UNIT I — COMPLETE STUDY

NOTES
Environment & Biodiversity | Environmental Pollution

📚 Full PDF coverage · Every table recreated · All diagrams as flowcharts · Zero content skipped

Chapter Topics Covered

Environment (Def/Scope/Importance) · Public Awareness · Atmosphere Layers ·

Chapter 1 Ecosystem Structure & Types · Energy Flow · Biogeochemical Cycles · Biodiversity ·
Hot-spots · Threats · Conservation · NBA 2002

Pollution Overview · Water Pollution (BIS Standards) · Noise · Soil · Air · Biomedical
Chapter 2/3
Waste · Solid Waste · E-Waste · Green Chemistry · OH&S · EPA Acts · EIA
 CHAPTER 1
Environment and Biodiversity

1.1 Definition, Scope and Importance of Environment

📖 Definitions
ENVIRONMENT
"The whole physical and biological system in which man and other organisms live"
Environmental studies = every issue that affects living organisms

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Study of functioning of nature and interconnections between various things in nature
Components: Biology · Geology · Chemistry · Physics · Engineering · Sociology · Health ·
Economics
Positive & realistic planning needed to balance all components
KEY → Essentially a MULTIDISCIPLINARY approach

🔭 Scope
• Natural landscape = forests, rivers, deserts, rocks, minerals, soil
• Humans transform these into villages, towns, cities
• Even city dwellers depend on surrounding villages for food — daily life LINKED to environment
• Resources needed: Water, Air, Food, Energy, Land, Trees, Minerals
• Technological advances (fertilizers, pesticides, dams) → environmental degradation
• Most resources (water, minerals, petroleum, wood) extracted CONTINUOUSLY
• KEY: Environmental resources are NON-PRODUCIBLE — once exhausted, CANNOT be
reproduced
• If extracted unsustainably → not available for future generations

⭐ Importance
• Multidisciplinary approach — resources command market prices
• Scarce resources cost more (e.g., wood, water)
• Clean water being polluted/wasted by chemical byproducts
• Deforestation → increased temperature + dry rivers + less fresh air → diseases
• Misuse can be stopped by spreading AWARENESS
• NOT just government responsibility — EACH person must contribute
1.2 Need for Public Awareness on Environment
• Earth's natural resources exhausted rapidly; environment degraded by human activities
• Each of us must play an important role — reduce wastage of natural resources

👥 1. People in Environment
• Always cared about environment through perceptions and attitudes
• Environmental movement covers: land, water, minerals, organisms, atmosphere, climate, oceans,
outer space
• Expanded to international economic co-operation: commodity prices, structural adjustments, subsidies

Environmentalist Contribution

Charles Darwin Theory of evolution and natural selection — basis of ecology

Salim Ali "Birdman of India" — Ornithologist, bird surveys across India

Indira Gandhi Environmental policies, hosted 1972 Stockholm Conference

S.P. Godrej Corporate environmental advocacy and wildlife conservation

Madhav Gadgil Ecologist; authored Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel report

M.C. Mehta Environmental lawyer; landmark Supreme Court pollution cases

Medha Patkar Narmada Bachao Andolan — opposed large dam projects

Sundarlal Bahuguna Chipko movement — hug trees to save forests

• People participate via: Pressure groups · Watch dogs (observers) · Advisory councils · Enforcing env.
laws

🏢 2. Institutions / NGOs in Environment

• NGOs + scientific groups = major role in environmental movement
• Small groups fight local problems; others work on national scale issues
NGO Focus

Friends of Earth International environmental advocacy; policy change

Greenpeace Direct action against pollution, nuclear testing, deforestation

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Wildlife conservation; endangered species protection

• Media = powerful instrument for awareness — BUT usually reactive, NOT innovative
🎓 3. Environmental Education
Scope of Environmental Studies Importance of Environmental Studies
Creates awareness and sensitivity to total Understand concept of "development without
environment and associated problems destruction of environment"
Actively participate in environmental protection Understand different environmental hazards
and improvement
Develop skills to identify and solve environmental Understand and demand laws for protecting
problems environment
Know the need to conserve natural resources Relate quality of life with environment

1.3 Structure of Atmosphere

The multilayered gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth is called ATMOSPHERE.
It consists of FIVE concentric layers (physio-chemical structure):

EXOSPHERE (1600 – 3000 km)

⚗
Very high (direct solar) | ⁻ H⁻ and He only
📌 Outermost layer; merges with space
▲ SPACE SIDE

THERMOSPHERE / IONOSPHERE (85 – 500 km)

⚗
Up to 1200°C (gradual increase) | ⁺ O₂⁺, O⁺, NO⁺ (charged particles)
📌 Radio wave reflection; Aurora occurs here
▲ SPACE SIDE

MESOSPHERE (50 – 85 km)

⚗
Down to −92°C (lowest) | ⚗ N₂ + less ozone
📌 Meteors burn up here; lowest temperature layer
▲ SPACE SIDE

STRATOSPHERE (18 – 50 km)

⚗
−55°C to 5°C | ⚗ Rich in Ozone (O₃)
📌 BLOCKS UV radiation from sun; no clouds/moisture
▲ SPACE SIDE

TROPOSPHERE (0 – 18 km (0–10 km polar))

⚗
15°C to −56°C | ⚗ O₂, CO₂, H₂O, N₂
📌 Contains 75% of atm mass; all WEATHER occurs here
▲ SPACE SIDE

🌍 EARTH'S SURFACE (0 km)

⚗
Average 15°C | ⚗ —
📌 Ground level
📊 Atmosphere Layers — Full Summary Table
Layer Height Temperature Key Gases Special Feature

75% atm mass; weather;

Troposphere 0–18 km 15°C to −56°C O₂, CO₂, H₂O, N₂
moisture present

Blocks UV; free from moisture &

Stratosphere 18–50 km −55°C to 5°C Rich O₃ (Ozone)
clouds

Lowest temp layer; reduced

Mesosphere 50–85 km Down to −92°C N₂, less ozone
pressure

Gradual temp rise; radio wave

Thermosphere 85–500 km Up to 1200°C O₂⁺, O⁺, NO⁺
reflection

1600–3000
Exosphere Very high H⁻ and He only Outermost; merges with space
km

⚙️Functions of Atmosphere
3 Key Functions
▶ Absorbs Infra-Red (IR) radiation → maintains HEAT BALANCE on Earth
▶ Contains O₂, CO₂, N₂ → essential gases for sustaining LIFE
▶ Ozone layer in stratosphere → BLOCKS harmful UV radiation from sun

1.4 Ecosystems — Structure and Function

ECOLOGY vs ECOSYSTEM
Ecology = study of interactions among organisms with their environment
"Eco" = environment | "System" = interacting, inter-dependent complex
Ecosystem = community of living organisms (plants, animals, microbes) + non-living components (air,
water, mineral soil)

📖 Four Definitions of Ecosystem

Definition
Definition
No.

1 Group of plants and animals along with physical environment with which it interacts

Community of different species interacting with one another and with their environment
2
exchanging energy and matter

Community of living organisms (plants, animals, microbes) in conjunction with non-living

3
components (air, water, mineral soil), interacting as a system

4 Biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment

📊 Scope and Importance of Ecosystem
• Natural landscape = forests, rivers, deserts, rocks, minerals, soil
• Food from villages → cities → daily life LINKED to environment
• Resources (water, trees, minerals, food, energy, land) must be preserved
• Technological advancements (fertilizers, pesticides, dams) → environmental degradation
• Resources extracted continuously → degrade and deplete natural environment
• KEY: Resources are NON-PRODUCIBLE — if exhausted, cannot be reproduced

📊 Classification of Ecosystems — DIAGRAM (Fig. 1.4.1)

ECOSYSTE
M
│

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL / MAN-MADE

Terrestrial: Maintained artificially by man
• Forest ecosystem Energy added and manipulated
• Grassland ecosystem through planning
• Desert ecosystem Examples:
Aquatic: • Croplands
Fresh Water: • Gardens
• Lotic (running) — Rivers, • Aquariums
streams • Dams
• Lentic (standing) — Lakes,
ponds, pools
Marine:
• Salt water ecosystem

🔷 Characteristics of Ecosystem
# Characteristic

1 Structural and functional unit of ecology

2 Structure related to species diversity — more complex ecosystem = higher diversity

3 Functions related to energy flow and cycling of materials

Ecosystem matures: less complex → more complex; early stage has excess potential energy and high
4
energy flow per unit biomass

5 Alterations in environment = selective pressure on populations → SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST

6 Energy fixation is LIMITED — cannot be exceeded without serious undesirable effects

1.5 Structure and Components of an Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem indicates its components (species diversity) and their interdependency for
growth and survival.

