PREFACE

This book aims to bridge the gap between the mathematical treatment often used by the
specialist control engineer and the descriptive literature of a particular manufacturer.

It is written primarily for those with a general engineering background who have had
little experience in instrumentation and control.

The work favours marine engineering but students and engineers in other industries
should find it a useful book as the subject has a common basis. Text and examples
cover the requirements of Department for Transport (Maritime and Coastguard Agency)
for examinations as administered by the Scottish Qualifications Authority – and all
Business and Technician Education Council (BTEC) and SCOTVEC – syllabuses and
examinations for all marine engineer officers and cadets as defined by STCW 95 REG.
III/2 & 3. Requirements for content of B. Eng. in Marine Engineering are also covered.

Some examples are included for purposes of analysis and understanding and it should
be noted that although some represent long-established practices they can still be
found in service.

Full use has been made of simplified diagrams and the work is presented from basic
principles, using analogues where appropriate.

The introduction is followed by Chapters 1–5 on variable measurement in instrumentation.

Chapters 6–8 on telemetering, electronic devices and final controlling elements link
instrumentation to control. Chapters 9–14 cover theory, practice and components
of process and kinetic control systems. Chapters 15 and 16 are intended to develop
a broader knowledge of the subject and, by necessity, have a more analytic and
mathematical approach.

A selection of test examples are included at the end of each chapter and specimen
examination questions are added at the end of the book.

The reader should refer to manufacturers’ instruction manuals to obtain a full and
detailed description of a specific or particular component.

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 INTRODUCTION
Historical

Instrumentation has always been an integral part of technology. Development from

simple level indicators, Bourdon tubes, moving iron and moving coil meters, etc. has
been rapid. Progress in electrics and electronics has led to centralised recording and
display stations with associated data processing, computing and control systems.
Application to control with the requirement of accurate measuring (sensors), variable
converting (transducers) and remote signal transmission (telemetering) has involved
a close relation between measuring, processing and control systems. The advantage
of electrical signal transmission is apparent in the development of instrumentation.
Modular designs and interchangeable plug-in sub-assemblies have improved servicing
of electronic units. Digital operation has replaced analogue operation in many
applications.

The Watt governor (1788) was one of the first practical applications. Instability was
recognised in the nineteenth century in hunting of steam engine speed and ship
steering gears, and much analysis followed. Development in engineering plant and
bridge equipment is likely to remain in a state of continuous improvement.

The third quarter of the twentieth century saw more complex systems which were
mainly pneumatic and hydraulic, being replaced by development in electronics.
Accelerated progress in digital electronics meant that the final quarter of that century
saw the establishment of computer control.

These developments led to much greater unmanned operations of many shipboard

activities to the extent that prolonged operation of sophisticated vessels could not
be achieved with current manning levels without computer-based automation. They
have also enabled more sophisticated operations from entertainment systems, to
process plant control, survey processes, electric propulsion and dynamic positioning.

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 2 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Systems are generally classified by their field of operation. Process control such as
temperature, flow, level and pressure; kinetic control such as displacement, velocity
and acceleration, etc.

Utilisation

The degree of utilisation in marine practice varies a great deal. Individual control
loops, from simple to fairly complex, have been in use for many years. Centralised data
handling has been a relatively recent innovation. Ship’s controls have developed rapidly
with improved reliability. There are many links between localised instrumentation
and control, the centralised data handling system and an integrated central control
system. This requires that computer technology is involved in the interface between
measurement and control. Computer control has developed from small programmed
functions to quite sophisticated, direct, digitally controlled processes. A modern
computer can be programmed not only to control machinery under all conditions but
also to have start up, emergency and shutdown procedures.

Economy

Automation results in more efficient operation and reduced manpower in every case.
There is increased initial cost due to specialised equipment provision which leads
to increased insurance requirements and some increase in certain running costs, for
example, staff training, skilled maintenance, etc. Overall running costs are reduced
because of large cost savings in fuel and general maintenance, due to efficient
operation and close supervision, as well as staff reductions. The annual savings, taking
all factors into account, is well proven for controlled plants and the factor increases
with increasing size of plant and machinery.

Safety

In most cases safety is improved by monitoring and control.

Requirements for unmanned machinery spaces (UMS) are defined by surveying

societies.

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 Introduction • 3

Essential requirements for any UMS ship to sail at sea are enumerated in the SOLAS
1974 Chapter II-1, regulations 46 to regulation 53. The main points discussed in this
chapter are as follows:

1. Bridge control of propulsion machinery

The bridge watchkeeper must be able to take emergency control action. Control
and instrumentation must be as simple as possible.
2. Centralised control and instruments are required in machinery space
Engineers may be called to the machinery space in an emergency and controls
must be easily reached and fully comprehensive.
3. Automatic fire detection system
Arrangement should be provided on an UMS ship to detect and give alarm in case
of fire.
Alarm and detection system must operate very rapidly. Numerous well-sited and
quick-response detectors must be fitted.
4. Fire extinguishing system
In addition to conventional hand extinguishers a control fire station remote from
the machinery space is essential. The station must give control of emergency
pumps, generators, valves, ventilators, extinguishing media, etc.
5. Alarm system
A comprehensive machinery alarm system must be provided for control and
accommodation areas.
6. Automatic bilge high-level fluid alarms and pumping units
Sensing devices in bilges with alarms and hand or automatic pump cut in devices
must be provided.
7. Automatic start emergency generator
Such a generator is best connected to separate emergency bus bars. The primary
function is to give protection from electrical blackout conditions. Local hand
control of essential machinery. Adequate settling tank storage capacity. Regular
testing and maintenance of instrumentation.

Terminology

This topic involves a great deal of specialist technical language and so explanations
of specialised terminology appear in several places in the book. In this section some
general terms relating to control and instrumentation are introduced.

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 4 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The detecting element responds directly to the value of the variable. A measuring element
responds to the signal from the detecting element and gives a signal representing the
variable value. For example pressure (variable), Bourdon tube (detecting element) and
linkage pointer, scale, that is, pressure gauge (measuring element). The measuring unit
comprises detecting element and measuring element. Such a unit is used as a monitoring
element (to convert, when necessary, the actual variable value into a converted variable
value) of a process control system

Sensor is a term used for the detecting element. This is, by its very nature, essentially a
transducer.

Transducer is a device to convert a signal (representing a physical quantity) of one

form into a corresponding signal of another form, retaining the amplitude variations
of energy being converted. For example, a microphone is a sound transducer (acoustic
to electrical) and a loud speaker an electrical transducer (electrical to acoustic). A
transducer may be an integral part of the measuring unit, for example pressure to
displacement in a Bourdon pressure gauge. It may also be a separate unit converter
especially suitable to change the signal to a better form for remote transmissions, for
example, displacement to electrical in a differential transformer.

Telemetering may be defined as signal transmission over a considerable distance. In

measurement this involves information transfer from detecting element to a central
recording-display station. In control this involves control operating devices and related
signal transfers. In telemetering systems the measuring unit is often called the transmitter,
usually incorporating a transducer, and the recording unit some distance away is then
referred to as the receiver which may have an associated transducer if required.

The terminology involved further to the above and especially related to control
systems is now fairly extensive. Such terminology is covered in some detail at the start
of Chapter 9.

In this book, instrumentation is generally confined to dynamic systems related to

recording and control. Obviously the range is much wider if extended to include static-
laboratory type instrument devices.

Comparison of Systems

Systems, telemetering or control, may be either pneumatic, hydraulic, or electronic-

electric, or a combination.

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 Introduction • 5

Hydraulic systems are generally more restricted in application. Basically the technique
is as for pneumatics but fluid cannot be allowed to escape and a recovery-storage
system is required. General use is in the higher pressure range.

A combination of electronic measure-record instrumentation and pneumatic final

power control element is very effective. Controllers may be either pneumatic or
electronic. The former have generally been used because of proven reliability and ease
of application to final power transmission. Electronic controllers are increasingly being
used and electronic-electric systems have many obvious advantages.

The advantages of pneumatic systems are:

1. No heat generation and safe in an explosive atmosphere.

2. Less susceptible to power supply variation, but do have appreciable time lags.
3. Direct application, without transducers, to large final power actuators.
4. Immune to electrical interference.

The advantages of an electronic system are:

1. Small and adaptable with cheap flexible transmission lines.

2. No moving parts; can however generate heat.
3. Stable, generally accurate and very short time lags.
4. Low power consumption, direct application to computers, but often need final
element transducers.
5. Flexible, upgradeable and adaptable to innovation.

In every case equipment must be robust, reliable, interchangeable, simple and resistant
to the environment. Appropriate commissioning time should be applied and regular
skilled maintenance is required. Signal dc transmission is usually preferred although
ac signals are essential for certain variables and easy amplification of ac is an inherent
advantage.

Control Loops

An open loop system has no feedback and controller action is not related to final result.
Consider a domestic central heating system as an example, in which fuel supply is
varied manually or automatically by external ambient temperature. Room temperature

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 6 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

will be maintained at a reasonable value related to outside conditions. However room

temperature does not control fuel supply so that this is open loop.

Now to the open loop shown, add human operator, so closing the loop (dotted lines on
Figure 0.1). This is a manually controlled closed-loop system.

Power Power

Comparator
Regulator Sensor Sensor
System System
+
Input Output Input – Output
Actuating
Monitored
signal
output
Indicator Recorder

Open Closed

▲ Figure 0.1 Control loops

The automatically controlled closed-loop system is actuated by a signal dependent

upon deviation (error) between input (set) and output values. Deviation only exists
when monitored output (negative feedback) differs from input and this signal controls
power supplied to output. For a closed-loop system, as sketched, output power is
only controlled by, and not supplied by, the actuating signal. Closed loops have a self-
regulating property.

System

This may be regarded as an assembly of linked components within a boundary. A

system may have one input and a related output dependent on the effect of that
system (transfer function G).

θ0 θi

The boundary, represented as a ‘black box’, may include a complex system which need
not be analysed if G is provided. More complex systems have interconnecting links to
related systems. A system must have input, process, output and, in most systems, a
source of power and a means of control (Figure 0.2).

