate of weathering;
discuss the alternative/other factors that affect the rate of weathering as well)
7. (a) distinguish between physical and chemical weathering
(b) Examine the importance of weathering process on landform formation in East Africa
8. Account for the landform produced by carbonation process in East Africa
9. (a) What is chemical weathering
(b) Describe the landforms resulting from chemical weathering
10. Examine the weathering processes that take place in the L. Victoria basin of East Africa.
(Define weathering, identify location of L. Victoria basin, discus both chemical and physical
weathering process.

Thank You

Dr. Bbosa Science

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