ECOSYSTEM → ABIOTIC (Non-Living) → BIOTIC (Living)

🪨 1. Abiotic (Non-Living) Components

Determine what type of organisms can live in a specific area. Two subtypes:
Subtype Examples Role

Sunlight → Photosynthesis; Water →

Sunlight, Water, Soil,
Physical Components Essential for life; Temperature → Survival;
Temperature
Soil → Base + nutrients

Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids,

Chemical Components Provide necessary nutrients to organisms
N, P, K, O₂

🌿 2. Biotic (Living) Components

Includes plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other living organisms. Three categories:

PRODUCERS CONSUMERS DECOMPOSERS

(Autotrophs) (Heterotrophs) (Detrivores)
• Use sunlight + N/P from soil Herbivores (Primary): • Attack dead producers,
• Photosynthesis → food Man, Elephant, Rabbit animals & wastes
• 1st TROPHIC LEVEL Carnivores (Secondary): • Break into simple stable
• Examples: Green plants, Algae Tiger, Lion compounds
Omnivores: • CRUCIAL for nutrient
Fox, Frog recycling
• Examples: Bacteria, Fungi

🔗 Food Chain / Trophic Levels Diagram

☀️SUN PRODUCERS PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY DECOMPOSE
Energy Source → Green plants → CONS. → CONS. → CONS. → RS
Herbivores Carnivores Top Predators Bacteria/Fungi

1.6 Energy Flow in Ecosystem

PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION (Exact from PDF)
CO₂ + 2H₂O ──sunlight──▶ CH₂O + O₂ + H₂O
carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrate + oxygen + water
More precisely: CO₂(g) + H₂O(l) ──Chlorophyll/Sunlight──▶ (CH₂O)(aq) + O₂(g)
 • Part of chemical energy → used by PRODUCERS (plants) for growth
• Remaining energy → transferred to CONSUMERS
• Decomposers utilize energy from consumers → produce inorganic nutrients
• Inorganic nutrients → used AGAIN by producers → cycle repeats

🔄 Energy Flow Diagram (Fig. 1.6.1)

DECOMPOSE
PRODUCER CONSUMERS
☀️SUN → (Plants)
→ (Animals)
→ R
(Microorganisms)

↓ Heat ↓ Heat ↓ Heat ↓ Heat

⬆
INORGAN
IC
NUTRIEN
TS →
Used
again by
Producer
s

NUTRIENT CYCLE / BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

Nutrients flow REPEATEDLY between biotic and abiotic components
Producers use nutrients for food → consumed by consumers → decomposers recover nutrients →
nutrients returned to producers
This repeated flow = NUTRIENT CYCLE = BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
Types: [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]

💧 3. Hydrological (Water) Cycle — Fig. 1.6.3

EVAPORATION
Water evaporates from water bodies + land surfaces; also transpired from living
plant cells

▼
WATER VAPOUR
Produced vapour circulated throughout the atmosphere by wind

▼
PRECIPITATION
Eventually precipitated as SNOW or RAIN — ultimate sources of all drinkable
water

▼
RUNOFF / COLLECTION
 Snow/rain water collects in streams, rivers, lakes, groundwater, oceans

▼
EVAPORATION AGAIN
Cycle repeats — dynamic balance between evaporation and precipitation

🌿 4. Carbon Cycle — Fig. 1.6.4

ATMOSPHERE ⬅ BIOSPHERE
CO₂ + HCO₃⁻ + CO₃²⁻ P Carbon in living organisms:
Sources of CO₂: h • Proteins, Carbohydrates
ot • Fats, Amino acids
i) Respiration (plants, animals, humans) o
ii) Combustion of fuels (automobiles, factories) sy
Dead matter → CO₂ returned
iii) Volcanic eruptions nt to atmosphere via decomposition
h
es
is
➡
R
es
pi
ra
ti
o
n

↕ Ocean uptake (CO₂→HCO₃⁻) / Ocean outgassing ↕ Biomass ↔ Mineral deposits (organic carbon)

🌱 5. Nitrogen Cycle — Fig. 1.6.5

ATMOSPHERIC N₂ (78% of atmosphere)

NITROGEN FIXATION → N₂ converted to NH₃/NO₃ by bacteria (Rhizobium, Azobacter) or

lightning/chemical synthesis
↓
NITRIFICATION → NH₃ → Nitrite → Nitrate (by Nitrosomonas → Nitrobacter)
↓
PLANT UPTAKE → Plants absorb NO₃ → used in proteins, vitamins, amino acids
↓
ANIMALS → Eat plants → nitrogen in their tissues → excreted as ammonia
↓
DECOMPOSITION → Microbial decay → NH₃ produced again
↓
DENITRIFICATION → NO₃ → N₂ gas by Pseudomonas, Fluorescence (returns to atmosphere)
↑
BACK TO ATMOSPHERE → Cycle Repeats

Process Definition Bacteria Involved

Nitrification Conversion of ammonia (NH₃) into Nitrosomonas (NH₃→NO₂),

 Process Definition Bacteria Involved

nitrates (NO₃) Nitrobacter (NO₂→NO₃)

Conversion of nitrates (NO₃) back into Pseudomonas, Fluorescence

Denitrification
N₂ gas bacteria

🪨 6. Phosphorous Cycle — Fig. 1.6.6

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE (Fig. 1.6.6)

ROCKS/FOSSILS/PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS (Bones, teeth, guano)
↓ Mining / Erosion
FERTILIZER PRODUCTION → Farmers apply to soil
↓ Plant uptake / Dissolved phosphate
PLANTS → Absorb phosphates in biosynthesis
↓ Eaten by animals
ANIMALS → Excreta returned to soil; phosphorus in bones/tissues
↓ Surface runoff
OCEANS → Marine fish absorb phosphorus; LOST in deep marine sediments
↑ Sea birds eat fish → RETURN phosphorus to land (key recyclers!)

☀️7. Photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS — Definition
Complex redox process by which plants, algae and certain bacteria convert CO₂ + H₂O →
carbohydrates + O₂ using sunlight
Equation: CO₂(g) + H₂O(l) ──Chlorophyll/Sunlight──▶ (CH₂O)(aq) + O₂(g)
Catalysts: Chlorophyll pigments, Carotenoids, Phycobilins — absorb light → chemical energy via new
chemical bonds
Primary function: produce food for higher animals + replenish O₂ + store solar energy
Plants that photosynthesise = PRIMARY PRODUCERS in food chain
All organisms that feed on plants for energy = CONSUMERS

1.7 Functions of Ecosystem

Function Description

PRIMARY FUNCTION Ecosystem produces starch by interaction of biotic and abiotic components

Related to processes and events that change form of energy and materials
SECONDARY FUNCTION
within biotic and abiotic components

Allows flow of energy and cycling of materials so that system remains

TERTIARY FUNCTION
STABLE and there is continuity in life
🌍 Ecosystem Conservation Strategies
Strategy Description

Formal policies and programmes for conservation and sustainable

1. Legislation
utilisation of ecosystem resources

2. In-situ Conservation Conserving animals and plants IN THEIR NATURAL HABITATS

3. Ex-situ Conservation Protect plants/animals AWAY FROM their natural habitat

4. Community Participation Local communities involved in biodiversity conservation

1.8 Ecosystem Types

🌳 1. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Types of FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Tropical rain forests

Tropical deciduous forests

Temperate deciduous forests

Tropical scrub forests

Temperate rain forests

Biotic/Abiotic Component Details

Abiotic (Non-living) Climatic factors (temperature, rainfall, light), minerals

Producers Trees, shrubs and ground vegetation

Consumers Ants, flies, insects, mice, deer, snakes, birds, tiger, lion

Decomposers Bacteria and fungi

Characteristics of FOREST ECOSYSTEM

▶ Warm climate with adequate rainfall
▶ Well-defined seasons of about equal length
▶ Protects biodiversity
▶ Tall and dense trees with many wild animals
▶ Soil rich in organic matter and nutrients
▶ Grow very slowly
▶ Provide various resources for human life
🌾 2. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Types of GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

Tropical grassland

Temperate grassland

Polar grassland

Biotic/Abiotic Component Details

Abiotic (Non-living) CO₂, H₂O, nitrate, phosphates, sulphates; Nutrients: C, H, O, N, P, S

Producers Grasses, forbs, shrubs

Primary: Cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep | Secondary: Snakes, lizards, birds |

Consumers
Tertiary: Hawks, eagles

Decomposers Fungi and bacteria

Characteristics of GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

▶ Exists where rainfall is low and uneven
▶ Soil rich in nutrients and organic matter
▶ Provides largest biomass; used for grazing animals
▶ Exists in moderate climates
▶ Characterised by seasonal flowering plants and savannas (scattered trees)
▶ Degraded because of overgrazing

3. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Types of DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Tropical desert

Temperate desert

Cold desert

Hot and dry desert

Semiarid desert

Coastal desert

Biotic/Abiotic Component Details

Abiotic (Non-living) Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water (very scarce)

Producers Succulents (cacti) — water stored inside; waxy outer layer protects from
 Biotic/Abiotic Component Details

sun; Shrubs, bushes

Mice, rabbits, reptiles, squirrels — dig holes, come out at night, extract
Consumers
water from seeds

Decomposers Fungi and bacteria (very limited)

Characteristics of DESERT ECOSYSTEM

▶ Subjected to strong winds
▶ Low annual rainfall
▶ Dry air; hot climate
▶ Large temperature variation (hot days, cold nights)
▶ Rare or no vegetation
▶ No typical soil present
▶ Characterised by high temperature, less moisture, warm, dry, special habitats

💧 4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
• Ecosystems existing in medium of WATER — plants and animals live in water
• Organisms determined by: clarity, salinity, oxygen content, rate of flow of water

Type Examples

Fresh Water Ecosystem Rivers, Ponds, Lakes, Streams, Wetlands

Marine Ecosystem Marine/Ocean, Estuary

🐟 Pond Ecosystem
Characteristics of Pond Ecosystem
▶ Most ponds are temporary — water only in monsoon season
▶ Stagnant (standing) water body
▶ Medium contains less nutrients
▶ Dries after rains — covered by terrestrial plants rest of year
▶ Gets polluted easily due to limited water
▶ As pond fills in monsoon — large number of food chains formed

Component Type Examples

Light, temperature, dissolved matter, O₂, Chemical environment of the pond

Abiotic
pH, phosphorous water
 Component Type Examples

Producers — Microscopic aquatic plants, freely float on

Algae, Volvox, Pandorina, Cosmarium
Phytoplankton water surface

Producers —
Large floating and submerged plants Hydrilla, Jussiaea, Wolfia, Lemna
Microphytes

Primary Consumers Microscopic animals — freely float on Protozoa, very small fish, Ciliates,
(Zooplankton) water surface Flagellates

Secondary
Carnivores — feed on zooplanktons Insects like water beetles, small fish
Consumers

Tertiary Consumers Feed on smaller fish Large game fish

Decompose dead plant and animal

Decomposers matter; nutrients released + reused by Fungi, Bacteria, Flagellates
green plants