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 Introduction • 7

Control (Feedback)

Boundary
G
θ1 Process θ0
Input ‘black box’ Output

Power

▲ Figure 0.2 Systems

Analogue
Many different physical phenomena behave in a similar way, that is, are analogues of
each other. Two examples are air escape from a storage vessel and electrical charge loss
from a capacitor.

Rate of change of pressure α pressure

Rate of change of charge α voltage

That is, rate of change of variable x kkx

dx
= −kx
dt

A solution, where C is the x value when time is zero, is:

C
kt = ln
x

Voltage (or current) can readily be made analogous to physical phenomena.

The term analogue is therefore used to indicate systems where there is continuous
representation of a variable quantity. Most traditional gauges, meters and clocks are
in this category.

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 8 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Digital

A digital device manipulates ‘bits’, that is, discrete items of information – illustrated by
the digital clock representation. States are on/off, equal/unequal, etc. and the binary
digit system is utilised.

Computers

Electronic analogue computers are essentially simulators on which electrical analogues

of various systems can be analysed and illustrated.

The digital computer is a machine for routine, high-speed repetitive arithmetic.

Microprocessors and Microcomputers

First-generation mainframe computers (approx. room size) were often, for the same
capacity, replaced by minicomputers (say desk size) and in turn by microcomputers
(hand size and smaller) following the silicon chip and integrated circuit (IC)
development.

A microprocessor (μP) – component product – may be a single chip unit or a collection

of unassembled processor-related components such as central processor unit (CPU),
timers, memories, interfaces, etc.

A microcomputer (μCP) – board product – assembly of μP components mounted on a

printed circuit board is sufficient to make up a working computer.

Beside the microprocessor other critical functions are input/output buffers, random
access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM).

While the μP, consisting of arithmetic logic units plus sets of registers and control
circuits, cannot be used by itself to create a system it can, with support from a dedicated
controller or μCP. The μP is applied to Instrumentation and Control in the form of the
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) or microcontroller.

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 TEMPERATURE
1
MEASUREMENT
This chapter discusses the practical aspects of temperature measurement (thermometry).
No consideration is applied to absolute standards or to the consideration of special
techniques related to extreme temperatures, etc.

Mechanical Thermometry

Mechanical thermometry is the measurement of temperature using mechanical means.

The techniques are therefore well established.

Liquid in glass thermometers

Mercury can be used from −38°C (its freezing point) to about 600°C. For the higher
temperatures an inert gas at high pressure is introduced as the boiling point of mercury
is about 360°C at atmospheric pressure; special glass is also required.

Alcohol is used in the range −80°C to 70°C (or toluene) and pentane can be used to
−196°C.

Total immersion types are most accurate, especially when the fluid is coloured and
magnification is used. In many cases only the temperature differential is required so
that relatively low accuracy partial immersion types are often satisfactory.

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 10 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Health and safety concerns preclude the application of substances such as mercury
and toluene in most commercial applications.

Filled-system thermometers

These thermometers are filled with liquid, vapour or gas. All utilise a bulb, connecting
capillary and usually a Bourdon tube mechanism, responding to pressure change from
volume variation (liquid), for pointer or pen operation. Some systems incorporate
a compensating capillary and bourdon tube to allow for changes of ambient
temperature. Alternatively a bi-metallic link for compensation can be incorporated into
the mechanism.

A common type of liquid-filled system utilises mercury in steel which can be pressurised
for high temperature duty to 600°C. Such devices are most useful for remote sensing
and telemetering back to a central instrumentation panel. The capillary bore is about
0.02 mm and the scale is generally linear but calibration must allow for heat variation.
Power is sufficient for pointer, pen or transducer operation.

Vapour pressure thermometers commonly use freon, alcohol or ether which partly
fills the system as liquid, and the remainder is vapour filled. Measurement of vapour
pressure gives an indication of liquid surface temperature and is usually used in the
range −50°C to 260°C, with the upper limit fixed by the critical temperature of the liquid
which must have a low boiling point (high vapour pressure). The scale is non-linear;
ambient variations can be neglected but there can be appreciable time lags and the
device is not well suited to remote indication.

Gas-filled thermometers usually employ nitrogen or helium under high pressure;

pressure is proportional to absolute temperature at constant volume. The usual
temperature range is −50°C to 430°C and the scale is linear. Compensation for ambient
temperature variation is difficult. When used as a sensor linked to a pneumatic
transducer it is a very effective device.

Bi-metallic thermometers

The principle of operation of bi-metallic devices is that of differential expansion of two

different materials rigidly joined together, one on the other, as a strip of bi-metallic
material. Figure 1.1 illustrates a typical design usually employed between −40°C and
320°C. Invar (36% Ni, 64% Fe) has a low coefficient of expansion and when welded to

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 Temperature Measurement • 11

Pointer
Stopper Shaft

Bi-metallic
coil Dial

▲ Figure 1.1 Mechanical thermometer (bi-metallic type)

a Ni−Mo alloy gives a good bimetallic strip. The helix coils or uncoils with temperature
variation and as one end is fixed the movement rotates shaft and pointer. The range of
the instrument is fixed by the materials used.

Electrical Thermometry

Resistance thermometer

The electrical resistance of a metal varies with temperature and this relationship is
usually expressed as ρθ = ρ0 (1 + αθ), where ρθ is the specific resistance at temperature
θ°C, ρ0 is the specific resistance at temperature 0°C and α is a constant which depends
upon the metal and is called the temperature coefficient of resistance.

Figure 1.2 shows diagrammatically a resistance type of temperature measuring unit

using the well-known Wheatstone bridge principle. r1 r2 is a variable resistance used for
balance purposes; at balance we have:

R1 r1 R3 + r
=
R2 r2 R4 + r

r is the resistance of each of the wires and since each wire will be subjected to the same
temperature variation along its length their resistances will always be equal.

When the temperature detecting element is subjected to temperature alteration its

resistance alters and the bridge balance is upset. By using the variable resistor r1 r2
balance can be restored (i.e. galvanometer reading returned to zero) and while this

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 12 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

R1 R3

r
r1
r
r2 r R

R2
Detecting
element

Porcelain sheath

Platinum wires wound Low resistance

on ceramic former copper wires

▲ Figure 1.2 Resistance thermometer

is being done another pointer can be moved simultaneously and automatically to

give the temperature – this is known as the null balance method Alternatively, the
galvanometer can give the temperature reading directly, in this case no variable
resistance r1 r2 would be required.

For the measurement of ambient temperature conditions the resistances, apart from
the temperature measuring resistance, would have to be made of a metal whose
resistance does not vary with temperature. A metal which nearly fulfils this requirement
is constantan.

Resistance thermometers can be exceedingly accurate. Platinum is the most suitable

sensing wire element but copper and nickel wire are used in the range −100°C to
200°C and tungsten, molybdenum and tantalum are used to 1200°C, in protective
atmospheres. The platinum element usually has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0°C (hence
the term PT100), in which case resistance of wires is limited to about 3 ohms. Use up to
600°C with twin wires is often acceptable with the three-wire method used for higher
accuracy; measurement is by Wheatstone, Kelvin or Mueller bridges or potentiometric
methods.

Thermistor (Thermally sensitive resistor)

Thermistor or thermally sensitive resistor devices are among a second class of resistance
thermometers utilising elements made of semi-conducting material all of which have

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 Temperature Measurement • 13

a characteristic of a resistance change with temperature change. Included in this

category are carbon resistors and doped germanium units (see Figure 1.3).

Thermistors are made of semi-conducting materials manufactured by sintering (i.e.

heating under pressure) powder mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel,
cobalt, copper, iron or uranium. The size and configuration can be controlled so that
rods, beads, discs and washer shapes can be produced as desired. Figure 1.4 shows an
ellipsoid of thermistor material, with wires about 0.25 mm apart firmly embedded in
the material making good electrical contact. The whole assembly may be coated with
glass to give strength and protection.

Positive
Negative temperature
temperature coefficient
10 5 coefficient
Resistance (ohms) – log scale

104

10 3

10 2

101

50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (°C)

▲ Figure 1.3 Thermistor resistance to temperature characteristics

Sintered
thermistor material
Embedded in
thermistor material

Fine wires
about 0.25 mm apart
Protective
glass coating

▲ Figure 1.4 Thermistor bead

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 14 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Washer-shaped thermistors may be fitted over bolts or studs. Beads or rods of thermistor
material are suitable for use as probes.

The advantages of thermistors are as follows:

1. Relatively small and compact, the bead arrangement shown could have a diameter
up to 2.5 mm with a resistance up to about 100 megaohms.
2. Low specific heat, hence the thermistor does not take away too much heat.
3. Physically strong and rugged.
4. Relatively high temperature coefficient of resistance, it could be as high as ten
times that of some metals.
5. They can be used for extremely low temperature measurement with great
accuracy.

The mathematical relationship for thermistors is given by:

β( θ− θ
ρθ ρ0 eβ )
where ρθ is the specific resistance at temperature θ, ρ0 is the specific resistance at
temperature θ0 and β is a constant which depends upon the material used in the
construction (β ≃ 4000). The characteristic is shown in Figure 1.3.

The large negative temperature coefficient of resistance of NTC thermistors may be

explained by considering the number of electrons available for carrying current.

Few electrons are available at low temperatures, but as the temperature increases the
kinetic energy of the electrons increases and this enables them to move from inner
tightly bound orbitals to the outer conduction bands of the atom. With more free
electrons available to carry current the resistance to current flow reduces.

In metals, where there are many free electrons, increase in temperature leads to ‘traffic
jams’ of electrons and hence the resistance to current flow increases.

Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors have a less linear characteristic and
tend to be less suited to measurement applications. They may be configured to have
a ‘knee’ in their characteristic curve at a particular temperature. In the characteristic
shown in Figure 1.3 resistance increases rapidly at above 90°C so that detection of
temperatures likely to be damaging, to, say, thermoplastic insulators, is highly reliable.

