MACHINING SCIENCE

AND
METROLOGY
(BME402)
Course Coordinator
Sundaresh S
 SYLLABUS AND SCHEME
Course Code BME402 SEMESTER IV
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 3:0:2 CIE Marks 50
Total Number of Lecture Hours 40 hours of theory+ 10 Lab slots SEE Marks 50
Examination Pattern (SEE) Theory Exam Hours 03
Course objectives:
1. To enrich the knowledge pertaining to relative motion and mechanics required for various machine tools.
2. To introduce students to different machine tools to produce components having different shapes and sizes.
3. To develop the knowledge on mechanics of machining process and effect of various parameters on
machining.
4. To understand the basic principles of measurements
5. To enrich the knowledge pertaining to gauge, comparator, and angular measurement.
Preamble: Special purpose machines and processes are used to manufacture complex engineering parts
with high quality. Delivering innovative technologies that benefit the society.
Module – 1

Basics of Metal cutting: Orthogonal and oblique cutting. Mechanics of chip formation and its significance.
Analysis of orthogonal cutting- Determination of shear angle, shear strain, cutting velocity relationship,
forces acting on the cutting tool and their measurement, Merchant circle diagram. Numerical problems.
Metal cutting machine tools: Classification of machine tools, types of lathes, major parts of lathe machine
and various operations carried out on lathe, calculation of machining time. Turret and capstan lathes.
Basic types of cutting tools, geometry of single point cutting tool. (08 Hours)
Self-study: Accessories of lathe machine, chip breakers.
 Module – 2
Milling Machines: Up milling & down milling, classification of milling machines, various
Shapes produced on different milling operations, calculation of machining time. Types of milling cutters and
milling cutter nomenclature.
Milling indexing: Need of indexing Simple, compound and differential indexing. Numerical problems on
indexing.
Shaping, Slotting and Planning Machines Tools: Driving mechanisms of shaper, slotter and planer. Parts
produced on shaping and planning machines, calculation of machining time on shaping machine.
Drilling Machines: Classification, constructional features of radial drilling machine and drilling operations, types
of drill bits and drill bit nomenclature. Abrasive machining: Grinding wheel characteristics, types of grinding
operations, grinding wheel specification and selection.
Self-study: Construction of Column and Knee type and Vertical milling machine (08 Hours)

Self-study: Studies on Chip breakers.

 Module – 3
Finishing Processes: Principles of honing, lapping, super finishing, polishing and buffing.
Tool wear and Machinability: Temperature distribution in metal cutting, effect of cutting speed on
temperatures. Tool wear mechanisms, types of tool wear, tool-life criteria, affect tool life on cutting parameters
and factors affecting machinability of materials, numerical problems.
Cutting tool materials: Basic requirements of tool materials, major classes of tool materials. High-speed steel,
cemented carbide, ceramics, CBN and diamond cutting tools, tool coatings.
Cutting fluids: Functions, properties of cutting fluids and types of cutting fluids. (08 Hours)
Self-study: Non-conventional grinding operation.

Module – 4
Fundamentals of metrology & measurements, objectives and classification of metrology, standards of length-
wavelength standard, subdivision of standards, numerical problems on length calibration.
Line & End Standards: Line and end standard, slip gauges, wringing phenomena, numerical problems on slip
gauges.
Angular Measurements: Bevel protractor, sine bar, angular gauges, numerical on building of angles.
(08Hours)
Self-study Component: Case studies on static and dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments.
 Module – 5
Systems of Limits, Fits & Tolerance: Definition of tolerance, tolerance specification in assembly, limits of size,
Indian standards, concepts of limits of size and tolerances, cost v/s tolerances, compound tolerances,
accumulation of tolerances, definition of fits, types of fits and their designation.
Gauges: Classification of gauges, Taylor’s principle, design of GO, NO GO gauges, wear allowance on gauges,
types of gauges- plain plug gauges, ring gauges, snap gauge, limit gauge, simple problems.
Comparators: Introduction to comparators, classification, characteristics, systems of displacement amplification
in mechanical comparators, Reed type, Sigma comparator, Zeiss ultra-optimeter, Solex air gauge, ultrasonic
gauges, LVDT. (08 Hours)
Self-study Component: case studies on interchangeability and selective assembly.
 Practical Component of IPCC
1. Preparation of one model on lathe involving - Plain turning, Facing, Knurling, Drilling, Boring,
2. External/Internal Thread cuts and Eccentric turning.
3. Preparation of one model using a shaper- Cutting of V Groove/ dovetail / Rectangular groove.
4. Cutting of Gear Teeth using Milling Machine.
5. Preparation of one model on the drilling and grinding machine.
6. Study on chip formation in turning of mild steel by HSS tool with different depth of cut, speed,
and
feed rate.
1. Study & demonstration of power tools like power drill, power hacksaw, portable hand grinding
etc.,
used in Mechanical Engineering.
1. Demonstration/Experimentation of simple programming of CNC machine operations