Lake Ecosystem
Lake Type Characteristic

Oligotrophic Low nutrient concentrations

Eutrophic Overnourished — excess nutrients

Dystrophic Low pH, brown water, acidic

Volcanic Receives water from magma after volcanic eruptions

Meromictic Salt rich

Characteristics of Lake Ecosystem

▶ Shallow freshwater body
▶ PERMANENT water body (unlike ponds)
▶ Food chains interlinked with terrestrial food chains

Component Examples

Abiotic Temperature, proteins, lipids, light, CO₂, O₂

Phytoplanktons, algae, flagellates; green submerged, free floating and

Producers
amphibious plants

Primary Consumers
Ciliates
(Zooplankton)

Secondary Consumers Insects, small fishes

Tertiary Consumers Large fish

Decomposers Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes

🌊 River / Stream Ecosystem
Characteristics
▶ Fresh water system with RUNNING water
▶ Dissolved oxygen content MORE in streams than standing water
▶ Moving downstream — tributaries join to form a river
▶ Carries sediments (from erosion of soil) and nutrients
▶ Nutrient content determined by terrain and surrounding vegetation
▶ Overhanging vegetation adds organic material from fallen leaves
▶ Streambed erosion adds INORGANIC nutrients

Component Examples

Abiotic Temperature, light, pH, nutrients, organic and inorganic compounds

Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses, aquatic mosses, amphibious

Producers
plants

Primary Consumers Water insects, snails, fishes

Secondary Consumers Birds, mammals

Decomposers Bacteria and fungi

🌊 Ocean (Marine) Ecosystem

Characteristics
▶ LARGEST of all ecosystems
▶ Covers large surface area with saline water
▶ Rich in biodiversity — highest species diversity of all ecosystems
▶ Evaporation of sea water → provides rain water for land
▶ Algae abundant in ocean → provide much of world's oxygen supply
▶ Algae absorb huge amounts of atmospheric CO₂
▶ Supplies: sea products, minerals, natural gas

Component Type Examples

Temperature, light, NaCl, K, Ca

Abiotic Sea water composition
and Mg salts, alkalinity

Diatoms, unicellular algae, seaweeds,

Producers Phytoplanktons, marine plants
Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae

Primary Consumers
Feed on producers Crustaceans, molluscs, fish
(Herbivores)

Secondary Feed on herbivores Herring, shad, mackerel

Consumers
(Carnivores)

Tertiary Consumers
Feed on small fishes Cod, haddock
(Top)

Decomposers Decompose dead organic matter Bacteria and some fungi

1.9 Biodiversity
BIODIVERSITY — Definition
"Variety and variability of living organisms in a given assemblage"
Covers ALL life on Earth
Described at 3 levels: Genes → Species → Ecosystems (hierarchically related)
All life depends on uninterrupted functioning of natural systems for energy & nutrients

⭐ 11 Reasons Why Biodiversity is Important

# Importance

1 Increases ecosystem productivity — each species has a specific role to play

2 Supports more plant species → greater variety of crops

3 Protects freshwater resources

4 Promotes soil formation and protection

5 Provides for nutrient storage and recycling

6 Aids in breaking down pollutants

7 Contributes to climate stability

8 Speeds recovery from natural disasters

9 Provides more food resources

10 Provides more medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs

11 Offers environments for recreation and tourism

🔵 Types of Biodiversity

ECOSYSTEM
BIODIVERSITY → GENETIC DIVERSITY → SPECIES DIVERSITY → DIVERSITY

Type Definition Example Key Point

Genetic Diversity Variety within genes of the Each human is Genetic variability
 Type Definition Example Key Point

SAME species; variation

unique; thousands ESSENTIAL for healthy
between functional units of
of rice varieties breeding population
hereditary information

Number of DIFFERENT species

Tiger, lion, Gene flow occurs within
within an area; members of one
Species Diversity teakwood, human species under natural
species do not breed freely with
being conditions
other species

Variety of habitats, biotic

Forest, grassland, No simple relationship
communities and ecological
Ecosystem Diversity desert, aquatic between diversity and
processes in biosphere +
ecosystems productivity/stability
diversity WITHIN ecosystems

Ecosystem Diversity — Sub-types

Sub-type Definition

Functional Diversity Relative abundance of functionally different kinds of organisms

Number, sizes, and spatial distribution of communities; also called

Community Diversity
"patchiness" (uneven quality)

Landscape Diversity Diversity of scales of patchiness

1.10 Values of Biodiversity

"A rich biodiversity is the WEALTH of any nation."

Consumptive Productive Aesthetic

Use → Use →Social Values →
Ethical Values →
Values →
Option Values

Value Type Definition Examples

Food: seasonal fruits, vegetables, food grains,

sea food, chicken, duck Medicinal: Bamboo,
1. CONSUMPTIVE Direct utilization of various
eucalyptus, neem, honeycomb, herbs Fuel:
USE species by modern society
fuelwood, timber, fodder, coal, petroleum,
natural gas, biomass

Most commercial products

Animals: Silk, wool, leather, tusk Plants:
2. PRODUCTIVE USE synthesized from natural
Wood, cotton, oil seed, crops
products of biodiversity

Use for social aspects; linked to

cultural and religious Holy plants: Banyan, peepal, lotus Holy
3. SOCIAL VALUES
sentiments; ecotourism for animals: Cow, peacock, snake
income

4. ETHICAL VALUES All species have equal right to India's heritage: worship animals, plants,
live — no one has right to rivers, mountains
 Value Type Definition Examples

destroy other's life; presence of

every species is NECESSARY
in ecology

Source of beauty, wonder, joy

Neem/mango leaves used in festivals;
5. AESTHETIC and recreational pleasure;
ornamental plants; elephants/horses/camels
VALUES wildlife tourism (ecotourism) =
for ceremonial use
good currency earner

Potential FUTURE uses of

biodiversity — currently Rarely found medicinal plant may cure
6. OPTION VALUES
unknown; preserved species currently untreatable disease
may later be found very useful

1.11 Hot-spots of Biodiversity

BIODIVERSITY HOT-SPOT — Definition
"Specific areas which contain the RICHEST and MOST THREATENED reservoirs of plant and
animal species"
Criteria for hot-spot: Endemic species richness + degree of habitat loss (>70% habitat lost) + must be
under threat
25 hot-spots identified worldwide covering ~1.4% of total land surface
If these species are lost → they can NEVER be replaced

Criteria to Qualify as Hot-spot

1. Richness of endemic species

2. Significant percentage of specified species must be present

3. Site must have lost MORE THAN 70% of its original habitat

4. Site must be under active threat

🌴 Why Tropics have Rich Biodiversity

Reason Explanation

More stable climate Fewer extreme temperature changes → more species can survive

Warm temperature + high

Provide favourable conditions for high diversity
humidity

No single dominant species Opportunity for MANY species to coexist

Higher rate of outcrossing Among plants in tropics → more genetic variation

🇮🇳 India's 2 Hot-spots (out of 25 global)
Hot-spot Region / Coverage Plant Species Endemic Species Special Features

30% endemic overall;

Sikkim: 4250 species → Ultra varied topography;
Nepal, Bhutan, N. ~35,000 plant
2550 (60%) endemic; India distinct floral region;
Eastern Himalayas India (Sikkim), Yunnan species in
sector: 5800 → 2000 (36%); reptiles, amphibians,
province (SW China) Himalayas
Nepal: 7000 → 500 (8%); butterflies, mammals
Bhutan: 5000 → 750 (15%)

Agasthimalai Hills + Silen

Valley/New Amambalam
1600 km western
1600 endemics (40%) in this Reserve; Plants:
coastal strip: Tamil Out of India's 49219
Western Ghats region; only 6.8% original Ternstroemia Japonica,
Nadu, Maharashtra, plant species
vegetation remaining Rhododendron,
Karnataka, Kerala
Hypericum; Animals: Blue
bird, Lizard hawk

1.12 Threats to Biodiversity

Man-Wildlife Coastal Wetland Commercial
Habitat Loss → Poaching → Conflicts →Destruction → Filling →Exploitation

1 Habitat Loss
1️⃣
• Rapid human population growth → wild habitat destruction → biodiversity loss
• Factors causing habitat loss:
◦ Deforestation
◦ Destruction of wetlands
◦ Over grazing
◦ Urban development
◦ Building of dams
◦ Mining
◦ Land slides
◦ Poor agricultural practices
◦ Industrial wastes

2️⃣Poaching of Wildlife — Table from PDF

Sr. No. Species Use / Product

1 Elephant Ivory, Ashtray

2 Alligators Boots for urban needs

3 Blubber Lubricating oils

4 Baleen Combs and other articles

5 Tiger Skin and bones

 Sr. No. Species Use / Product

6 Rhinos Horns

7 Deer Musk, perfume

• Habitat loss also occurs when man introduces species from one area into another → disturbs balance
→ species lost

3️⃣Man-Wildlife Conflicts
• Man continuously interacts with ecosystems for food, fuel, recreation, sports, urban development,
waste disposal
• Every activity directly/indirectly disturbs species
• Natural forests deforested for timber → replaced by monoculture (teak, sal) → imbalanced ecosystem
• Natural forest size reducing due to human encroachment → animals attack human society → creates
violence

1.13 Conservation of Biodiversity

"Biodiversity is an important tool for sustaining development in any country."

Advantages of Conservation

Ecotourism = good source of income

Provides various medicinal plants

Provides life support system on Earth

Maintains environmental balance on Earth

Various commercial aspects related to biodiversity

⚠️Factors Affecting Biodiversity

# Factor

1 Over-exploitation of natural resources

2 Degradation of habitat

3 Discharge of industrial waste

4 Global warming

5 Urbanization

6 Use of insecticides

7 Construction of dams
 # Factor

8 Poaching and trade in wildlife species

9 Extension of agriculture and associated irrigation systems

10 Filling up of wetlands

11 Population explosion

🔵 Two Approaches of Biodiversity Conservation — Fig. 1.13.1

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
↙ ↘
IN-SITU METHOD EX-SITU METHOD
(On-Site / In Natural Habitat) (Off-Site / Outside Habitat)

Protected Area Network: Off-site methods:

• Sacred groves & sacred lakes • Seed Banks / Gene Banks
• Biosphere Reserves (7 in India) • Field Gene Banks
• National Parks (80 in India) • Cryo-preservation
• Wild Life Sanctuaries (420 in India) • Botanical Gardens (120 in India)
Sacred Plants / Home Gardens • Arboreta
• Zoological Gardens
• Aquaria

In-situ Conservation — Numbers in India

Sr.
In-situ Conservation Method Available Numbers in India
No.