The very high sensitivity, small size, and rapid response makes thermistors very useful
detecting devices particularly for use in computers and scanner installations. The
range is −100°C to 300°C but special compositions can extend this much further, as

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 Temperature Measurement • 15

high as 1600°C. The small thermal mass can lead to self-heating and coupled with high
sensitivity and exponential characteristic means instability must be carefully watched.
The thermistor merely replaces the resistance element on one limb of a bridge circuit
in the measuring unit.

Thermocouple

Whenever a junction formed between two dissimilar homogeneous materials is

exposed to a temperature difference, an emf will be generated which is dependent
on that temperature difference and also on the temperature level and the materials
involved. This thermoelectric emf is called the Seebeck effect (Seebeck discovered it in
1821) and is an algebraic sum of two other effects discovered by Peltier and Thomson.
The two materials, usually metals, form the thermocouple.

Figure 1.5 shows a thermocouple consisting of two wires, one iron and one constantan
(i.e. a copper–nickel alloy), with a millivoltmeter coupled to the iron wire. If the junctions
A and B are maintained at the same temperature no current will flow around the circuit
since the emfs in the circuit will be equal and opposite. If, however, A is heated to a
higher temperature than B then current will flow since the emf at one junction will be
greater than the opposing emf at the other junction.

A third wire can be introduced as shown in Figure 1.5, where AB and AC form the
couple wires. Providing the junctions B and C are maintained at the same temperature,
the introduction of the third wire BC will not affect the emf generated. Hence A will
be the hot junction and B with C will form the cold junction. Couple wires AB and AC
shown as iron and constantan respectively can be made of various metals and alloys,
the choice depending upon temperature of operation; the wire BC would generally
be longer than the couple wires and could be made of copper. Figure 1.5 shows the
device in detail.

In a practical thermocouple system the cold junction B and C may be at a relatively high
temperature due to the environment. This would mean that the temperature difference
between the hot and cold junctions would be small and therefore in millivolts. The
indicator itself could then become the cold junction if the wires from terminals B and
C to the indicators are of the same material, or material with similar characteristics, to
the couple wires. The wires are then called compensating wires and the cold junction
temperature would be reasonably constant if the indicator is within an air-conditioned
control room or immersed in a block of metal of large thermal capacity. Alternatively
cold junction compensation signal by separate means or bi-metallic instrument
components is arranged.

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 16 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

mV

Iron wire

Constantan
wire

A B

wire B
Iron
Copper
A wire
Con mV
stan
tan w
ire
C
Indicator

Ceramic
sheath

B
A Copper
C wires
Couple
wires Locking screw

Securing flange

▲ Figure 1.5 Thermocouple

A copper (+) constantan (−) couple is used up to about 350°C, constantan being a 40%
Ni 60% Cu alloy. Up to 850°C an iron-constantan couple is used with a chromel (90%
Ni 10% Cr) and alumel (94% Ni 2% Al) couple up to 1200°C. Average emf is 0.05 mV/°C,
which compares with about 18 mV/°C for a thermistor. Platinum–platinum plus 10%
rhodium couples have been used to 1400°C.

The emf generated is usually given by an expression of the form:

e A + Bθ Cθ 2 +Dθ 3 . . .

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 Temperature Measurement • 17

–5 V

Cold Y A
Hot mV

+5 V

▲ Figure 1.6 Electronic thermocouple

where θ is the temperature and A, B, C, D, are constants of diminishing order. Figure 1.6
shows an electronic thermocouple with operational amplifier (A) giving 0.1 V/°C. Y is for
calibration at cold junction temperature and X for other temperature calibrations.

Radiation pyrometers

When temperatures are above the practical range of thermocouples, or the ‘target’ is
not accessible, or an average temperature of a large surface is required then radiation
pyrometers are used. It is generally based on black body radiation and the work of
Stefan, Boltzmann and Planck with amended factors of emissivity to allow for variation
from the ideal black body radiator. Types of radiation pyrometers are optical, radiation
and two colour. The former will be considered.

Optical pyrometers

Referring to Figure 1.7, S is the source and rays enter lamp box L after passing through
the lens, aperture and absorption filter. The lamp is electric and current and voltage are
measured at G. Rays leaving L pass through a red filter, lens and aperture to eye E.

L E
S

▲ Figure 1.7 Optical pyrometer

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 18 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The device is often known as a disappearing filament unit. Both source and reference,
the latter being the filament of a small vacuum lamp, are observed through the
microscope. Power to the lamp is adjusted until the reference source disappears into
the main source. Power is calibrated to give a temperature reading directly. Correction
factors apply for the filters used and the device is a selective radiation pyrometer as only
a narrow band of radiation wavelength is utilised. Radiation pyrometry is particularly
useful for evaluation of temperature in furnaces, molten metals, process controls,
etc. Non-contact infrared measurement devices are used extensively for condition
monitoring and for fault finding in bearings, gearboxes and electrical plants.

Photo-electric pyrometers

There are three types of photo-electric cells: photo-emissive, photo-conductive and

photo-voltaic. Photo-voltaic pyrometers are discussed here.

Incident light falls on p-type silicon layered on to n-type silicon backed with a metallic
strip. The emf generated is measured, after calibration, by a galvanometer or self-
balancing potentiometer connected across the p-type and the backing.

Such pyrometers are best suited to measuring small radiation sources and are stable
and accurate with a very quick response time, which makes them suitable for distance
remote control systems.

Note: Many of the measuring devices for temperature considered previously, particularly
electrical types, could also be classified as telemetering or transmitting units as the
signal is readily conveyed over considerable distances to a remote measuring, recording
or display station. This applies in many cases to other such devices in the following
chapters. The detecting element (sensor) is inherently a transducer in operation for
many instrument units.

Test Examples

1. Describe, with the aid of simple sketches, three types of temperature measuring
devices. State how they are graduated and where they are used.
2. Sketch and describe an electrical instrument used for reading temperature at
a remote distance. State the usual temperature range and the materials used in
construction.

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 Temperature Measurement • 19

3. Explain with reasons how Wheatstone bridge networks are employed in circuits of
electrical resistance thermometers, explosive gas sampling devices, or any similar
application. Sketch the circuit for such a device indicating the function of the
Wheatstone bridge.
4. Sketch and describe a temperature measuring system employing a thermocouple.
5. Explain why an NTC thermistor is likely to be more useful as a measuring device
than a PTC thermistor.

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 2
PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
When a fluid is in contact with a boundary it exerts a force at right angles to that
boundary. This force is the pressure exerted by the fluid.

Force
Pressure = N/m2
Area

There are three categories of pressure:

1. Absolute pressure: Measurement of pressure related to a datum of absolute

(complete) vacuum.
2. Gauge pressure: Measurement of pressure related to a datum of local atmospheric
pressure.
3. Differential pressure: Measurement of the difference between two unknown
pressures neither of which is atmospheric nor complete vacuum.

Atmospheric Pressure

A barometer is an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. It is affected by

seasonal changes of temperature. Barometers are therefore used tor the measurement
of altitude and also as one of the aids in weather forecasting. The value of atmospheric
pressure will thus vary with climatic conditions, although not usually by more than
about 10% of standard atmospheric pressure.

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 Pressure Measurement • 21

Construction and principle of operation

A simple barometer consists of a glass tube, less than 1 m in length, sealed at one end,
filled with mercury and then inverted into a trough containing more mercury. Such a
barometer is shown in Figure 2.1 and it is seen that the level of the mercury column
falls leaving a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure acts on the surface of the mercury in the
trough and this pressure is equal to the pressure at the base of the mercury column in
the inverted tube, that is, the pressure of the atmosphere is supporting the column of
mercury. If the atmospheric pressure falls the barometer height h decreases. Similarly
if the atmospheric pressure rises then h increases. Thus atmospheric pressure can be
measured in terms of the height of the mercury column.

It may be shown that for mercury the height h is 760 mm at standard atmospheric
pressure, that is, a vertical column of mercury 760 mm high exerts pressure equal to the
standard value of atmospheric pressure.

There are thus several ways in which atmospheric pressure can be expressed:

Standard atmospheric pressure = 101 325 Pa or 101.325 kPa

= 101 325 N/m² or 101.325 kN/m²
= 1.01325 bars or 1013.25 mbars
= 760 mm of mercury

Pressure
source

Atmosphere

40

30

20 20 mm C

h1 h2
10
h3
B A
Water

(a) (b) (c) (d)

▲ Figure 2.1 Water manometer (U tube)

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 22 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pressure measurement methods

Liquid balance

The measured pressure is balanced by the pressure exerted by a column of liquid, for
example, a manometer.

Commonly used fluids are water for low pressure and mercury for higher pressure.

It is limited in use because of size:

1 bar = 750 mm Hg
1 bar 10 m water

It is useful for measuring low differential pressures, for example, the pressure drop
across a main engine air cooler or other fan pressures (see Figure 2.1). Absolute pressure
measurement: h1 mmHg

Gauge pressure measurement: h2 mmHg

Differential pressure measurement: h3 mmHg

Mercury Manometer

A well type mercury manometer is shown in Figure 2.2.

This instrument measures pressure of a higher order than that measured by the water
manometer, such as scavenge or supercharge air pressure for IC engines. The uniform
bore glass tube is small in diameter so that when mercury is displaced from the well
into the tube, the fall in level of mercury in the well is so small it can be neglected.
Hence the pressure reading is indicated directly by the level of mercury in the glass
tube. The relative density of mercury is 13.6 hence 1 mm of mercury is equivalent to
a pressure of 9.81 × 13.6 N/m2, that is, 134 N/m2 or 0.134 kN/m2. A special application
is the vacuum gauge (kenotometer), which is a combined barometer and manometer,
with the scale on the right hand side calibrated in absolute pressure.

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 Pressure Measurement • 23

To atmosphere

Retaining plug

Scale

Glass tube

Mercury

Filling plug

Joint

Drain plug

Pressure source

▲ Figure 2.2 Mercury manometer (well type)

Mercury Barometer
This instrument resembles the mercury manometer in Figure 2.2 but the top of the
glass tube is sealed at a vacuum and the pressure source would be the atmosphere.