1. To study the tool geometry of a single point turning tool (SPTT) in the American Standards
Association (ASA) system.
Course outcomes (Course Skill Set):
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
CO1: Apply the various machining processes to produce the variety of engineering products and compute the machining time for specific
operation.
CO2: Compute the various cutting forces using Merchant’s circle diagram.
CO3: Analyze effects of the various cutting parameters on the tool life and economics of machining.
CO4: Apply the scientific principles involved in length and angular measurements
CO5: Determine tolerance and dimensions involved in the design of limit gauges.

Reference Learning Materials:

Textbooks:
1. David A. Stephenson and John S. Agapiou, “Metal Cutting Theory and Practice” Third
Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, NY.
1. R.K. Jain, Engineering Metrology, Khanna Publishers 2009

Reference Books:
1. Geoffrey Boothroyd and Winston A. Knight., “Fundamental of Machining and
Machine Tools”, 3rd Edition, CRC Taylor & Francis, Fourth Indian reprint 2013.
1. Amitabha Ghosh and Asok Kumar Mallik, “Manufacturing Science”, Second Edition,

East-West press Pvt Ltd, Reprint 2019.

1. P.N. Rao, “Manufacturing Technology: Volume-2 (4e)”, McGraw Hill Education, 2019.
2. Beckwith, Mechanical Measurements Marangoni and Lienhard Pearson, Education 6th
Edition.
 PRINCIPLES MACHINING OR METAL CUTTING

➢A process of producing a workpiece by removing unwanted

material from block of metal, in the form of chip.

➢ Almost all the products get their final shape and size.

➢ Major drawback is loss of material.

Turning operation
General Characteristics of Metal cutting tool
 Rake angle
➢ Angle between the face of the tool called the rake face and the normal to the
machining direction.

➢ Specifies the ease with which a metal is cut.

➢ Higher the rake angle better is the cutting and less cutting force.
➢ Increasing the rake angle reduces the metal backup available
at tool rake face.

➢ Hence there is a maximum limit to the rake angle and is generally 15° for HSS
tools cutting Mild steel.
 Clearance angle
➢ Angle between the machined surface and underside of the tool.

➢ Provided such that the tool will not rub or spoil the machined surface.

➢ But increases the cutting forces

➢ Increasing the rake angle reduces the strength of the tool tip.

➢ Normally of the order 5 to 6°

The conditions which have a predominant influence on the metal cutting are:

1. Work material

2. Cutting tool material

3. Cutting tool geometry

4. Cutting Speed

5. Feed rate

6. Depth of cut

7. Cutting fluid
➢ Cutting speed: The speed with which the cutting tool moves through the
work material. Expressed in meters per second(m/s).

➢ Feed rate: The small relative movement per cycle(per revolution or per
stroke) of the cutting tool in a direction usually normal to the cutting speed
direction.

➢ Depth of Cut: The normal distance between the unmachined surface and
machined surface.
Methods of metal Cutting
Methods of Metal cutting
 CHIP FORMATION

➢ Fig. shows the basic material removal operation.

➢ The metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately

compressed first elastically and then plastically.

➢ This is zone is called shear zone, the material in the

final form is removed by shear from the parent metal.

➢ The actual separation of the metal starts from the cutting tool tip as yielding or
fracture.

➢ Then the deformed material(called chip) flows over the tool face.
 CHIP FORMATION
➢ If the friction between tool rake face and the
underside of the chip is considerable, then chip gets
further deformed which is termed secondary
deformation.
➢ The chip after sliding over the tool rake face would be
lifted away from the tool and resultant curvature of the
chip is called chip curl.
MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION
The form of chips is an important index of machining because it directly or
indirectly indicates

1. Nature and behavior of the work material under machining condition.

2. Specific energy requirement(amount of energy required remove unit
volume of work material) in machining work.
3. Nature and degree of interaction at chip-tool interface.
MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION

The form of chips depends mainly upon

1. Work material
2. Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
3. Levels of cutting velocity and feed rate and also some extent depth of cut
4. Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects the temperature and
friction and the chip-tool interface and work-tool interface.
CHIP FORMATION

A chip has two surfaces:

1. One that is in contact with the tool face(rake face). This surface is shiny,
or burnished.
2. The other from the original surface from work piece. This surface does not
come into contact with any solid body. It has a jagged, rough appearance
which is caused by shearing mechanism.
 TYPES OF CHIPS

Whatever the cutting conditions can be, the chips produced may belong to one of
the following three types:

1. Discontinuous chips

2. Continuous chips

3. Continuous chips with built up edge(BUE)

1. Discontinuous Chips
➢ During the formation of a chip, the material undergoes severe strain and if the
work material is brittle, fracture will occur in the primary deformation zone when
the chip is only partly formed with a crack propagating from the cutting edge to
the free surface.