1 Biosphere Reserves 7

2 National Parks 80

3 Wild-life Sanctuaries 420

4 Botanical Gardens 120

📍 Biosphere Reserves in India — Table 1.13.1

Sr
.
Name of the Site Date Location and State
N
o.

Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur,

1 Nilgiri 1.8.86 Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka)

Part of Chamoli, Pithoragrah and Almora districts (Uttar

2 Nanda Devi 18.1.88
Pradesh)
Sr
.
Name of the Site Date Location and State
N
o.

3 Nokerek 1.9.88 Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya)

4 Manas 14.3.89 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta (Assam)

Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river system (West

5 Sunderbans 29.3.89
Bengal)

Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka

6 Gulf of Mannar 18.2.89
(Tamil Nadu)

7 Great Nicobar 6.1.89 Southernmost islands of Andaman and Nicobar (A&N Islands)

8 Similipal 21.6.94 Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa)

9 Dibru-Saikhowa 28.7.97 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts (Assam)

10 Dehang Debang 2.9.98 Part of Siang and Debang valley in Arunachal Pradesh

Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya

11 Pachmarhi 3.3.99
Pradesh

12 Kanchanjunga 7.2.2000 Part of Kanchanjunga hills (Sikkim)

National Parks in India

Name of National Park State Important Wildlife

Kaziranga Assam One horned Rhino

Gir National Park Gujarat Indian Lion

Bandipur Karnataka Elephant

Dachigam J&K Hangul

Corbett U.P Tiger

Kanha M.P Tiger

Periyar Kerala Tiger, Elephant

Dudwa U.P Tiger

Sariska Rajasthan Tiger

Ranthambore Rajasthan Tiger

🦁 Wildlife Sanctuaries in India
Sr
.
Name of Sanctuary State Major Wild Life
N
o.

1 Hazaribagh sanctuary Bihar Tiger, Leopard

2 Ghana bird sanctuary Rajasthan 300 species of bird

3 Sultanpur bird sanctuary Haryana Migratory birds

4 Abhor wild life sanctuary Punjab Black bug

5 Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary Tamil Nadu Tiger, Elephant, Leopard

6 Vedanthangal bird sanctuary Tamil Nadu Water birds

7 Nal Sarovar bird sanctuary Gujarat Water birds

8 Wild Ass sanctuary Gujarat Wild Ass, Wolf, Chinkara

9 Jaldapara wildlife sanctuary West Bengal Rhinoceros, Elephant, Tiger

🌿 In-situ Conservation — Biosphere Reserves

Role of Biosphere Reserves
▶ Gives long-term survival of ecosystem
▶ Protects endangered species
▶ Protects maximum number of species and communities
▶ Serves as site of recreation and tourism
▶ Can be used for educational and research purpose
▶ RESTRICTION: Explosive activities are NOT permitted in biosphere

Ex-situ Conservation
Advantages Disadvantages

Longer lifespan due to assured food, water, shelter

Expensive maintenance and breeding costs
and security

Special care helps endangered species survive Species habituated to controlled conditions —
longer cannot adapt to natural environment

Modern facilities enable better breeding processes Freedom of wildlife is LOST

📋 12 Steps for Conservation of Biodiversity
Step Action

1 Biodiversity inventories and assessments — population surveys

2 Identifying and expanding protected areas

3 Conserving biodiversity in seed banks and gene banks

4 Controlling wildlife trade

5 Providing environmental education to people

6 Reviewing agricultural practices

7 Controlling urbanization

8 Geographical Information System (GIS) for planning and monitoring

9 Restoration of biodiversity

10 Population control

11 Implementing Environmental Protection Act (EPA)

12 Involving more Non-Government Organizations (NGOs)

⚖️National Biodiversity Act 2002

Key Facts about National Biodiversity Act
▶ India is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992 — recognizes sovereign rights
to use own biological resources
▶ India enacted the Biological Diversity Act 2002 (umbrella legislation)
▶ Central Government established the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) from 1st October 2003
▶ NBA is located in CHENNAI
▶ Sec 3 — Permission for foreigners/NRI/foreign companies to obtain biological resources
▶ Sec 4 — For transferring results of any research
▶ Sec 5 — Certain collaborative research projects exempted
▶ Sec 38 — Notifications of threatened species
▶ Sec 39 — Designate repositories for biological resources
▶ Sec 40 — Exempt certain biological resources normally traded as commodities
 CHAPTER 2/3
Environmental Pollution

2.1 Environmental Pollution — Overview

POLLUTION — Definition
"Any substance introduced into the environment that adversely affects the usefulness of a resource"
"Excess discharge of any substance into environment that adversely affects quality and causes
damage to humans, plants and animals"
Can be solid, liquid, or gaseous; Nature and concentration determines severity

Pollutant Type Description Examples

Bio-degradable / Non- Rapidly decomposed by natural Domestic sewage, discarded

persistent processes vegetables

Decompose very slowly; remain

Slowly degradable / Persistent Plastics, pesticides
longer in environment

CANNOT be decomposed by natural

Non-degradable Lead, mercury, nuclear wastes
processes

Air Water Soil Marine Noise Thermal Nuclear

Pollution →Pollution →Pollution →Pollution →Pollution →Pollution →Hazards

2.2 Water Pollution

Definition
"Any physical, biological or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms
or makes water unsuitable for certain uses"
When quality/composition of water changes by any means → water is POLLUTED

Types, Causes and Effects — Complete Table

Pollutant Human
Type Effects
Examples Sources/Causes

Bacteria, virus,
Amoebic dysentery, skin
Infectious Agents protozoa, parasitic Human and animal wastes
problems, malaria
worms
 Pollutant Human
Type Effects
Examples Sources/Causes

Organic waste:
Oxygen Sewage, animal feed lots,
animal manure, Depleted O₂ in water → kills
Demanding (High paper mills, food
plant debris (aerobic aquatic life
BOD) processing units
bacteria need O₂)

Acids, lead (Pb), Cannot drink/irrigate; skin

Surface runoff, industrial
Inorganic arsenic (As), cancer; nervous system/liver
effluents, household
Chemicals selenium (Se), damage; crop yield falls; metal
cleanser
fluorides (F) corrosion

Oil, gasoline, Industrial effluents, Cannot drink; cancer;

Organic
plastics, pesticides, household cleansers, farm liver/nervous damage; harms
Chemicals
detergents, solvents runoff aquatic life

Nitrate (NO₃), Excessive algae growth kills

Sewage, manure,
Plant Nutrients phosphate, aquatic life; excess nitrate lowers
agricultural/urban runoff
ammonium (NH₄) O₂-carrying capacity of blood

Reduces photosynthesis;
Sediment Soil, silt —
Land erosion disrupts aquatic food web;
(Physical) suspended solids
carries bacteria/pesticides

Nuclear power plants,

Radioactive Uranium, thorium, Genetic mutations, birth defects,
nuclear weapons, uranium
Materials cesium isotopes cancer
processing

Thermal Pollution Excessive heat, Water cooling in industrial Aquatic organisms more
(Heat) chemical reactions processes vulnerable to diseases

Point vs Non-Point Source Pollution

Point Source Pollution Non-Point Source Pollution

Single identifiable source from which Sources scattered/diffuse — cannot be

Definition
pollutants are discharged readily identified

Industrial discharge, factory smoke stack, Farm runoff, construction sites, parking
Examples
municipal sewage lots, agriculture logging, animal waste

Easy to monitor and regulate (discrete,

Monitoring Difficult to monitor and regulate
identifiable)

Table 2.2.1 — Sources of Water Pollution

Source of Water Pollution Comment

Organic wastes and sometimes industrial wastes; aluminium

Water and sewage company works
residues from water treatment

Washing of equipment and plant in food and Large, dilute volumes of effluent containing carbohydrates,
drink industries proteins, fats may cause depletion in dissolved dioxygen

Industrial wastes from paper, wool, leather Organic effluents containing proteins, fats, oils and
industries putrescible solids; lime, potash, chromium salts; sulphides
 Source of Water Pollution Comment

from leather

Electroplating and metal industries,

Effluents containing metals and cyanides; diverse chemical
petrochemical, oil refining, pharmaceutical,
content; difficult to treat
landfill seepage

Run-off from land, agricultural wastes and Intensive farming causes waste concentration; excessive
fertilisers fertilisers pollute rivers with nitrates via runoff

Oil spills from ships, oil supertanker disasters and offshore

Petroleum industry
drilling operations

Formed by combination of SO₂ and NOₓ with water in the

Acid rain
atmosphere

Present in wastes from: (i) Uranium and thorium

Radioactive materials mining/refining; (ii) Nuclear power plants; (iii) Industrial,
medical and scientific use

Effects of Water Pollution

On Humans On Plants and Animals

Amoebic dysentery Lower crop yields

Skin cancers Harmful to aquatic life and wild life

Cholera Excess growth of algae can kill aquatic life

Typhoid fever Reduces photosynthesis

Damage of nervous system Disrupts food chain and food web

Genetic mutations / Birth defects —

Hepatitis —

Malaria —

Control Measures for Water Pollution

Control Measure

1. Setting up effluent treatment plants to treat waste

2. Recycling of water must be encouraged

3. Industrial wastes must be treated before discharge

4. Educate public for preventing water pollution

5. Strict enforcement of Water Pollution Control Act

6. Continuous monitoring of water pollution at different places

 Control Measure

7. Developing economical method of water treatment

8. Rivers, streams, lakes and other water reservoirs must be well protected from being polluted

💧 Drinking Water Standards — BIS 10500:1991 (Complete Table)