If we assume the atmospheric pressure is supporting 760 mm of mercury in the tube, then:

Atmospheric pressure = 760 × 0.134

= 102 kN / m2
= 1.02×105 N / m2
= 1.02
02 bar

For an atmospheric pressure of 760 mm the equivalent water barometer would be

760 × 13.6, that is, 10336 mm or 10.336 m.

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 24 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The value of the atmospheric pressure varies slightly with climatic conditions. Hence to
ascertain true absolute pressures the barometer reading should be taken at the same
time as that of the gauge pressure.

If for example we wish to obtain the absolute pressure in a container and the readings
were:

Condenser gauge reading 742 mm

Barometer gauge reading 762 mm

then, condensed pressure is

=( − )× 0 ⋅134
= 2.68 kN
k / m2

Aneroid Barometer

The aneroid barometer is shown in Figure 2.3. It consists of a corrugated cylinder

(detecting element) made of phosphor bronze or other similar material, a steel spring,
bell crank, pointer, dial and case (measuring element). The corrugated cylinder is
completely evacuated and hence the pressure of the atmosphere tends to collapse
it. The centre of the corrugated cylinder deflects downwards if atmospheric pressure
increases and the spring causes deflection upwards if atmospheric pressure decreases.
Cylinder motion is transmitted to the instrument pointer.

Dial

Drum
Fine chain

Bell Spring
crank Return
spring

Corrugated cylinder
(evacuated)

▲ Figure 2.3 Aneroid barometer

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 Pressure Measurement • 25

Displacement of an Elastic
Sensing Element
Elastic sensing elements are, commonly, one of the following.

Bourdon tube

A pressure relay tube is the principal working component (detecting element). This tube
which is semi-elliptical in cross section is connected to the pressure source. When the tube
is subjected to a pressure increase it tends to unwind or straighten out and the motion
is transmitted to the gauge pointer through the linkage, quadrant and gear (measuring
element). If the tube is subjected to a pressure decrease it winds, or coils, up and the motion
is again transmitted to the pointer. This gauge is therefore suitable for measuring pressures
above or below atmospheric pressure. A diagrammatic sketch is shown in Figure 2.4.

Materials used in the construction of the gauge are solid drawn phosphor bronze
or stainless steel for the pressure relay tube. Bronze or stainless steel is used for the
quadrant, gear and linkage.

The Bourdon movement is frequently used in transducers and controllers to vary output
signals in pneumatic or electrical form.

Section A–A

A
Pressure
relay
Gear
tube
Quadrant

Link
Typical
unit

Pressure
source

▲ Figure 2.4 Pressure (or vacuum) gauge – bourdon

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 26 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pressure gauge (Schaffer)

This type utilises a strong flexible metal diaphragm (detecting element) which moves
up as pressure increases. The device is shown in Figure 2.5. Again this device can also be
used as a transducer (pneumatic or electric) in telemetering or control with an output
signal proportional to diaphragm movement. Similar remarks apply to most detecting
(sensing) devices (as detailed in Chapter 6).

Diaphragm

Pressure is measured as the amount of deformation of a flexible membrane.

A modified version of this is used when a general-purpose gauge is not suitable due to
the corrosive or viscous nature of the liquid being measured.

This type of gauge should not be used with liquids that solidify under normal conditions,
which would clog the gauge and may make it difficult to remove from the pipeline.

Bellows

Pressure is measured by the amount of elongation of a bellows.

Diaphragm

Pressure
source

▲ Figure 2.5 Pressure (or vacuum) gauge – Schaffer

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 Pressure Measurement • 27

The bellows is used extensively in pneumatic instrumentation for precise control and/
or fine movement

All pressure-measuring devices work on the force balance principle.

Measured pressure = Pressure exerted by a column of liquid

= Fo
orce exerted by an elastic membrane

Bellows

Differential Pressure Cell (D/P Cell)

Figure 2.5 illustrates a single diaphragm subject to differential pressure (D/P). The D/P
cell is often used in direct D/P recording as well as flow and level applications. The
detecting element of the cell is a bellows, or diaphragm, whose mechanical movement
is used to indicate, or transduced to, electrical or pneumatic signal output. Low pressure
will result in a slack diaphragm.

As an alternative to a one-membrane diaphragm, a sealed capsule (twin membrane)

can be inserted in the cell body and secured so that different pressures are applied
at each side. The capsule can be filled with a constant viscosity fluid (for a fairly wide
temperature range) which also damps oscillation. Silicone is such a fluid. Again
mechanical movement of the capsule is proportional to D/P. Capsule stacks are also
used.

Another type of D/P cell utilises two separate bellows. Such a design, often called a
Barton cell, is shown in Figure 2.6.

Pressure increase on the high-pressure side displaces liquid (via an adjustable damping
plug) and expands the right-hand low-pressure bellows. This bellows is connected to

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 28 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Damping
plug

pressure

pressure
High

Low
Output
displacement
signal

▲ Figure 2.6 Differential pressure cell

the horizontal spindle, one end of which has a flexure strip and the other end is fastened
to flat plate springs. Equilibrium exists when spring force equals D/P. Mechanical
travel is via the flexure strip, lower seal diaphragm and vertical spindles to indicator
or transducer. A bi-metallic strip adjusts bellows fluid capacity to allow for volumetric
expansion. This device is shown dotted within the left-hand bellows. The bellows are
often made of welded stainless steel discs and inner faces to protect it if excess pressure
is applied

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

Piezoelectric effect

When a force acts on certain crystals an electrostatic charge is formed on the surface of
the crystals. The charge is proportional to the applied force (Figure 2.7).

Crystals used are:

– Quartz (natural)
– Lithium sulphate (synthetic)
– Barium titanate (ceramic)

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 Pressure Measurement • 29

Unloaded Loaded
F
–––––––––– Negative charge
Si + o
+
– – –

+ –
– + + +

++ + + + + ++ Positive charge
F
Fx

Fx
+ + + + + +
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
+ + + + + +

+ + + + + + x n-discs
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
+ + + + + +

Fx
+
Ox –

▲ Figure 2.7 Piezoelectric crystals – crystal structure (simplified)

With certain solid crystals having an asymmetrical electric charge distribution, any
deformation of the crystal produces equal external unlike electric charges on the
opposite faces of the crystal. This is known as the piezoelectric effect.

Deformation of the crystal can be caused by pressure and the charges produced can be
measured by means of electrodes attached to the opposite surfaces of the crystal.

Crystal materials can be naturally occurring or man made. Quartz (i.e. SiO2) is a material
that can be used in temperature environment up to 550°C; it is stable mechanically
and thermally. Barium titanate, a ceramic produced commercially, is also used but
tourmaline is principally used because of its good electrical properties. The output
voltage from tourmaline crystal, acting as a detecting element (sensor) and transducer,
is a linear function of the pressure applied and the charge sensitivity is approximately
2 × 10−10 coulomb/bar; it can be used for pressures varying from 1.03 to 800 bar. The
only drawbacks are (1) its sensitivity to temperature change (i.e. its pyroelectric effect),
hence ideally it should be used only under controlled temperature conditions and (2) it
is more suited to pressure variations than to static pressure.

Figure 2.8 shows crystals in series and parallel. The series arrangement gives a higher
output voltage for the same pressure applied whereas the parallel arrangement reduces
output impedance and hence is a more stable system. Figure 2.9 is a commercial
piezoelectric sensor using tourmaline crystals in parallel; the sensor is small and is

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 30 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pressure causing opposite

charge build up at crystal
surfaces

+
+ + + + + +
Crystal Conductive
– – – – – – coating
–

+ +
+ + + + + +
– – – – – –
– – – + + +
+ + + – – –
+ + + + + +
– – – – – – – –

Crystals in parallel Crystals in series

▲ Figure 2.8 Piezoelectric crystals

12.5 mm Dia.

+
+
Insulation
–
Tourmaline –
discs (4) +

Steel strengthening plate

+
– –
–
+

▲ Figure 2.9 Piezoelectric sensor

coated with insulating material to help minimise the effects of temperature variation in
the medium whose pressure is being measured.

Pyroelectricity, like piezoelectricity, makes use of the spontaneous polarisation of

materials such as ferro-electrics. Temperature variations causing changes in polarisation
can be utilised in very accurate calorimetric recordings.

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 Pressure Measurement • 31

Design

Water Water
out in

Quartz
discs

Pressure

▲ Figure 2.10 Design of Piezoelectric transducer

Operation

The Piezoelectric transducer has to be used with what is known as a charge amplifier.
The Piezoelectric effect is static electricity and any measuring instrument will tend to
discharge the static charge.

A charge amplifier has high input impedance, which makes it, in effect, an open circuit
thus preventing discharge. The charge amplifier gives an output voltage proportional
to the input charge.

Piezoelectric transducers are used for measuring high pressures that are constantly
varying. They are not particularly suitable for measuring pressures that are static.
The devices lend themselves ideally for use in a diesel engine combustion pressure
measurement system.

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 32 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Strain Gauge
A strain gauge can be used to measure the elastic deformation of a material due to the
pressure acting on the material.

In the elastic range metals have a proportional relationship between stress (force or
pressure) and strain (elongation). When the stress acting on a material increases then
the material elongates with a corresponding decrease in cross-sectional area (Poisson’s
ratio). As resistance = ρ l/A (ρ = resistivity, l = length, A = cross-sectional area). Then
increasing stress, or pressure, gives a proportional increase in resistance. Common
materials for strain gauges are Nichrome (Nickel–Chromium) and Constantan (Copper–
Nickel).

Very fine wires are bonded to an insulator – usually an epoxy resin – and are then
securely bonded to the surface of the material that is deforming by the pressure. The
wire gauge deforms as much as the parent material and its change in resistance is
measured.

