■ NERVES

Easy Study Notes

1. What is a Nerve?
• Cord-like bundles of nerve fibers spread throughout the body

• Transmit electrical & chemical impulses to and from the brain/spinal cord (CNS)

• Found in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Made of specialized cells + connective tissue

2. Two Main Cell Types in a Nerve

NEURONS GLIAL CELLS
• Structural & functional building blocks •
Send electrical/chemical messages • • 10× more than neurons • Support,
Forever cells — don't die; can grow new protect, feed neurons • Help transmit
synapses impulses • Build & maintain synapses

3. Neuron Structure
• Dendrites — receive signals (input)

• Cell body (Soma) — processes signals

• Axon — carries signal away from cell body (output)

• Myelin sheath — fatty insulating layer that speeds up signals

• Node of Ranvier — gaps in myelin where signal jumps

• Axon terminal / Terminal button — releases neurotransmitters

4. Neuronal Cell Membrane

• Made of a lipid bilayer (two layers of fat) + embedded proteins

• Hydrophilic (water-loving) part → faces fluids inside & outside

• Hydrophobic (water-hating) part → fatty chains face each other in the middle

• Channel proteins → let specific molecules pass in/out

• Signal (receptor) proteins → receive messages from outside and trigger responses inside
 5. Types of Neurons

By Function:
Type Job Where

Skin, retina, nose, ear, taste

Sensory Carries info FROM body → CNS buds

Carries commands FROM CNS →

Motor muscles/glands Muscles & glands

Interneuron Interprets info, connects sensory & motor Mainly CNS

By Structure:
• Unipolar — 1 projection from cell body

• Bipolar — 2 projections (1 axon + 1 dendrite)

• Multipolar — many projections (most common)

• Interneuron — short/no axon; integrates signals in one brain region

6. Electrical Signals in Neurons

Resting Potential (−70 mV) — Neuron at rest:

• More Na■ and Cl■ OUTSIDE the neuron

• More K■ and negative proteins INSIDE

• Sodium-Potassium Pump: pumps 3 Na■ out for every 2 K■ in (uses ATP)

• Net result: inside is more negative → −70 mV

Action Potential — Firing the signal:

Stage What happens Voltage

Na■ channels open → Na■ rush IN → inside

Depolarization becomes positive −70 → +50 mV

Na■ channels close; K■ channels open → K■ rush

Repolarization OUT +50 → −70 mV

Hyperpolarization K■ channels slow to close → extra K■ leave briefly Dips to −80 mV

Key Rules:
• All-or-nothing: only fires if threshold (−55 mV) is reached
 • Signal strength stays the same along the entire axon

• Myelinated neurons: signal JUMPS node to node (saltatory) → 80–120 m/s

• Non-myelinated: slow conduction ~1 m/s

Refractory Periods:
• Absolute Refractory Period → cannot fire at all (Na■ channels inactive)

• Relative Refractory Period → can fire but needs a much stronger stimulus (K■ still open)

• Advantage: signal can only travel ONE direction (no backward firing!)

7. Postsynaptic Potentials (PSPs)

• EPSP (Excitatory) → increases chance of firing an action potential

• IPSP (Inhibitory) → decreases chance of firing an action potential

• Decremental transmission: PSPs fade as they travel (like sound fading with distance)

• Spatial Summation: Many PSPs from different locations added together

• Temporal Summation: Many PSPs arriving rapidly one after another added together

8. Synaptic Transmission — How neurons talk

Key Terms:
• Synapse → junction where two neurons meet

• Synaptic cleft → tiny gap between them

• Presynaptic neuron → sends the signal

• Postsynaptic neuron → receives the signal

Step-by-Step Process:
• 1■■ Neurotransmitters made in cytoplasm/ribosomes → packaged into vesicles by Golgi
apparatus

• 2■■ Action potential arrives at terminal button

• 3■■ Ca²■ ions rush into terminal button

• 4■■ Ca²■ triggers vesicles to fuse with membrane → neurotransmitters released

(exocytosis)

• 5■■ Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft → bind to postsynaptic receptors

• 6■■ Either increases or decreases the chance of action potential in next neuron

Disposal of Neurotransmitters:
 • Reuptake → neurotransmitter absorbed back into presynaptic neuron for reuse

• Enzymatic degradation → enzymes break it down in the cleft; pieces reabsorbed

Types of Synapses:
• Axodendritic — axon → dendrite (MOST COMMON)

• Axosomatic — axon → cell body

• Axoaxonic — axon → axon

• Dendrodendritic — dendrite → dendrite

• Axoextracellular — axon → extracellular space

9. Glial Cells — The Support Team

Cell Location Function

Schwann Cells PNS Form myelin in PNS; guide axon regeneration after injury

Form myelin in CNS; one cell covers multiple axon

Oligodendrocytes CNS segments

Star-shaped; largest glia; maintain blood-brain barrier;

Astrocytes CNS feed neurons

Immune defense — eat dead cells, debris, foreign bodies

Microglia CNS (phagocytosis)

10. Connective Tissue Layers of a Nerve

Layer Location Function

Wraps entire nerve; provides protection & mechanical

Epineurium Outermost strength

Perineurium Middle Surrounds each fascicle; forms blood-nerve barrier

Surrounds individual nerve fibers; cushions,

Endoneurium Innermost nourishes, supports regeneration

11. Neuron vs Nerve — Quick Comparison

Feature Neuron Nerve

What is it? Single cell Bundle of axons

Location CNS & PNS PNS only

 Regeneration Limited Good (if cell body intact)

Connective tissue + axons + glial

Parts Dendrite, soma, axon cells

Function Processes signals Transmits signals (like a highway)

Analogy A single wire A bundle of wires in a cable

■ Quick Memory Aids

• Resting = −70 mV | Threshold = −55 mV | Peak = +50 mV

• Na■ IN → depolarize | K■ OUT → repolarize

• Pump: 3 Na■ OUT, 2 K■ IN (uses ATP)

• Myelinated speed: 80–120 m/s | Unmyelinated: ~1 m/s

• Schwann (PNS myelin) = can regenerate | Oligodendrocyte (CNS myelin) = cannot

regenerate

• Epi- (outside whole nerve) → Peri- (around fascicle) → Endo- (around single fiber)

• Axodendritic synapse = most common type

Based on: Biopsychology, 6th ed. by John P.J. Pinel