Bureau of Indian Standards for Drinking Water — Specification (BIS 10500:1991)
Sr. Requirement Permissible Limit (no
Substance or Characteristic
No. (Desirable Limit) alt. source)

— ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS — —

1 Colour (Hazen units, max) 5 25

2 Odour Unobjectionable Unobjectionable

3 Taste Agreeable Agreeable

4 Turbidity (NTU, Max) 5 10

5 pH Value 6.5 to 8.5 No Relaxation

6 Total Hardness (as CaCO₃) mg/lit, Max 300 600

7 Iron (as Fe) mg/lit, Max 0.3 1.0

8 Chlorides (as Cl) mg/lit, Max 250 1000

9 Residual free chlorine mg/lit, Min 0.2 —

— DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS — —

10 Dissolved solids mg/lit, Max 500 2000

11 Calcium (as Ca) mg/lit, Max 75 200

12 Copper (as Cu) mg/lit, Max 0.05 1.5

13 Manganese (as Mn) mg/lit, Max 0.10 0.3

14 Sulphate (as SO₄) mg/lit, Max 200 400

15 Nitrate (as NO₃) mg/lit, Max 45 100

16 Fluoride (as F) mg/lit, Max 1.0 1.5

Phenolic compounds (as C₆H₅OH) mg/lit,

17 0.001 0.002
Max

18 Mercury (as Hg) mg/lit, Max 0.001 No relaxation

19 Cadmium (as Cd) mg/lit, Max 0.01 No relaxation

20 Selenium (as Se) mg/lit, Max 0.01 No relaxation

21 Arsenic (as As) mg/lit, Max 0.05 No relaxation

22 Cyanide (as CN) mg/lit, Max 0.05 No relaxation

 Sr. Requirement Permissible Limit (no
Substance or Characteristic
No. (Desirable Limit) alt. source)

23 Lead (as Pb) mg/lit, Max 0.05 No relaxation

24 Zinc (as Zn) mg/lit, Max 5 15

25 Anionic detergents (as MBAS) mg/lit, Max 0.2 1.0

26 Chromium (as Cr⁶⁺) mg/lit, Max 0.05 No relaxation

PAH (Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons)

27 — —
g/lit, Max

28 Mineral Oil mg/lit, Max 0.01 0.03

29 Pesticides mg/l, Max Absent 0.001

30a Radioactive: Alpha emitters Bq/l, Max — 0.1

30b Radioactive: Beta emitters pci/l, Max — 1.0

31 Alkalinity mg/lit, Max 200 600

32 Aluminium (as Al) mg/lit, Max 0.03 0.2

33 Boron mg/lit, Max 1 5

Parameters and Health Risks/Effects

Parameter Risks or Effects

Nitrate (NO₃) Methemoglobinemia or blue baby disease in infants

Fluoride (F) Brownish discoloration of teeth, bone damage

Arsenic (As) Weight loss, Depression, Lack of energy, Skin and nervous system toxicity

♻️Water Recycling — Suggested Treatment and Uses

Treatment Level Treatment Process Recommended Uses

Primary Treatment Sedimentation No uses recommended at this level

Surface irrigation of orchards/vineyards, Non-

food crop irrigation, Restricted landscape
Secondary
Biological Oxidation, Disinfection impoundments, Groundwater recharge (non-
Treatment
potable), Wetlands/wildlife habitat, Stream
augmentation, Industrial cooling

Landscape and golf course irrigation, Toilet

Tertiary/Advanced Chemical Coagulation, Filtration,
flushing, Vehicle washing, Food crop irrigation,
Treatment Disinfection
Unrestricted recreational impoundment

Indirect Potable Groundwater recharge of potable aquifer,

Full advanced treatment
Reuse Surface water reservoir augmentation
2.3 Noise Pollution
Definition
"Unwanted, unpleasant sound that causes discomfort of human beings"
Noise/Sound measured in DECIBEL (dB)
Becoming one of the major threats to quality of human life

How Noise Differs from Other Pollution

Difference Detail

Everywhere Noise is everywhere — not easy to control as water/air pollution sources

If noise stops → NO residual in environment (unlike water/air pollutants which

No residual
persist)

Localised effect Effects of noise felt ONLY close to the source (unlike air/water which spread far)

Low public awareness People less likely to complain about noise vs air/water pollution

No genetic effects Noise does NOT cause genetic effects (unlike radioactive pollution)

Sources / Causes of Noise Pollution

Type Sources

Industrial Noise Steel industry, textile industry, power generation, oil refineries

Transport Noise Road traffic, rail traffic, air traffic — most annoying type

Household gadgets: mixer, washing machine, refrigerator, air conditioners,

Domestic Noise
vacuum cleaners; TV, radio

Effects of Noise Pollution

Effect Type Details

Neurological disorder Brain adversely affected; psychiatric illness possible

Anxiety / Mental distress Psychological deterioration

Heart attacks Heart-beat rate affected

Pathological disorder Various physiological problems

Deafness/Hearing impairment Permanent hearing loss

Sleeplessness Disruption of sleep patterns

 Effect Type Details

Affects digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular systems + semicircular

Ultrasonic effects
canals of inner ear

Control Measures for Noise Pollution

Method Actions

Acoustic treatment to machine surfaces; Change in machine design;

1. Source Control
Controlling machine vibration; Proper lubrication of machines

2. Transmission Path
Keep noise source in insulating enclosure; Construct sound proof rooms
Intervention

Alter work schedule of receiver; Use earplugs where abnormal noise is

3. Receptor Control
produced; Dissipation and deflection of noise

Ban noise-polluting vehicles; Plant trees on roadsides and near buildings

4. Legislative / Other (absorb noise); Enforce Noise Pollution Control Act; Educate people about
noise pollution

4. Ambient Noise Levels at Different Zones

Sr.
Zone Day-time Limit Night-time Limit
No.

1 Silent zone 50 dB 40 dB

2 Residential zone 55 dB 45 dB

3 Commercial zone 65 dB 55 dB

4 Industrial zone 70 dB 70 dB

2.4 Soil Pollution

Definition
"Contamination of soil causing adverse effects on living organisms in it"

Cause Description

Movement of topsoil from one place to another; natural (wind, flood) + human
1. Soil Erosion
activities (construction, overgrazing, farming, deforestation)

Chemical industries, fertilizer companies, pharmaceutical companies discharge

2. Industrial Wastes
highly polluting substances

3. Urban Wastes Domestic + commercial wastes; plastic (non-degradable) is major hazard

 Cause Description

4. Agricultural Practice Strong fertilizers, pesticides, inorganic chemicals for increased yields

5. Biological Agents Human/animal excreta enter soil pores; pathogenic bacteria spread infection

Effect of Soil Pollution

1. Toxic compounds affect plant growth and human life

2. Water logging and salinity makes soil infertile

3. Hazardous chemicals enter food chain from soil → disturb biochemical processes

4. Nervous disorders, gastrointestinal disorder, joint pain, respiratory problems in humans

Control Measure for Soil Pollution

1. Prevent/control soil erosion by proper tree plantation

2. All wastes from industry and domestic sources must be dumped with proper treatment

3. Use natural fertilizers — AVOID synthetic fertilizers

4. Educate people regarding consequences of soil pollution

5. Strict enforcement of environment protection laws

6. Toxic and non-degradable materials must be totally banned

7. Recycling and reuse of industrial and domestic wastes to minimize soil pollution

🌱 Impacts of Modern Agriculture

a. Fertilizers
Problem Description

NPK fertilizer excess → imbalance of micronutrients → reduced soil

Micronutrient Imbalance
productivity

Blue Baby Syndrome (Nitrate Excess nitrate leaches into groundwater → unsafe drinking water →
Pollution) Methemoglobinemia → can cause death in infants

Excess phosphorus from fertilizers + runoff → water bodies → excessive

Eutrophication
aquatic plant/algal growth → chokes lakes → offensive odours → kills fish

b. Pesticides
Generation Examples

First Generation Pesticides Sulphur, arsenic, lead and mercury

Second Generation Pesticides DDT — Dichlorodiphenyl Trichloromethane

Side Effects of Pesticides
Side Effect Description

1. Death of non-target
Kills several non-target species which are useful to us (beneficial insects)
organisms

Some species survive → generate highly resistant generation immune to

2. Producing Superpests
pesticides = SUPERPESTS

Pesticides are not bio-degradable → concentrate in food chain → harmful in

3. Bio-magnification
magnified form to humans

4. Risk of cancer Acts as carcinogens; indirectly suppresses immune system

5. Contamination of Water-soluble pesticides → surface runoff → streams, lakes, reservoirs →

ground water groundwater contamination

c. Waterlogging and Effects

• Waterlogging = land where water stays for most of the period
• Occurs where clay soil is present excessively
• Soil fills with water → soil-air depleted → roots cannot breathe → soil strength decreases → crop yield
falls
• Causes: Over-irrigation, heavy rain, inadequate drainage
Remedy for Waterlogging
▶ Avoid excessive irrigation
▶ Provide adequate drainage
▶ Plant bio-drainage trees e.g. Eucalyptus

d. Salinity
• Unabsorbed water evaporates → leaves dissolved salts on topsoil = SALINITY
• Saline soils: NaCl, CaCl₂, MgCl₂, Na₂SO₄, NaHCO₃, Na₂CO₃
• Effects: Soil becomes alkaline; stunt growth; land becomes impotent — no crops
Remedy for Salinity
▶ Flush salt layer with fresh water
▶ Switch to salt-tolerant crops (cotton, sugarbeet)
▶ Recharge soil with fertile soil
▶ Provide underground drainage system
2.5 Air Pollution
Definition
"Undesirable contamination of gas, smoke, dust, fume, mist, odour or chemical particulates in
atmosphere injurious to human beings, plants and animals"
Causes: Industrialization, Urbanization, Vehicle emissions, Deforestation, Population growth