➢ Under these conditions, the chip breaks into small segments in a cyclic manner
and the condition is referred to as discontinuous chip formation.
Discontinuous Chips

➢ Consists of segments that may be firmly or loosely attached to each other.

➢ Occurs when machining hard brittle material such as cast iron, bronze etc.

➢ Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane before any tangible plastic flow
occurs.

➢ Forms in brittle materials at low rake angle(large depth of cut)

Discontinuous Chips
➢ Discontinuous chips forms under the following conditions:

1. Brittle work piece materials

2. Very low or very high cutting speeds
3. Large depths of cut
4. Low rake angles
5. Work piece materials that contain hard inclusions and impurities or have
structures such as graphite flake in grey cast iron.

6. Lack of an effective cutting fluid

7. Low stiffness of the machine tool.
2. Continuous Chips
➢ Common in ductile materials such as
wrought iron, mild steel, copper & aluminum.
➢ Forms at relatively high cutting speeds.
➢ One of shearing the work material to form chip &
Sliding the chip along the face of the cutting tool.
➢ The chip remains in contact with the tool face for a
short distance before curling away.
➢ The formation of chip takes place in the zone extending from the tool cutting
edge to junction between the surfaces of the chip and the workpiece known as
primary shear zone.
Continuous Chips
➢ Continuous chips forms under the following conditions:

1. Ductile work piece materials

2. Very high cutting speeds

3. Small chip thickness(fine feed)

4. Large rake angles

5. Less friction between chip tool interface through efficient lubrication.

Continuous Chips

➢ Continuous chips are

1. More desirable since it is stable cutting resulting in good surface finish.

2. But difficult handle and dispose off

3. Coil in a helix(chip curl) and curl around the work and the tool and may
injure the operator when break loose.

4. In contact with the tool face for a longer period, resulting in more
frictional heat.
3. Continuous Chips with Built Up Edge(BUE)
➢ At relatively low cutting speeds, the friction between the chip and the tool is so
great that the chip material welds itself to the tool face.

➢ The presence of this weld material further increases the friction and this friction
leads to the building up of layer upon layer of chip material. The resulting pile of
material is referred to as a built-up edge.
Continuous Chips with Built Up Edge(BUE)
➢ Successive layers of work material are then added to the built-up edge.

➢ When the edge becomes larger and unstable, it breaks up and part of it is carried
up the face of the tool along with the chip while the remaining is left over the
surface being machined.

➢ Built up edge changes its size during the cutting operation.

➢ Adversely affects the surface finish in cutting.

➢ In effect, machining takes place with a blunt cutting edge an hence cutting forces
increases.
Continuous Chips with Built Up Edge(BUE)
➢ Usually occurs when machining ductile material at low cutting speeds.

➢ The size of the built-up edge tends to reduce as cutting speed is increased.

➢ The tendency for a BUE to form is reduced by any of the following practices:

a. Increasing the cutting speed

b. Decreasing the depth of cut.

c. Increasing the rake angle.

d. Using a sharp tool.

e. Using an effective cutting fluid.

SHEAR ZONE
There are TWO models to analyze metal removal process:

1. Thin shear-plane model

➢ The deformation is very thin and planar.

➢ Convenient from the stand point of analysis.

➢ Physically impossible to create because:

• For transition from undeformed material to deformed material one along a thin plane, the
acceleration across the plane has to be infinity, for the velocity to change instantaneously.
• Stress gradient across the shear plane has to be very large
2. Thick shear zone model

➢ The actual deformation zone is thick one with a fan shape.

➢ By marking the shear zone over a region, the transitions in velocities and the
shear stresses could be realistically accounted for.
 MECHANICS OF ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING
Following are the assumptions made:

1. The tool is perfectly sharp and has no contact along the clearance face.

2. The surface where shear is occurring is a plane.

3. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion and
generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.

4. The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread.

5. Uncut chip thickness is constant.

6. Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work.

7. A continuous chip is produced without any BUE.

8. Work moves with a uniform velocity.

9. The tresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.

MACHINE TOOLS
 MACHINE TOOLS
➢ One which while holding the cutting tools would be
able to remove metal from a work piece in order to
generate the requisite product of given size,
configuration and finish.
➢ Provides support to the workpiece and cutting tool
as well as provide motion to one or both of them.
MACHINE TOOLS
MACHINE TOOLS
MACHINE TOOLS
MACHINE TOOLS
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MACHINE TOOLS