Typically the foil wire is about 4 μm (0.004 mm) thick and using the looped layout the
total length of wire is increased for the size of the sensor. This gives a greater resistance
and correspondingly greater changes in resistance. The wire is fixed to a flexible backing
material such as paper, resin or plastic which is glued to the surface under test; wires
are soldered or spot welded. One alternative is the foil type where the grid is etched
from thin metal foil using printed circuit techniques. Another alternative is a p or n
doped silicon semi-conductor which can be very small and is extremely sensitive. The
concept is shown in Figure 2.11.

The range is up to 700 bar with an accuracy of 0.01–1.0%. It can be temperature limited
due to the adverse effect on the bonding cement. A maximum temperature of 150°C
is typically quoted.

▲ Figure 2.11 The strain gauge concept

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 Pressure Measurement • 33

Design

Measurement
axis
Gauge alignment
Gauge length

marks

Transverse axis

Grid line

Grid area

Matrix or backing

End loops

Solder tabs

▲ Figure 2.12 Foil strain gauge terminology

Operation

Output
RG RD
signal

R R

▲ Figure 2.13 Operation of a strain gauge

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 34 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The strain gauge is typically used as one leg of a Wheatstone bridge arrangement with
a second (dummy) gauge used as a temperature compensator.

Uses

The strain gauge can be attached to practically any material and can measure the
pressure inside a vessel simply by detecting the deformation of the vessel shell. No
openings in the vessel are required therefore using a strain gauge for high-pressure
vessels means that no access to the vessel, and thus no weakening, occurs.

The unbonded strain gauge is essentially a pressure sensor and a typical design is
shown in Figure 2.14.

The detecting (sensing) element can be fastened directly to the diaphragm as shown,
or alternatively, a central force rod can transmit diaphragm movement to the detecting
(sensing) element consisting of plate springs with posts on the periphery upon which
the strain gauge wire is wound.

In all strain gauges, to minimise resistance change due to temperature effects, it is usual
to employ materials with a low temperature coefficient of resistance for the wire, such
as constantan. Alternatively a second compensating wire loop can be incorporated.

The measuring element for strain gauges is generally a Wheatstone bridge circuit with
temperature compensating resistance and strain gauge resistance arranged as two, of
the four, resistances and a central galvanometer and constant dc voltage source. Null

Wires to
measuring
element
Diaphragm with
strain gauges
attached

Pressure

About Strain
1 cm gauge

▲ Figure 2.14 Strain gauge pressure sensor

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 Pressure Measurement • 35

balance methods can also be used, or for high sensitivity the bridge may be fed by
ac voltage and the galvanometer replaced by a transistor amplifier and detector. The
measuring unit is effectively a transducer, that is, displacement-electrical.

Test Examples

1. Sketch and briefly describe three types of pressure-measuring devices.

2. Sketch and describe a Bourdon-type pressure gauge. State the materials used
in construction. Discuss briefly how the Bourdon movement can be utilised for
telemetering devices.
3. Describe, with the aid of a sketch, any type of D/P cell. Detail three applications in
instrumentation on using the D/P cell.
4. Explain the operation of a foil strain gauge and describe a bridge method to achieve
an output voltage proportional to the strain.

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 3
LEVEL
MEASUREMENT
Liquid-level sensors are usually classified under two headings: direct methods and
inferential methods.

Direct Methods

Float operated

The float is generally a hollow cylinder or ball working on direct action or displacement
principles. Level variation is transmitted by tape or wire and pulley or torque tube
(usually with counterweights fitted) to the indicator. High or low level alarm contacts
are easily arranged. Pulley movement can also be arranged to operate a contact arm
over an electrical resistance so varying current or voltage to indicator or receiver.

These instruments have been the main stay of the petroleum automatic tank gauging
market for most of the twentieth century.

Changes in the liquid level inside the tank raise or lower a large stainless steel float. The
float is attached to a powerful negator spring sometimes via a perforated tape. The
negator spring provides constant tension, which balances the float on the liquid level.
The perforated tape engages pins on a sprocket wheel that, in turn, drives the counter
assembly. The tape can be read locally or the reading transmitted to a control room.
This information can be further used to monitor stresses and strains on the ship while
cargo operations are ongoing.

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 Level Measurement • 37

Float gauges can accurately and continuously measure liquid levels in the refrigerated
tanks of liquefied gas carriers. The gauge can operate in tanks up to 50 m deep, and at
temperatures as low as –200°C.

When the gauge is not in use the float can be securely stored beneath the gauge head
using the lockup mechanism. A transmitter may be fitted to the unit allowing total
integration into the shipboard cargo and control system.

Sight glasses

Various types are in use depending on working conditions. The simple boiler water
glass gauge with toughened glass and the plate type of water gauge for high pressures
are typical.

Probe elements

Floatless types of level sensors can be arranged where the liquid is a conductor. Sensing
electrodes, rods or discs, vary electrical circuits when they are in contact with liquids.
A typical example is detection of the fluid level in a tank by capacitive techniques
(see Figure 3.1). This technique is used in oil–water interface detection in oil–water
separators (see Chapter 13 in this volume).

Detection of level is measured by variation of capacitance, which is accomplished by

alteration in dielectric strength. One plate of the capacitor is a probe, possibly made of
stainless steel, the other is the shell and both are connected to an ac bridge which is
supplied with high frequency, low voltage alternating current. As the interface moves
the dielectric strength (relative permittivity ɛT ) alters.

An approximate expression for the capacitance in an ac bridge circuit (Figure 3.1) is:

ε0[ h h ]
C=
2lln [ x r]

and since ɛr2 is approximately unity for air (ɛrl > 1)

ε0[ h h ]
C=
2lln [ x r]

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 38 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

h2 εr2

measure element
Output to
h1 εr1 ac
bridge
Probe

ac
supply

x 2r

▲ Figure 3.1 Level sensor (capacitive)

where ɛ0 is the permittivity of free space, ɛr is the relative permittivity, h1 is the head of
fluid being measured, h2 is the distance from fluid surface to tank top, 2r is the diameter
of the probe, x is the separation between the circular plates and ln is the natural
logarithm.

Inferential Methods

Pressure elements

The static-pressure method is extensively used.

ρ h

Where p is pressure, ρ density of fluid, g gravitational acceleration, h fluid head. Any of

the sensing and measuring devices described in Chapter 2 are therefore applicable to
level measurement. In particular a pressure gauge, calibrated in height units, is probably
the simplest indicator. Bellows or diaphragms are used with the pressure bulb located

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 Level Measurement • 39

inside or outside the vessel with suitable correction factors applied for correct datum
and density of fluid. The differential pressure cell is often used in level measurement.
Telemetering for remote reading is readily applied, pneumatically or electrically, to the
displacement movement of the level (pressure) sensor.

Manometer types

The static pressure equation is applicable and devices have been described in
Chapter 2. Three types of remote level indicators are now described.

For the Electroflo electrical type as sketched in Figure 3.2 the difference in level h is
directly proportional to the difference between the level of the liquid in the tank and a
datum. The transducer element contains resistances immersed in mercury to form an
electrical circuit with transmission to remote indicator receivers.

Figure 3.3 is a diagrammatic arrangement of the Igema remote water-level indicator.

The lower portion of the U tube contains a coloured indicating fluid which does not mix
with water and has a density greater than that of water.

The equilibrium condition for the gauge is H = h + ρx where ρ is the relative density of
the indicating fluid. H, h and x are variables.

p1 [>p2] p2

▲ Figure 3.2 Level sensor/transducer (resistive)

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 40 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Condenser
reservoir Weir

Water
level

h
H

Indicating fluid of
Strip light
relative density ρ
behind gauge

▲ Figure 3.3 Igema remote water level indicator

If the water level in the boiler falls, h will be reduced, x will be increased and H must
therefore be increased. The level of the water in the condenser reservoir is being
maintained by condensing steam.

If the water level in the boiler rises, h will be increased, x will be reduced and H must
therefore be reduced. Water will therefore flow over the weir in the condenser reservoir
in order to maintain the level constant.

A strip light is fitted behind the gauge which increases the brightness of the (red)
indicating fluid, which enables the operator to observe at a glance, from a considerable
distance, whether the gauge is full or empty.

Figure 3.4 is another type of remote water-level indicator. In this case the operating
fluid is the boiler water itself. The operation of the gauge is as follows.

If we consider a falling water level in the boiler, the pressure difference across the
diaphragm h will increase, causing the diaphragm to deflect downwards. This motion
of the diaphragm is transmitted by means of a linkage arrangement (see insert) to the

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 Level Measurement • 41

Condenser reservoir
Weir

Pressure difference
across diaphragm ‘h’
Water level in boiler

High-level electrical
contacts

Red Shutter
light Hinge

Glass Blue
gauge light Di
ap
hr Diaphragm
Shutter ag
Linkage m
Low-level electrical
contacts for audible Shutter linkage arrangement
and visual alarms Spring

Adjustment screw

▲ Figure 3.4 Remote water-level indicator

shutter which in turn moves down pivoting about its hinge, causing an increase in the
amount of (red) colour and a decrease in the amount of (blue) colour seen at the glass
gauge. It will be clearly understood that if the water level now rises then the (red) will
be reduced and the (blue) increased.

Separating the (blue) and (red) colours, which are distinctive and can clearly be seen
from a considerable distance, is a loose fitting black band which moves with the shutter,
giving a distinct separation of the two colours.

An adjustment screw and spring are provided to enable the difference in diaphragm
load to be adjusted. Hence correct positioning of the shutter and band in relation to
the reading of a glass water gauge fitted directly to the boiler is possible.

Both devices shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4 are also capable of being observed by closed
circuit television systems to extend the distance between transmission and reception.
Alternatively telemetering by pneumatic or electrical transmitters is readily arranged.
A D/P cell would be suitable for the former and any displacement transducer, such as a
differential transformer, could be used for the latter.

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 42 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Purge systems

For small air-flow rate, about one bubble per second, a pressure equal to that in the dip
tube will be applied to the indicator as shown in Figure 3.5. This simple bubbler device
is an arrangement that is similar to the pneumercator used for determining depths of
water and oil in tanks. Air supply to the open-ended pipe in the tank will have a pressure
which is directly proportional to the depth of liquid in the tank.