Pollutant Type Definition Examples

Emitted DIRECTLY from natural

CO, CO₂, Nitrogen oxides, Sulphur
events or human activities; ~90% of
Primary Pollutants oxides, Hydrocarbons, Particulate
global air pollution = 5 primary
matter
pollutants

Formed when primary pollutants

Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄), Nitric acid
Secondary Pollutants REACT with each other or with basic
(HNO₃), Carbonic acid, PAN
air components

Air Pollutants, Major Sources and Human Health Effects — Table from PDF
Pollutant Major Sources Human Health Effects

Displaces oxygen in blood stream;

Spark ignition combustion; Engine Effects depend on concentration and
Carbon Monoxide (CO) (motor vehicle exhaust); Some exposure time; Can include reduction in
industrial processes mental and physical abilities; eventually
death

Possibly injurious only at very high

concentrations; Can cause tiredness;
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) All combustion/burning processes
Asphyxiation can result; Atmospheric
levels risen from ~280 ppm to >350 ppm

Short-term exposure to low

Heat and power generators using
concentrations affects lung function;
fossil fuels (coal = single largest
Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) Higher concentrations cause chemical
source); Smelting of non-ferrous
bronchitis and tracheitis; Can lead to
ores; Manufacture of sulphuric acid
increased mortality rates

Motor vehicle exhaust; Heat and

Impaired lung function at low
power generators; Nitric acid
Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ — concentrations; Increase in number of
manufacture; Use of explosives;
mainly NO and NO₂) acute respiratory illnesses; Lung tissue
Welding processes; Fertiliser
damage
manufacturing plants

Motor vehicle exhaust; Metal Children particularly sensitive to lead

Lead (Pb) production; Thermal power plants poisoning; Lead affects many body
and other coal combustion plants systems — renal, reproductive, nervous

Power plants; Industrial processes; Short-term exposure causes respiratory

Particulate Matter Motor vehicle exhaust; Domestic distress, lung impairment and increased
coal burning mortality

Hydrocarbons (ethane, Motor vehicle emissions; Solvent No generalisations can be made;

propane, ethene, evaporation; Industrial processes; Damage caused is chemical-compound
 Pollutant Major Sources Human Health Effects

butanes, ethyne, Solid waste disposal; Combustion

specific
benzene) of fuels

Photochemical Oxidants Formed in atmosphere by reaction

Eye, nose and throat irritation; chest
(primarily O₃; also PAN of nitrogen oxides and
discomfort; coughs and headache
and aldehydes) hydrocarbons with sunlight

☁️Photochemical Smog
Photochemical Smog — Key Points
▶ Chemical reaction of SUNLIGHT + Nitrogen Oxides + Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) in
atmosphere
▶ Leaves airborne particles and ground-level ozone
▶ Noxious mixture — highly reactive and oxidizing
▶ Problem of modern industrialization
▶ Common components: Ozone, Nitric oxide, Acrolein, Formaldehyde, PAN (Peroxyacetyl Nitrate)
▶ PAN = secondary pollutant; thermally unstable; decomposes to peroxyethanoyl radicals + NO₂;
lachrymatory (causes tears); stronger oxidant than ozone
▶ Effects: Eye irritant; nose/throat irritation; headaches; chest pain; cough; rubber cracking; plant
damage; metal/stone/building corrosion

⚙️Control Measures for Air Pollution

Control Category Measures

Use unleaded petrol only; Low sulphur petroleum products; Public transport
instead of private vehicles; Plantation of trees (remove particulates, absorb
Source Control
CO, reduce noise); Industries outside city and downwind; Catalytic converters
for CO and hydrocarbon emissions

Restrict emission rate to permissible levels; Mandate air pollution control

Control in Industries
equipment in plant design; Continuous monitoring of emissions

Ensure sufficient O₂ in combustion chamber; Scrubbers (wet scrubber

removes SO₂); Cyclones; Bag houses; Electrostatic precipitators — all
Equipment Used
remove particulates from exhaust gases; retain hazardous materials for safe
disposal

2.6 Biomedical Waste Management

Background
▶ Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 — notified by Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF) under EPA 1986
 ▶ Applies to ALL persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat, dispose or handle
bio-medical waste
▶ Waste MUST be segregated into containers/bags at point of generation
▶ Colour coding and container types were introduced for proper disposal
▶ Authority: State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) / Pollution Control Committee (PCC)
▶ Armed Forces: Director General, Armed Forces Medical Services (DGAFMS)
▶ Rule consists of SIX schedules and FIVE forms

1. Types of Biomedical Wastes — Table from PDF

Waste Category Type of Waste

Category No. 1 Human Anatomical Waste

Category No. 2 Animal Waste

Category No. 3 Microbiology and Biotechnology Waste

Category No. 4 Waste Sharps

Category No. 5 Discarded Medicine and Cytotoxic Drugs

Category No. 6 Soiled Waste

Category No. 7 Solid Waste

Category No. 8 Liquid Waste

Category No. 9 Incineration Ash

Category No. 10 Chemical Waste

Colour Code for Collection of Bio-medical Waste — Table from PDF

Categ
Waste Class Type of Container Colour
ory

1 Human anatomical waste Plastic bag Yellow

2 Animal waste Plastic bag Yellow

Microbiology and
3 Plastic bag Yellow/Red
biotechnology waste

4 Waste sharp Plastic bag puncture proof Blue/White

Discarded medicines and

5 Plastic bags Black
cytotoxic waste

6 Solid (biomedical waste) Plastic bag Yellow

7 Solid (plastic) Plastic bag puncture proof Blue/White

 Categ
Waste Class Type of Container Colour
ory

8 Incineration waste Plastic bag Black

9 Chemical waste (solid) Plastic bag Black

Hospital Waste
Details
Management Step

Done at SOURCE (patient care areas, OT, labs). Responsibility: doctors,

1. Segregation
nurses, technicians. Segregate per categories in rules.

Per BMW Rules. Do NOT store >24 hours at room temperature. Use colour-
2. Collection
coded containers.

Designated waste routes (avoid patient care areas). Use desiccated wheeled
containers/trolleys. Clean and disinfect after spills. Hazardous long-distance
3. Transportation
transport: special enclosed vehicles (SS/Al lining); roof vents for ventilation;
driver compartment separated by bulkhead.

To: (a) Disinfect waste; (b) Reduce volume; (c) Make waste unrecognizable;
4. Treatment
(d) Make recycled items unusable

Universal precautions; Drivers/handlers aware of risks; Written spillage

5. Safety Measures instructions; Protective gear provided; Vaccination against tetanus and
hepatitis B

Purchase reusable glass/metal items; Select non-PVC plastics; Proper

6. Waste Minimization
segregation; Establish effective recycling policy

Hazardous Waste Types

Type Description Examples

Potential for recovery of

Recyclable Metal-bearing dross, ash, used oil
useful/valuable materials

High calorific value; mainly organic

Incinerable Solvents, tars, off-spec organic products
wastes

Land Disposable Cannot be recycled or incinerated Certain inert wastes

Poisonous even in very small

Toxic — Acute Heavy metals, certain solvents
amounts; immediate death

Toxic — Chronic Long-term irreparable harm Lead, mercury exposure

React with air/water/heat → toxic

Reactive Gun powder, nitroglycerine
gases

Destroy materials and living tissues by

Corrosive Acids, bases
chemical reaction

Used bandages, human tissue from

Infectious Spread infections to exposed persons
surgery, hypodermic needles
2.7 Solid Waste Management
Definition
"Planned process of collection, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of solid wastes in
safe and economic manner"
Three categories: Urban/Municipal wastes · Industrial wastes · Hazardous wastes

♻️Waste Management Hierarchy (5Rs) — Priority Order

REDUCE — Prevent waste generation | Highest Priority — Not

producing waste in the first place
▼
REUSE — Maximize recovery by reusing | Reuse suitable waste
materials without reprocessing
▼
RECYCLE — Process into new products | Process waste materials
to produce new usable products
▼
RECOVER — Extract energy/resources | Extract resources or
energy from residual waste
▼
DISPOSE — Final disposal | Lowest Priority — Last resort after all
others exhausted

Sources of Municipal Wastes

Type Examples

Domestic Wastes Food waste, cloth, waste paper, glass, polythene, metals, dust

Commercial Wastes Packaging material, waste papers, cans, bottles, rubber, plastic

Construction Wastes Wood, concrete, debris, lime, cement, tin, Plaster of Paris (PoP)

Biomedical Wastes Anatomical wastes, infectious wastes

Municipal Waste Type Description Examples

Food, vegetables, tea leaves, egg shells,

Bio-degradable Degraded by micro-organisms
fruits

Cannot be degraded by micro- Polythene bags, Plaster of Paris, scrap

Non-bio-degradable
organisms materials
Industrial Waste Sources
Source Waste Generated

Nuclear Power Plants Radio-active wastes

Thermal Power Plants Flyash, hot water, unburnt fuel

Chemical Industries Large quantities of toxic chemicals, oxides, acids

Packing material, wood, scrap, oil, paint, dyes, lime, cement, rubber,
Other Industries
organic wastes, acids, alkalis

Methods of Disposal of Solid Waste

Method Description

Land Fill Spreading waste on land → compacts over few years → covered by soil

Incineration Waste reduced by burning → then disposed

Organic waste decomposed by ANAEROBIC bacterial activity → useful

Composting
fertilizer for plants and trees

🧪 Green Chemistry (Sustainable Chemistry)

Green Chemistry — 12 Principles
▶ 1. Prevention — Prevent waste rather than treat it
▶ 2. Atom Economy — Maximize incorporation of starting materials in final product
▶ 3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses
▶ 4. Designing Safer Chemicals
▶ 5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries
▶ 6. Design for Energy Efficiency
▶ 7. Use of Renewable Feedstock
▶ 8. Reduce Derivatives
▶ 9. Catalysis
▶ 10. Design for Degradation
▶ 11. Real-time Analysis for Pollution Prevention
▶ 12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention

