PHYSICS COMPLETE NOTES-MID

TERM EXAMS

1) What are Significant Figures? (2 marks)

Significant figures are the digits in a measurement that show how accurate it is.
They include all certain digits plus the one estimated digit at the end.
Rules of Significant Figures (2 Marks – Easy Wording)
Rule 1: Non-Zero Digits
All non-zero digits (1–9) are always significant.
Example: 456 → 3 significant figures

Rule 2: Leading Zeros

Zeros at the beginning of a number (before non-zero digits) are not significant.
Example: 0.0045 → 2 significant figures

Rule 3: Captive (Sandwiched) Zeros

Zeros between two non-zero digits are always significant.
Example: 1002 → 4 significant figures

Rule 4: Trailing Zeros without Decimal

Zeros at the end of a number without decimal point are not significant.
Example: 150 → 2 significant figures

Rule 5: Trailing Zeros with Decimal

Zeros at the end of a number with decimal point are significant.
Example: 2.300 → 4 significant figures

Rule 6: Scientific Notation

In scientific notation, all digits before ×10 are significant.
Example: 6.40 × 10³ → 3 significant figures

Rule 7: Estimated Digit

In any measurement, the last digit on the right is estimated and is also
significant.

2) Errors and Their Types

What is an Error? (2 marks)
An error is the difference between the measured (experimental) value and the
true (accepted) value of a physical quantity.
It causes uncertainty in measurement, so the result may not be accurate.
[Lecture #3...asurements | PowerPoint]
Formula:
Error = Experimental Value – Accepted Value [Lecture #3...asurements |
PowerPoint]

Types of Errors (2 Marks)

There are two main types of errors:
1) Random Errors
These errors occur due to human mistakes, faulty technique or faulty
equipment.
They change from reading to reading (for example: starting stopwatch too early
or too late).
They can be reduced by taking many readings and calculating the average
(mean). [Lecture #3...asurements | PowerPoint]

2) Systematic Errors
These errors occur due to faulty instruments or wrong method of measurement.
They shift all readings in one direction (all values too high or too low). [Lecture
#3...asurements | PowerPoint]
Example:
 • Parallax error
• Zero error in measuring instruments [Lecture #3...asurements |
PowerPoint]

Zero Error (Short Point)

A special type of systematic error in which an instrument does not read zero
when no measurement is taken. [Lecture #3...asurements | PowerPoint]

3) Scalar Product, Vector Product and Commutative Law

Scalar Product (Dot Product)
The scalar product of two vectors is the product of their magnitudes and the
cosine of the angle between them.
Formula:
𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 =∣ 𝐴 ∣∣ 𝐵 ∣ cos⁡ 𝜃

Its result is always a scalar quantity (a number).

Vector Product (Cross Product)

The vector product of two vectors is the product of their magnitudes and the
sine of the angle between them.
Formula:
𝐴 × 𝐵 =∣ 𝐴 ∣∣ 𝐵 ∣ sin⁡ 𝜃

Its result is always a vector quantity whose direction is perpendicular to both

vectors.

Commutative Law
• Scalar product obeys commutative law:
𝐴 ⋅𝐵 = 𝐵⋅𝐴
 • Vector product does not obey commutative law:
𝐴×𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 ×𝐴

4) Momentum and Conservation of Momentum

Momentum
Momentum is the quantity of motion of a body.
It is equal to the product of mass and velocity of the object.
Formula:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Where:
• 𝑝= momentum
• 𝑚= mass
• 𝑣= velocity
Momentum is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

This law states that:
“The total momentum of a system remains constant if no external force acts
on it.”
This means momentum before collision is equal to momentum after collision.
Momentum before = Momentum after

Example
When two balls collide, the total momentum before collision is equal to the total
momentum after collision.
5) Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is the motion of an object which is thrown into the air at an
angle and moves under the action of gravity only.
Let an object be projected with initial velocity u at an angle θ with the
horizontal.
Horizontal component of velocity:
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢cos⁡ 𝜃

Vertical component of velocity:

𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢sin⁡𝜃

Derivation of Maximum Height (H)

At maximum height, the final vertical velocity becomes zero.
Using the equation of motion:
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

For vertical motion:

• 𝑣=0
• 𝑢 = 𝑢sin⁡ 𝜃
• 𝑎 = −𝑔
• 𝑠=𝐻
Putting values:
0 = (𝑢sin⁡𝜃)2 − 2𝑔𝐻

2𝑔𝐻 = 𝑢2 sin⁡2 𝜃

𝑢2 sin⁡2 𝜃
𝐻=
2𝑔
 This is the formula for Maximum Height.