Gauge

Tank
Depth Air
Switch supply
cock

Vent

▲ Figure 3.5 Pneumercator level indicator

Ultrasonic and nucleonic devices

An ultrasonic transmitter and receiver (utilising piezoelectric crystals) are located above
the tank so that two echoes are received, one from the liquid surface and one from
the tank bottom. The time separation between the two signal echoes is proportional
to liquid depth – which can be displayed and measured by an oscilloscope or edge-
triggered digital timer.

Nucleonic units have a shielded radioactive strip source from which gamma radiation is
picked up by a detector on the opposite side of the storage vessel.

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 Level Measurement • 43

Non-contact Level Measurement

Radar tank gauging

Radar tank gauges are a ‘downward-looking measuring system’ installed on the tank
deck-head. Operating on the time-of-flight method, they measure the distance from
the reference point (process connection) to the product surface. Radar impulses are
emitted by an antenna, reflected off the product surface and received again by the
radar system. The distance to the product surface is proportional to the travel time
of the impulse. Due to the nature of the microwave, radar tank gauges need to be
equipped with functions to suppress interference echoes (e.g. from edges and weld
seams) in the tank so they are not interpreted as level measurement. Radar technology
is suitable for measuring a wide range of petroleum products with dielectric constants
of 1.4 and higher (Figure 3.6).

Integrated radar together with other devices, such as pressure or temperature sensors,
can be read locally and/or communicated to the cargo control room, providing a
completely integrated system on some modern instillations.

Advantages claimed for these installations are as follows:

Non-contact measurement: No moving parts hence low maintenance

High (±1 mm) accuracy

Level Temperature
transmitter sensor Upper deck Local display
unit

20°

Antenna SAAB Rader

axis transmitter

Transmitter
Inner bottom cleaning
hatch
Bottom shell

▲ Figure 3.6 Radar tank gauge system

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 44 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Intrinsically safe 2- or 4-wire, low-cost installation

Standalone instrument or integrated tank gauging system
Easy onsite operation via menu-driven alphanumeric display
Gas-tight process connection.

Tankers systems are usually hardwired for safety and security reasons.

Sometimes additional high-level alarms can be set lower than normal and this can be
used for topping off purposes as shown in Figure 3.7.

Omicron independent level alarm unit

Protective cap

Test lift button

Connection box

Cargo tank dome shell

Float switch arrangement

Float guide
High
Low-density float

Sensor switch

High

▲ Figure 3.7 High-level alarm system

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 Level Measurement • 45

Test Examples

1. Sketch and describe a distant-reading boiler water-level gauge. Explain its principle
of operation.
Give two ways in which the gauge would give incorrect readings. State the routine
maintenance necessary to ensure maximum reliability at all times.
2. Sketch and describe any type of level sensor. Discuss the modifications necessary
to utilise the device as a transmitter in a telemetering system.
3. Describe, with a sketch, an instrument used to indicate the level of liquid in a tank.
Can the result be used to determine pressure above a given datum? If so, state the
other variables likely to be involved.
4. Describe the arrangement of an air-purge tank system.

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 4
FLOW
MEASUREMENT
Many of the techniques utilised in flow measurement employ principles also used
in pressure and level measurements. Flowmeters are generally divided into two
fundamental types, that is, quantity meters and rate of flow meters; flowmeter generally
implies the latter.

Quantity Meters

These devices measure the quantity of fluid that has passed a certain point. No time is
involved. Types are usually classified as positive or semi-positive. A typical positive type
utilises the flow to drive a reciprocating piston and a counter is attached. The meter acts
like a conventional engine with fluid pressure supplying motive power. Stroke length
and cylinder dimensions fix the quantity delivered per cycle. Semi-positive types are
usually rotary. A form of gear pump, or eccentrically constrained rotor, can be used
which is driven by the fluid. Quantity is measured by number of rotations (cycles) and
fluid per cycle.

Rate of Flow Meters

Measure the velocity of fluid passing a certain point at a given instant. From this rate
of flow (quantity per unit time) can be determined from velocity multiplied by area

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 Flow Measurement • 47

of passage. They are therefore classified as inferential, that is, volume inferred from
velocity. There are two fundamental components of the rate of flow meter. The primary
element is that portion of the instrument which converts the quantity being measured
into a variable to operate the secondary element, for example, orifice and pressure
tappings from a venturi. The secondary element measures the variable created by the
primary element, for example, a differential pressure (D/P) cell.

Integrators
Quantity meters are more expensive and less suited to deal with large fluid quantities
than rate of flow meters. Rate of flow meters are often used as quantity meters by
fitting an integrator. As a simple example consider variable flow. The rate of flow
can be measured at set time intervals and a graph plotted, the area of which gives
quantity over the time period required. In practice this is performed mechanically or
electrically by an integrator. One type is based on the planimeter principle and another
type (escapement) utilises mid-ordinate techniques from a heart-shaped cam drive.
Flat-faced cam drive, or worm and wheel designs, can be used with a turbine wheel
or helix type of primary element having a counting mechanism secondary element,
incorporating the integrator to interpret quantity. The integrator is often included
within the receiving unit of telemetering systems and a typical device is illustrated
and described in Chapter 6. Integration is readily performed electrically by use of a
conventional watt-hour meter. It should be understood that integration is a general
instrumentation operation whose use is not restricted only to flowmeters.

Square Root Extraction

When inferential devices are used, with velocity sensors utilising D/P techniques, the
velocity is not directly proportional to pressure difference, or head. Velocity is related to
the square root of pressure, or head, that is, a curve of flow rate plotted against pressure,
or head, is of parabolic form.

This means that if a pressure difference is used in a sensor device connected to a

manometer or pointer through a linear mechanism, the rate of flow scale on the
manometer or traversed by the pointer would have to be a square root function. The
scale divisions would increase in square root increments for equal increments of flow
rate. From the aspect of display and continuous recording of flow rate the square root

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 48 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

characteristic is not an embarrassment. If, however, the D/P has to be used in a control
system the square root is usually extracted to give a signal which is directly proportional
to the fluid flow rate. Square root extraction is described later in this chapter under D/P
inferential devices. It is difficult to integrate readings of a system when the square root
extraction is not applied.

Inferential-Rotational
These can be considered as mechanical or electrical.

Mechanical-type flowmeter

Designs are usually of the ‘turbine wheel’ type with speed of rotation directly
proportional to linear flow velocity and, with area of passage fixed, the volume rate
is inferred. A wheel, fan or helix is inserted in the pipe or duct, mounted vertically or
horizontally, gear trains are used to interpret the movement. This is the principle of
vane anemometers.

Rotormeter

The measuring principle is illustrated in Figure 4.1 where the meter, of the duplex rotor
positive displacement type, is shown in three specific positions. This rotary flowmeter
operates on the displacement principle, the measuring system consisting of a casing
with two rotors. Bearing bushes are provided on either side of each rotor so that the
rotor runs clear of the casing and spindle in a radial direction. The rotor is located in an
axial direction by means of end bearings so that it runs clear of the bearing plates. Both
the end bearings and the spindle are fixed to the shaft while the bearing bushes are
fixed to the rotor and rotate relative to the end bearings and the shaft. Each rotor carries
a gear wheel at the rear through which the rotors are coupled together. The rotary
movement of the rotors is transmitted to the outgoing shaft of the meter through a
gearwheel fitted at the front of one of the rotors. Consider Figure 4.1.

In position ‘A’, the left-hand rotor is fully relieved from load while the liquid pressure
acts on one side of the right-hand rotor causing this rotor to rotate in clockwise
direction.

Since both rotors are coupled together through gears, the left-hand rotor will rotate in
an anti-clockwise direction.

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 Flow Measurement • 49

(a) Fluid in (b)

Rotor
Surface contact
seal between
rotor and casing
Metering
chamber Rotor
Fluid out

Stainless steel cap

(c)
Inner magnet

Permanent Outer magnet

magnet
coupling

Outgoing shaft
of rotormeter

▲ Figure 4.1 Flowmeter (mechanical)

In position ‘B’, the liquid in the displacement chamber is pressed by the right-hand rotor
to the outlet.

In position ‘C’, the right-hand rotor is entirely relieved from load while the liquid pressure
now acts on one side of the left-hand rotor so that it takes over the task of the right-
hand rotor.

To reduce leakage losses to a minimum, it is essential to provide for effective sealing

between inlet and outlet. To this end, the rotors seal off against the casing by surface
contact.

In the rotormeter, the motion of the rotors is transmitted to the external parts by
the attraction between two permanent magnets, an inner and outer magnet. The
maximum torque transmitted by this system is 0.4 Nm. This arrangement offers the
following practical advantages.

Leakproof transmission, which means that it is impossible for corrosive or hazardous

liquids to leave the meter.

Protection of attached parts or instruments. If the mechanism of external parts or

instruments should be blocked for whatever reason, the permanent magnetic coupling
will slip, thus avoiding any damage to the instruments.

Although the torque to be transmitted by the magnets may vary with the external parts
or the type of instrument used, it will rarely exceed a value of 0.05 Nm with the meter

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 50 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

running at constant speed. Hence, at ambient temperature the magnetic coupling has
an eight-fold safety margin which will, in most instances, be amply sufficient to take
accelerations and decelerations (which are the most frequent operating conditions)
without slipping of the coupling.

Although the torque transmitted by the magnets decreases with rising temperature,
experience has shown that even with a liquid temperature of up to 250°C the available
torque is still amply sufficient.

Electrical-type flowmeter

One type utilises rotating vanes with a small magnet attached to one vane and a coil in
the pipe wall. The electrical impulse can be counted on a digital tachometer calibrated
in flow rate. The design now described has no moving parts.