📱 E-Waste
E-Waste — Key Points
 ▶ Old, end-of-life electronic appliances disposed by original users
▶ Includes: computers, laptops, TVs, DVDs, mobiles, mp3 players, servers, networking products
▶ Growing EXPONENTIALLY due to rapidly growing electronics markets and changing lifestyles
▶ Considered DANGEROUS: contains lead, cadmium, mercury, plastics
▶ Discarded equipment → can leach lead and other substances into soil and groundwater if
improperly disposed

E-Waste Disposal
Description
Method

Suitable for small/domestic e-waste; piled up and covered with domestic waste
Landfill
and soil

E-waste burnt in controlled environment; toxic gases/smoke released to

Incineration
atmosphere

Reuse Spares and components removed, modified and used for other applications

Important ingredients collected and sent to manufacturing companies

Recycle
producing similar components

2.8 Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) / OHSMS

OHSMS Definitions
ILO-OSH (2001): "A set of interrelated or interacting elements to establish OSH policy and objectives
and to achieve those objectives"
OHSAS 18001 (2007): "Part of an organisation's management system used to develop and
implement its OH&S policy and manage its OH&S risks"
OHSMS is a fundamental part of an organisation's RISK MANAGEMENT strategy

Benefit of Implementing OH&S

1. Helps implement OHS Management System

2. Helps identify OHS performance parameters

3. Identifies significant hazards and risks; helps protect employees and working environment

4. Protects workforce and others under organisation's control

5. Comply with legal requirements

6. Facilitate continual improvement

2.9 Environmental Protection Acts

EPA Background
 ▶ Environment Protection Act (EPA) introduced to make provisions for controlling pollution
▶ In 1980, Government of India established an independent department for environmental
awareness
▶ Prime function: generate environmental awareness to reduce pollution
▶ Ministry of Environment and Forest — Pollution control boards at central and state levels
▶ Comprehensive EPA enacted in 1986 to remedy lacunae in earlier laws — single legislation on the
subject

Act Year Objectives

Prevention and control of air pollution; Maintain air

Air (Prevention and Control of
1981 quality; Establish pollution control boards at various
Pollution) Act
levels

Water (Prevention and Control of Prevention and control of water pollution; Maintain water
1974
Pollution) Act quality; Establish pollution control boards

Maintain essential ecological processes and life

Wildlife Protection Act 1972 supporting systems; Preserve biodiversity; Protect
wildlife

Protection and conservation of forest; Ensure proper use

Forest Conservation Act 1980 of forest produce (timber, charcoal, oil, resin, lac, gum,
seeds, silk, sandalwood)

Table 2.9.1 — Environmental Laws Controlling Hazardous Substances

Legislation Description

Atomic Energy Act (Nuclear Regulatory Regulates nuclear energy production and nuclear waste
Commission) disposal

Clean Air Act (EPA) Regulates the emission of hazardous air pollutants

Regulates the discharge of hazardous pollutants into

Clean Water Act (EPA)
nation's surface water

Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Provides for the clean-up of inactive and abandoned
Compensation and Liability Act (Superfund)
hazardous waste sites
(EPA)

Regulates the manufacture, distribution and use of

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
pesticides and the conduct of research into their health
Act (EPA)
and environmental effects

Hazardous Materials Transportation Act Regulates the transportation of hazardous material

Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries

Regulates waste disposal at sea
Act (EPA)

Regulates hazards in the workplace, including worker

Occupational Safety and Health Act
exposure to hazardous substances

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Regulates hazardous waste generation, storage,
(EPA) transportation, treatment and disposal
 Legislation Description

Regulates contaminant levels in drinking water and the

Safe Drinking Water Act (EPA)
disposal of wastes into injection wells

Regulates the environmental aspects of mining

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
(particularly coal) and reclamation

Regulates the manufacture, use and disposal of chemical

Toxic Substance Control Act (EPA)
substances

🔬 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Definition
▶ "Procedure for ensuring that potential environmental effects of any new development/project are
considered BEFORE it is allowed to proceed"
▶ Also called Environmental Assessment (EA)
▶ Developer gathers information on likely environmental effects → evaluated → considered by
planning authority
▶ The collected information document = ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT (ES)
▶ ES is publicly available; submitted to planning authority with developer's planning application
▶ ES is responsibility of developer; in practice, consultants are employed

8 Stages of EIA — Flowchart

STEP 1: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Sufficient and clear description of project + location; enough info for planning authority to judge if EIA
is necessary
▼
STEP 2: SCREENING
Determine for a particular project whether an environmental assessment is necessary
▼
STEP 3: SCOPING
Direct EIA towards aspects of SPECIFIC IMPORTANCE; must clearly identify aspects requiring
detailed study; forms basis for impact prediction
▼
STEP 4: BASELINE STUDIES
Identify SIGNIFICANT environmental impacts to be assessed; follows scoping; provides: detailed
project description, project environs, social dimension
▼
STEP 5: IMPACT PREDICTION
Assess POTENTIAL environmental effects of aspects identified in scoping/baseline; difficult to predict
accurately; should involve detailed investigation by experienced consultants
 ▼
STEP 6: MITIGATION ASSESSMENT
Consider measures to ALLEVIATE or MINIMISE environmental effects; summarise recommendations
from analytical/predictive processes
▼
STEP 7: ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT
Developer places findings of EIA before planning authority; extent and detail determined by
characteristics and situation of project
▼
STEP 8: ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
Monitor environmental effects IF/WHEN project is approved to proceed; ESSENTIAL as foundation for
wider environmental regulation and auditing

Participants in EIA Process

Participant Role

Responsible for initiating and undertaking environmental assessment of

Developer
proposed development or project

Appointed by developer to conduct assessment and produce environmental

Specialist Consultants statement (landscape architects, environmental scientists, design architects,
engineers, planners)

Public body responsible for considering environmental effects of planning

Planning Authority
application

Secretary of State Involved in specific EIA decision-making situations

Public May raise issues and objections in publicly sensitive projects

Statutory and Other Countryside Commission, Nature Conservancy Council, Historic Buildings and
Consultees Monuments Commission etc.

Benefits of EIA
Benefit

1. Provides basis for better decision making in procurement of projects

2. Ensures potential environmental effects of proposals are fully considered

3. Allows formulation of projects within framework of greater safeguard and acceptability

4. Promotes greater interaction between developer and planning/approval authorities

5. Provides judgmental processes to be administered more systematically, timely and effectively

⚖️Salient Features of EPA 1986

Central Government Powers Under EPA 1986
 ▶ (i) Take all necessary measures for protecting quality of environment
▶ (ii) Co-ordinate actions of States, officers and other authorities
▶ (iii) Plan and execute nationwide programme for prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution
▶ (iv) Lay down standards for discharge of environmental pollutants
▶ (v) Empower any person to enter, inspect, take samples and test
▶ (vi) Establish or recognise environmental laboratories and appoint/recognise government analysts
▶ (vii) Lay down standards for quality of environment
▶ (viii) Restrict areas in which industries/operations may not be carried out (with safeguards)
▶ (ix) Lay down safeguards for prevention of accidents and remedial measures
▶ (x) Lay down procedures for handling hazardous substances
▶ (xi) Constitute an authority for exercising powers; issue directions including closure, prohibition or
regulation of industries
▶ (xii) Require persons to furnish prescribed information; delegate powers to state officers

Feature Details

Persons can complain to courts regarding violation of EPA provisions

Public Complaints
after 60-day notice to prescribed authorities

Person in charge of a place MUST inform prescribed authorities of any

Mandatory Reporting
accidental discharge exceeding prescribed standards

Authorities shall take remedial measures; costs recoverable WITH

Recovery of Costs
INTEREST from the polluter

Penalties Prescribes STRINGENT PENALTIES for violation of provisions

Civil Court Jurisdiction Jurisdiction of civil courts is BARRED under the Act
 TWO MARKS Q&A
Chapter 1 & 2 — All Questions from PDF

Chapter 1 — Two Marks Q&A

Q1. Define ecology or environment.
Ans: Environment = "the whole physical and biological system in which man and other organisms live".
Environmental studies involve every issue that affects living organisms.
Q2. Explain biotic and abiotic components of ecosystem.
Ans: Abiotic (non-living): Physical (sunlight, water, temp, soil) + Chemical (carbohydrates, proteins, N, P, K).
Biotic (living): Producers (autotrophs — green plants, first trophic level), Consumers
(herbivores/carnivores/omnivores), Decomposers (bacteria, fungi — responsible for nutrient recycling).
Q3. Define ecosystem. State its characteristics.
Ans: Ecosystem = community of different species interacting with each other and non-living environment,
exchanging energy to form a stable self-supporting system. Characteristics: (1) Structural and functional unit
of ecology; (2) Structure relates to species diversity; (3) Functions = energy flow + cycling; (4) Matures from
simple to complex.
Q4. Define natural resources and energy resources.
Ans: Natural Resources = variety of things, processes obtained from environment to satisfy human
needs/wants. Energy Resources = available as wood, solar, wind, coal, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear
fuels.
Q5. Explain the types of natural energy resources.
Ans: Renewable Resources: Regenerate through natural processes (forests, grasslands, wildlife, soil, water,
air). Non-Renewable Resources: Cannot regenerate; fixed quantity in earth's crust (coal, oil, natural gas,
iron, copper).
Q6. Mention the Ex-situ measures of conservation of biodiversity.
Ans: 1. Seed Banks/Gene Banks 2. Long-term captive breeding 3. Animal translocations 4. Tissue culture
banks 5. Cryopreservation of Gametes and Embryos 6. Botanical gardens 7. Zoological gardens
Q7. What is food chain?
Ans: Transfer of energy from the source in plants through series of organisms with repeated stages of eating
and being eaten.
Q8. Define ecology and ecosystem.
Ans: Ecology = study of earth's household including plants, animals, micro-organisms and people which live
together as interdependent. Ecosystem = community of different species interacting with each other,
exchanging energy to form a stable self-supporting system.
Q9. Define biodiversity.
Ans: Biodiversity = variety and variability of living organisms in a given assemblage.
Q10. What are endangered species? Give example.
Ans: When number of species of a particular type is reduced to a critical level, it is said to be
ENDANGERED. Examples: Tiger, Elephant, Sandalwood trees.
Q11. Write the classification of biodiversity.
Ans: 1. Genetic diversity 2. Species diversity 3. Ecosystem diversity
Q12. List out the types of land pollution.
Ans: 1. Solid waste 2. Pesticides and fertilizers 3. Chemicals 4. Deforestation
Q13. Define ecosystem diversity. (AU: Dec-16)
Ans: Ecosystem diversity incorporates both habitat and community diversity. Habitat = environment where
species lives (physical characteristics). Community = assemblage of populations in an area + their
interactions. Ecosystem = unique combination of plant, animal, microorganism communities + non-living
characteristics interacting as functional unit. Inherently includes BOTH biotic and abiotic components —
different from genetic and species diversity.
Q14. What do you understand by species biodiversity? Give one example. (AU: May-17)
Ans: Species diversity = number of different species of living things within an area. Members of one species
do not breed freely with members of other species (gene flow only within species under natural conditions).
Examples: Tiger, lion, teakwood, human being.