Derivation of Range (R)

Time to reach maximum height:
𝑢sin⁡𝜃
𝑡=
𝑔

Total time of flight:

2𝑢sin⁡𝜃
𝑇 = 2𝑡 =
𝑔

Horizontal velocity remains constant:

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢cos⁡ 𝜃

Range = Horizontal velocity × Total time

2𝑢sin⁡𝜃
𝑅 = 𝑢cos⁡ 𝜃 ×
𝑔

2𝑢2 sin⁡𝜃cos⁡ 𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔

Using identity:
2sin⁡𝜃cos⁡ 𝜃 = sin⁡ 2𝜃

𝑢2 sin⁡ 2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔

6) Energy and Its Types (Derivation of Kinetic Energy)

Energy
Energy is the ability of a body to do work.

Types of Energy
There are two main types of mechanical energy:
1. Kinetic Energy (K.E)
The energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
2. Potential Energy (P.E)
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or height.

Derivation of Kinetic Energy (K.E)

Consider a body of mass m moving with velocity u.
Let a force F act on it and increase its velocity to v in distance s.
We know:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑊 =𝐹×𝑠

From Newton’s Second Law:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

So,
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 × 𝑠

Using equation of motion:

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2

Put value of as in work done:

 (𝑣 2−𝑢2 )
𝑊 =𝑚×
2

1
𝑊 = 𝑚(𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 )
2

If initial velocity 𝑢 = 0:
1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

This work done is called Kinetic Energy (K.E).

1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Hence proved.

7) Coulomb’s Law
Statement of Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law states that:
“The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional
to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.”

Explanation
Consider two point charges:
• 𝑞1and 𝑞2
• Separated by a distance 𝑟
According to Coulomb’s Law:
• Force increases when charges increase
 • Force decreases when distance increases

Mathematical Form
Force is directly proportional to product of charges:
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1𝑞2

Force is inversely proportional to square of distance:

1
𝐹∝
𝑟2

Combining both:
𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹∝
𝑟2

Removing proportionality:
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 =𝐾
𝑟2

Where:
• 𝐹= Electrostatic force
• 𝑞1 , 𝑞2= Charges
• 𝑟= Distance between charges
• 𝐾= Coulomb’s constant
𝐾 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

Nature of Force
• If both charges are same type → Force is repulsive
• If charges are opposite type → Force is attractive
 Conclusion
Hence, electrostatic force depends on the magnitude of charges and the distance
between them.

8) Electric Field and Electric Field Intensity due to Point and Multiple
Charges
9) Electric Field Intensity due to Ring of Charge
10) Electric field intensity due to disk of charge
11) Electric Dipole and Electric field due to dipole
12) Electric flux and gauss's law and its application
13) Electric Potential and Electric Potential due to a Dipole
14) Ampere's law and its application
15) Faraday's and Lenz's law
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law (with Derivation)
(Short – Easy English for 5 Marks Exam Style)

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Law states that:
“Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f is induced
in the coil.”
There are two laws of Faraday:

First Law
Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux through a coil, an induced e.m.f is
produced in the coil.

Second Law
The magnitude of induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.
𝑑Φ
𝑒∝
𝑑𝑡
Removing proportionality:
𝑑Φ
𝑒=−
𝑑𝑡

For a coil having N turns:

𝑑Φ
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

This is the mathematical form of Faraday’s Law.

Derivation of Faraday’s Law

Magnetic flux is given by:
Φ = 𝐵𝐴

Where:
• 𝐵= Magnetic field
• 𝐴= Area of coil
If magnetic flux changes with time, then induced e.m.f is produced.
From second law:
ΔΦ
𝑒∝
Δ𝑡

𝑑Φ
𝑒=−
𝑑𝑡

For N turns of coil:

𝑑Φ
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

This is the required expression of induced e.m.f.

 Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s Law states that:
“The direction of induced e.m.f or current is such that it always opposes the
cause which produces it.”
The negative sign in Faraday’s Law shows Lenz’s Law.
𝑑Φ
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

Explanation
If magnetic flux increases, the induced current will produce a magnetic field
that opposes the increase in flux.
If magnetic flux decreases, the induced current will produce a magnetic field
that opposes the decrease in flux.

Hence proved.