Electro-magnetic flowmeter

This type is shown in Figure 4.2. The principle utilised is that of a moving conductor (the
liquid) in a magnetic field generating a potential difference. In the simple arrangement
shown, the two electro-magnets are supplied with current (ac is preferred to dc to
reduce polarisation of the dielectric). There are two sensor electrodes. If B is the flux
density of the field, v, velocity of flow, d, pipe diameter, then in suitable units the emf
generated at any instant is given by:

Electrodes

S N

Electro-magnets

Fluid flow Pipe carrying

conductive fluid

▲ Figure 4.2 Flowmeter (electrical) rotameter

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 Flow Measurement • 51

e Bvd

For constant B and d, e is directly proportional to v.

This type does not strictly fit into the classifications given but a brief description is
appropriate at this stage. A sketch is given in Figure 4.3.

This is a variable-area meter. A long taper tube is graduated on its vertical axis. The
float moves freely in the tube and by an arrangement of shaped flutes in the float it
slowly rotates. As flow rate increases the float rises in the tube, so that the annular area
increases, which means that the D/P across the tube is at a constant value. The float can
be arranged with a magnet attachment and a follower magnet outside will transmit
motion to a pointer via linkage if required.

Float stop

Rate of flow
scale
Flow

Glass tube

Float

▲ Figure 4.3 Rotameter

Inferential-Differential Pressure

Primary elements

The orifice and the venturi will be described and these are mainly used although flow
nozzles and special inserts, such as a Dall tube, are also employed. Figure 4.4 shows

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 52 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Orifice plate
Vena contracta

Flow

p1 > p2
p1 p2

Venturi tube
Flow
1 2
v2
v1

Throat

p1 p2

▲ Figure 4.4 Flow sensors

both the orifice plate and venturi sensors using energy conversion to produce a
pressure difference which can be utilised by the secondary element to provide a signal
for direct reading, telemetering or control.

Using the venturi flow sensor as an example the theory involved is as follows:

Assuming unit mass, and energy at points 1 and 2 being the same, that is, neglecting
friction and shock losses as small, then from Bernoulli for incompressible flow of fluid
of density ρ:

KE at 1+ PE att 1= KE at 2 + PE at 2
v + p1 / ρ = 21 v 22 + p2 / ρ
1 2
2 1 (a)

where KE is kinetic and PE is pressure energy.

The equation for continuity of flow for area A is:

v1 A1 = v 2 A2 (b)

By substituting for v2 from (b) in (a) and using mass flow rate ṁ as equal to ρv1A1 it can
be shown that

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 Flow Measurement • 53


m k p

where p is the pressure difference (p1 – p2) and k is a meter constant in terms of areas
and density, which includes a discharge coefficient factor. Frictional losses are greater
for orifice than for venturi meters. Seal pots protect sensor leads.

Secondary elements

Any D/P device can be used as a secondary element including the manometer,
diaphragm and D/P cell as described in Chapter 2. The measure scale will be non-
linear for direct recorders due to the square root relation and telemetering, control
and integration will be generally unsatisfactory unless a correcting unit is fitted. When
manometers are used various compensations can be used. The simple manometer can
utilise a curved measuring limb and the well-type manometer can be arranged with a
shaped chamber or may include a parallel tube and a shaped displacer. Other direct
measuring devices utilise a cam incorporated in the mechanism, an example is the
ring balance. In the electrical resistive sensor described in Chapter 3 (Figure 3.2), when
used for flow measurement, the electrode tips immersed in mercury are arranged in
a parabolic curve with each other which gives the compensation. Three flow sensor
square root extraction devices are now considered in more detail.

Square root extractors

Figure 4.5 is one type of square root extractor using a parabola shaped bell which
can be connected through linkage to mechanical, pneumatic or electrical display and
control systems.

The D/P is applied with the high pressure inside and the low pressure outside the bell.

With its changing cross-sectional area and buoyancy, due to change in D/P, the bell
movement is made to be directly proportional to the square root of the D/P. Hence
the bell movement is directly proportional to the fluid flow being sensed by the orifice
plate or venturi sensor.

This device is often called a Ledoux Bell. For air flow measurement, instead of the bell
being shaped, a shaped displacer is arranged in a separate chamber. The displacer is
connected to rise with the bell. Such a device is used for measuring steam and air flow,
and for controlling steam/air flow ratio, the characteristic is linear.

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 54 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Low
pressure

Gland

Linkage

Special
shaped bell

Mercury

High
pressure

▲ Figure 4.5 Square root extractor (mechanical)

Figure 4.6 is a diagrammatic sketch of another type of square root extractor utilising
the pneumatic flapper nozzle position balance principle (as described in Chapter 6).

Refer to Figure 4.6. The D/P from a flow sensor acts on a horizontal lever B, this effects
the amount of air escaping from the nozzle and hence the pressure in the bellows.
Pressure alteration in the bellows causes movement of the vertical lever A. The very
small relative motion between levers A and B provides square root extraction. The
output air signal is directed to the measure element (recorder) or controller.

Figure 4.7 shows a square root extraction technique using electrical force balance (as
described in Chapter 6). The D/P, in electrical signal form represented as variable x
input, is applied to the left-hand side. With the force balance beam in equilibrium
the output signal is variable √x. Variation in input signal, causing unbalance, can be
arranged to be re-balanced by suitable adjustment to output signal. This can be done
in various ways; one method could be to connect the right hand of the beam to a
differential capacitor in the output circuit (see Figure 6.6). This is a closed loop but
without electrical connection between input detected signal and output measured
signal. The force balance system is a simple analogue computer – output can also be
easily arranged for squaring, summing, etc., by suitable wiring combinations.

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 Flow Measurement • 55

Output air to
recorder or
controller

Relay
Bellows
and pivot
Air supplied
Lever ‘A’
at 2.05 bar
approx

Spring

Nozzle
Vane
Lever ‘B’ with pivot

Lever movement
caused by differential
pressure

▲ Figure 4.6 Square root extractor (pneumatic)

Force balance beam

x
Pivot
x

Magnet

▲ Figure 4.7 Square root extractor (electrical)

Figure 4.8 shows two arrangements of flow sensor/transducer units, each with square
root extraction. For the pneumatic system the valves marked A, B and C would be
used in the sequence, open B, close A and C, when taking the D/P transmitter out of
operation. This valve sequence would also apply to the electric system.

With steam flow measurement, the pressure tappings from the flow sensor are led to
cooling reservoirs wherein the steam condenses. Water only then acts on the square
root eliminator or recorder thus preventing damage.

The pneumatic system would utilise square root extraction as shown in Figure 4.6 (the
technique shown in Figure 4.5 could also be used).

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 56 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Orifice plate

Flow

A B C

Differential
pressure
transmitter
Filter
Output air
pressure 1.2 Air
to 2.05 bar. to supply
receiver

Flow

Differential
pressure
Recorder,
transmitter
indicator and
Amplifier controller

50 Hz supply

▲ Figure 4.8 Flow sensors/transducers

The electrical system can utilise mechanical movement (from a device such as
Figure 4.5) as shown to give square root extraction. Variation of the position of the
soft iron core of the inductor unit governs output signal to the amplifier. Alternatively
direct signals to the amplifier can be taken from electrical devices shown in Figures 3.2
and 4.7.

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 Flow Measurement • 57

Ultrasonic and Nucleonic

Ultrasonic flowmeters utilise an oscillator transmitter and receiver timer to measure

apparent sound velocity in the fluid, which is proportional to the velocity of the fluid,
across a diametral path inclined at an angle with the flow direction. Calibration is
required to allow for the velocity profile.

Nuclear types employ a radioactive tracer injected into the fluid to measure the flow
time, for a known volume, between two points by two detectors and a recorder. Normal
protection against ionising radiation is required for the sample measure.

Test Examples

1. Sketch the apparatus and describe the method of measuring steam flow through a
pipe.
Explain why results obtained using this apparatus may differ from theoretical
results.
2. Describe, utilising a sketch, any type of flowmeter. For inferential types of device
how is the measured variable related to flow rate?
3. Inferential flowmeter devices using differential pressure techniques for velocity
sensing exhibit non-linear characteristics. Discuss these characteristics and describe
a device to restore linear characteristic to measure or control output signal.
4. Sketch an orifice plate installation showing the flow pattern and pressure variation.
To what is the flow rate proportional?

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 5
OTHER
MEASUREMENTS
Advances in various technical areas have enabled development of new sensor designs
and data handling methods. It is likely that this process will continue at a pace with
systems based on substances such as graphene and the application of nanotechnology.
However, this chapter attempts to discuss measurements which are available but have
not yet been covered by earlier chapters.

Speed-Tachogenerator

The dc tachogenerator is a small precision generator driven by the shaft whose

rotational speed is required. Output voltage is directly proportional to speed. The
tacho is best geared to run at maximum speed so giving maximum output signal and
improved signal to noise ratio.

When used as a tachometer in measuring systems the output voltage from the
tachogenerator is measured on a conventional voltmeter calibrated in terms of
rotational speed.

Mechanical type tachometers are based on centrifugal action, linked to produce

lateral travel.

A conventional ac generator for use as a tachogenerator or tachometer is generally

not satisfactory because frequency (and phase) as well as voltage amplitude are
proportional to speed of rotation. In this case a ‘drag-cup’ device is used. The rotor is a

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 Other Measurements • 59

thin aluminium cup rotating around a fixed iron core. The stator is wound with two coils
at right angles, one ac supply the other ac output. With the cup stationary there will
be no output as the windings are at right angles. An emf is induced with cup rotation,
due to cutting of flux of supply winding. This links with the output winding so giving
a signal proportional to rotational speed; frequency and phase being that of input
signal. The device can be used for rate of change detection. With dc supply at constant
speed no emf is induced in the output coils but angular acceleration or deceleration
induces a voltage proportional to this change in the output coils. A ‘velocity voltage’
applied to a differentiation (rate of change) circuit (CR series) will give a voltage across
the resistor which is approximately proportional to acceleration (especially with a
small time constant). Electronic amplifiers configured as differentiators are used to
improve accuracy. Alternatively as force is proportional to acceleration a simple spring
accelerometer can be used.

A digital tachometer (counter) is shown in Figure 5.1.