Chapter 2 — Two Marks Q&A

Q1. Define air pollution. What are various sources of air pollution?
Ans: Air pollution = undesirable contamination of gas, smoke, dust, fume, mist, odour or chemical
particulates in atmosphere injurious to humans, plants, animals. Sources: 1. Industrialization 2.
Urbanization 3. Vehicle emissions 4. Population growth. Industry exhaust contains poisonous
gases/hazardous effluents. Urban construction waste adds pollution. Vehicles emit CO, CO₂, Pb, SO₂,
unburnt hydrocarbons. Population growth generates garbage and increases food consumption.
Q2. Define ozone layer depletion. State its impact.
Ans: Ozone (O₃) in stratosphere (15-50 km) absorbs UV radiation. Depletion impacts: (1) Health — UV rays
→ skin cancer, blindness, reduced immunity. (2) Aquatic — kills lower fauna/flora, affects photosynthesis,
causes mutation. (3) Materials — degrades paint quality and plastics. (4) Climate — climate change, global
warming.
Q3. What is meant by chemical hazards?
Ans: Chemical hazards = natural and human-made chemicals in environment. Human-made: disinfectants,
pesticides, plastics. Natural: heavy metals (lead, mercury); some organisms produce natural chemicals that
are environmental hazards (peanuts/dairy compounds causing allergic reactions in humans).
Q4. Name any four air pollutants, their sources and effects.
Ans: CO (source: automobiles → effects: headaches/death); SO₂ (source: industries → effects: asthma/acid
rain); NO₂ (source: vehicle exhaust → effects: eye irritation/plant damage); Lead/Pb (source: leaded petrol
→ effects: mental retardation/cancer).
Q5. What is the role of individual in pollution prevention?
Ans: 1. Plant trees 2. Reduce use of wood/paper 3. Reuse materials 4. Avoid non-degradable items
(plastic bags) 5. Conserve water; implement rainwater harvesting.
Q6. Define acid rain. List any four impacts.
Ans: Acid rain = precipitation with pH lowered by SO₂ and NO₂ in atmosphere combining with moisture.
CO₂ makes rain slightly acidic naturally; SO₂ and NO₂ further lower pH. Impacts: (1) Corrosion of
limestone, sand, marble; (2) Affects forest tree population; (3) Acid rain + ozone damages leaf coating →
disease entry → weakens trees; (4) Changes soil characteristics → pollutes streams and lakes.
Q7. Define water pollution and give the sources.
Ans: Water pollution = alteration in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water making it
unsuitable for designated use. Sources: (1) Point sources — specific identifiable sites (industrial discharge,
factory stacks, municipal sewage); (2) Non-point sources — scattered and individually collect pollutants
(farm runoff, construction sites).
Q8. What do you mean by DO and BOD?
Ans: DO (Dissolved Oxygen) = amount of O₂ dissolved in given quantity of water at particular temperature
and atmospheric pressure. BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) = amount of DO required to aerobically
decompose biodegradable organic matter over a period of 5 DAYS at 20°C.
Q9. Name some acts enacted by Indian Government to protect the environment.
Ans: 1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 2. The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Cess Act 1977 3. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 4. The Environment
(Protection) Act 1986 5. The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991
Q10. What are the common objectives of Environmental Legislation?
Ans: 1. Control further damage to environment and ecosystem 2. Conserve environment 3. Restore
damaged environment (including reclamation of degraded land) 4. Create authorities to administer policy 5.
Provide penalties and prosecution for violations.
Q11. What are the objectives of water act?
Ans: 1. Prevention and control of water pollution 2. Maintain water quality 3. Establishing pollution control
boards.
Q12. List out the advantages of rain water harvesting.
Ans: 1. Increases groundwater table 2. Recharging improves water quality 3. Increases water availability
4. Minimizes local flooding and droughts 5. Helps eliminating desertification.
Q13. Define noise pollution.
Ans: Any unwanted, unpleasant sound causing discomfort to human beings. Measured in decibels (dB). Not
all noise = noise pollution; if irregular → termed "Nuisance". Physical form of pollution — not directly harmful
to air/soil/water but directly affects the human receiver.
Q14. Define pollution.
Ans: Excess discharge of any substance into the environment which adversely affects quality of
environment.
Q15. Define acid rain.
Ans: Formation of sulphuric acid (and other acids) due to atmospheric pollutants (SO₂, NO₂) combining with
oxygen, water and moisture in the atmosphere.
Q16. What is disaster management?
Ans: Management of natural calamities (earthquake, cyclones, landslides, flood) in efficient way to save
lives and materials.
Q17. Explain the term composting.
Ans: Process of converting organic waste material into fertilizer by ANAEROBIC bacterial activity.
Q18. What is zero discharge? Why is it not practical? (AU: May-14)
Ans: Zero discharge = when there is no measurable emission from a defined source. It is a
HYPOTHETICAL condition — not practical in most instances because most processes generate some level
of waste/emissions.
Q19. What are the major causes of earthquake?
Ans: 1. Volcanic eruptions causing disequilibrium 2. Tectonic activity associated with plate margins 3.
Seismic waves 4. Sudden movement of rock strata.
Q20/Q21. What is the role of individual in pollution prevention?
Ans: 1. Importance of plantation of trees 2. Reduce use of wood/paper from forests 3. Reuse various useful
materials 4. Avoid non-degradable items (plastic bags) 5. Conserve water; implement rainwater harvesting.
Q22. Give two examples of physical hazard.
Ans: "Factor in environment that can harm the body without necessarily touching it." Examples: Electricity,
radiation, pressure, noise, heights, vibration.
Q23. What is PAN? Give detrimental effects.
Ans: PAN = Peroxyacetyl Nitrate. Component of photochemical smog. Secondary pollutant; thermally
unstable; decomposes into peroxyethanoyl radicals + NO₂; lachrymatory substance; oxidant more stable
than ozone. Detrimental effects: Eye irritant; ozone + PAN → nose/throat irritation; headaches; chest pain;
cough; cracking of rubber; damage to plant life; corrosion of metals/stones/buildings/painted surfaces.
Q24. Write any two chemical hazards present in environment.
Ans: Human-made: disinfectants, pesticides, plastics. Natural: heavy metals lead and mercury; compounds
in peanuts/dairy causing allergic reactions in humans.
Q25. Write any four principles of green chemistry.
Ans: 1. Prevention 2. Atom economy 3. Less hazardous chemical syntheses 4. Designing safer chemicals
5. Safer solvents and auxiliaries 6. Design for energy efficiency
Q26. What are the characteristics of PAN?
Ans: 1. PAN (Peroxyacetyl nitrate) is a peroxyacyl nitrate — secondary pollutant present in photochemical
smog 2. Thermally unstable; decomposes into peroxyethanoyl radicals + nitrogen dioxide gas; lachrymatory
substance 3. PAN is an oxidant MORE STABLE than ozone.
Q27. Mention the effects of nuclear wastes in humans.
Ans: Hair loss (at 200+ rems); Brain — at 5000+ rems, nerve cells damaged → seizures/death; Blood — at
100 rems, lymphocyte count reduced → susceptible to infection; Heart — at 1000-5000 rems, damage to
blood vessels → heart failure; Gastrointestinal — radiation damage to intestinal lining → nausea, bloody
vomiting, diarrhoea.
Q28. How is a cyclone formed?
Ans: Warm moist air over warm ocean rises → low pressure area below → surrounding higher pressure air
rushes in → heats up/rises → cycle continues → water vapour forms clouds → whole system spins faster
and faster → EYE forms in centre (calm, clear, very low pressure) → higher pressure air from above flows
into eye → storm grows fed by ocean heat and evaporation.
Q29. What is particulate matter?
Ans: Sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air (many hazardous). Complex mixture including
organic and inorganic particles: dust, pollen, soot, smoke, liquid droplets. Vary greatly in size, composition,
origin. Formed by: direct emission (fuel burning, wind-blown dust) or indirectly when gaseous pollutants turn
into PM.
Q31. List some ways to protect soil.
Ans: 1. Control soil erosion by proper tree plantation 2. Properly treat and dump industrial/domestic wastes
3. Use natural fertilizers instead of synthetic 4. Educate people about soil pollution consequences.
Q32. List any four water quality parameters and their importance.
Ans: DO (Dissolved Oxygen) — indicates O₂ available for aquatic life; BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
— measures organic pollution level; pH — indicates acidity/alkalinity; Turbidity — indicates suspended
particles/clarity of water.