As the (ferrous) toothed wheel rotates each tooth alters the air gap and flux in a pick
up coil (P) whose output pulses are amplified (A). Pulses pass through a timing gate
(G), with a, say, a one-second opening period, and are counted on a digital counter (D)
which scales (related to number of number per revolution) and displays as revolutions
per second.

1 2 3 G

dc

▲ Figure 5.1 Digital tachometer

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 60 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Torque-Power

Indicated power can be measured by a conventional mechanical indicator although

modern practice is tending towards digital display techniques with integration for
power. Shaft power of engines is measured by a torsionmeter in conjunction with a
tachometer (power proportional to product of torque and rotational speed). Specific
fuel consumption is readily achieved from these readings with a flowmeter calibration
for fuel consumption. Various types of torsionmeter are available but those giving a
continuous reading are usually of the electrical type. One design in common use is
based on differential transformer operation (Chapter 6) which is illustrated in Figure G
of the specimen questions at the end of the book. Another design is based on magnetic
stress sensitivity and is termed a torque inductor – torductor – and is now described.

The torductor is, as the name implies, a torque inductor, it is a stress transducer that is
eminently suited to the measuring of torque in rotating shafts. It gives a high power
output and requires no slip rings or other shaft attachments since it operates without
any contact. Figure 5.2 shows a ring torductor. It consists of one primary ring which
carries four poles, marked N, S, that is supplied with (50 Hz) alternating current. Two
outer secondary rings have four poles each, arranged at 45° to the primaries, all of
which are connected in series with mutually reversed windings.

No contact exists between the poles and the shaft, there being a 2–3 mm air gap
provided to ensure this.

When no torque is applied to the shaft there are no stresses in the shaft and the magnetic
fields between NS poles induced in the shaft will be symmetrical, the equipotential
lines are then situated symmetrically under the secondary poles S1, S2, as shown and
secondary flux and voltage will then be zero.

When a torque is being transmitted the equipotential lines form an asymmetrical

pattern, as shown, due to the mutually perpendicular unlike stresses, acting at 45° to the
shaft axis, causing increased permeability in one direction and decreased permeability
at 90° in the other direction. This causes the S1 pole to become magnetically slightly
positive and the S2 pole slightly negative.

The output from the secondaries of the ring torductor is of the order of a few milliwatts,
which is large enough to be used without any amplification. If this signal is now married
to a speed signal, from a tachogenerator perhaps, then the power being developed
could be displayed directly on one dial.

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 Other Measurements • 61

Output from
secondary
windings to
recorder Windings
X
T

S
N

S
X View XX
50 Hz supply
to primary
windings

N
N

S2 S1 S2 S1

Equipotential S
lines- S
when zero torque Equipotential lines-
and stress when transmitting
torque

▲ Figure 5.2 Ring torductor

Viscometer

Newton investigated the viscosity of fluids and postulated, for most fluids under
prescribed conditions, that flow rate is proportional to applied stress, more exactly that
applied shear stress is proportional to velocity gradient.

F dv
=η
A dx

where η is a constant called the coefficient of viscosity. Applying this equation to the
case of flow through a small-bore tube of radius r and length l gives:

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 62 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Gear pump High-pressure Low-pressure

suction connection connection

Outlet

Capillary
Gear
pump

Oil inlet

▲ Figure 5.3 Operational arrangement of the sensor

π pr 4
η=
8lV&

For a constant flow rate (V ):

η = p × a constant

where p is differential pressure (D/P).

Figure 5.3 shows the operational arrangement of the sensor element of a viscometer
(see Figure 12.12). A small gear pump driven at constant speed, by an electric motor
through a reduction gear, forces a constant fluid quantity from the housing through a
small-bore tube (capillary). Fluid flows through the capillary without turbulence, that
is, streamlined (laminar) flow prevails and D/P is proportional to viscosity of fluid. The
D/P can be measured by any of the means previously described. The device, within a
control system, is described in Chapter 13 (Figure 13.19).

Photo-Electric Cells

Photo-conductive cells are constructed with a thin layer of semi-conductor material

and their resistance varies with the incident light energy. They are used as sensors in

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 Other Measurements • 63

many situations such as oil–water content, smoke density, oil mist, flame indicator, etc.
detection as described later in this chapter.

Photo-emissive cells rely on light energy to release electrons from a metallic cathode.

If visible light, which is radiation and hence energy, falls upon certain alkali metals –
such as caesium – electrons will be emitted from the surface of the metal. Metals
in general exhibit this characteristic, but for most materials the light required has a
threshold wavelength in the ultraviolet region so that visible light does not cause
electron emission.

Light energy comes in packages called photons and the energy of the photons is used
in doing work to remove the electrons and to give the electrons kinetic energy after
escape from the metal.

Figure 5.4 shows a simple photocell; visible light falls on the metal cathode from which
electrons are emitted, they collect at the anode and in this way create a potential V
which can then be amplified and used for alarms and control, etc.

In the vacuum cell all current is carried by photo electrons to the positive anode. In the
gas-filled cell emitted electrons ionise the gas, producing further electrons, so giving
amplification. Secondary-emission (photo-multiplier) cells utilise a series of increasingly
positive anodes and give high amplification.

Photo-transistors exhibit similar characteristics and small size and high amplification
make their use particularly attractive especially when applied to counting systems, that
is, digital tachometry. This device is shown in Figure 5.5. Optical focus incident light on
the base increases the base current, hence collector current and output voltage falls.
This device is discussed further in Chapter 7.

Cathode

Electrons

Anode Light

▲ Figure 5.4 Photocell

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 64 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

–6 V

Output
0V

▲ Figure 5.5 Photo-transistor

Oil in Water Sensor

A useful application of photocells is in detection of oil–water interface (as an alternative

to the method described in Chapters 3 and 13). Fluid passing through glass is exposed
to long wavelength light from an ultra-violet lamp, which causes fluorescence if oil
particles are present. This light can be detected by the secondary element photocell unit
which produces a signal for amplification. The amount of fluorescent light is dependent
on the amount of oil in the oil–water mixture and this affects the amount of visible light
detected by the photocell. An ultrasonic beam between piezoelectrical crystals across
the interface is also used, sometimes utilising beam reflection or refraction across the
interface.

Smoke Density Detector

For fire warning and exhaust gas indication a photocell in conjunction with an amplifier
and alarm or indicator is used. Three types are in use: operated by light scatter, by light
obscuration and by a combination of the two.

A light scatter photocell separated from a semi-conductor intermittently flashing

light source is shown in Figure 5.6. The housing enclosure allows smoke but not light
inside. With smoke present in the container, light is scattered around the barrier on to
the photocell and an alarm is triggered. The light obscuration type is used in oil mist
detection for IC engine crankcases and the combination type is used for detection in
CO2 flooding systems.

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 Other Measurements • 65

Neon lamp

Standard base

Alarm and
control
circuit

Barrier

Flashing lamp

Photo electric Enclosure

cell (Allows smoke to enter
but not light)

▲ Figure 5.6 Smoke density detector

Oil Mist Detector

The photocells of Figure 5.7 are normally in a state of electric balance, that is, measure
and reference tube mist content in equilibrium. Out of balance current due to rise of
crankcase mist density can be arranged to indicate on a galvanometer which can be
connected to continuous chart recording and auto visual or audible alarms.

The suction fan draws a large volume of slow moving oil–air vapour mixture in turn
from various crankcase selection points. Oil mist near the lower critical density region

Photo
cells Rotating
Reference
tube selector valve

Fan Lamp

Lens Measuring Sampling

tube pipes
Adjustable
mirrors Alarms

▲ Figure 5.7 Crankcase oil mist detector

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 66 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

has a very high optical density. The alarm is normally arranged to operate at 2.5% of
the lower critical point, that is, assuming 50 mg/l as the lower explosive limit then the
warning will be at 1.25 mg/l.

pH Sensor
The pH value of a solution is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration in the solution. Its value ranges between 0 and 14; neutrality being 7
anything from 7 to 14 is alkaline and from 0 to 7 is acidic. pH measurement and control
is extremely important, being primarily used for feed water analysis.

The method of pH measurement is by means of a conductivity cell consisting of two

electrodes and a temperature sensor; pH value varies with temperature hence it is

Screened cable
Insulating material

Platinum wire

Mercury
Glass
Potassium chloride solution (Saturated)
Mercurous chloride (Calomel
and potassium chloride paster)
Porous Plugs

Reference electrode

Glass stem

Silver/silver chloride electrode

Buffer solution of constant pH

(SAY 0-1N KC1)
Thin walled glass bulb (membrane)
Measuring electrode

▲ Figure 5.8 pH sensor

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 Other Measurements • 67

important that this be controlled by means of a sensor/compensator. One of the

electrodes is a reference electrode which has a fixed potential irrespective of the
variation of hydrogen ion concentration of the solution. The other electrode produces
a potential dependent mainly upon the difference in hydrogen ion concentrations
between the buffer solution and the solution whose pH has to be measured (across the
membrane). In this way the potential difference between the glass measuring electrode
and reference electrode is a measure of the pH value of the solution. Electrodes, with
sensor/compensator, are inserted in the fluid flow path.

Figure 5.8 shows the two types of electrode used in the conductivity cell.

Heat (Fire) Detector

Detector heads are generally one of three types. At a set heat (temperature) condition
the increasing pressure on the bulb-type pneumatic diaphragm closes electrical alarm
contacts; increased differential temperature on the bi-metallic type activates alarms;
increased heat fractures a quartzoid bulb (containing a highly expansive fluid) releasing
the water sprinkler supply and pressure alarm. A simple fire detection-alarm circuit is
shown in Figure 5.9.

Battery
charger

Battery
Inverter
Zone (for dc ac)
indicators Audible alarms

Zone
on/off Alarm off switch
switches
System failure alarm
Supply
1 3 4 2 System test switch

From zones

Circuit for a zone

Detector heads

▲ Figure 5.9 Fire detection – alarm circuit

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 68 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Flame Detector

Figure 5.10 illustrates the infrared type of device. Flame has a characteristic flicker
frequency of about 25 Hz and use is made of this fact to trigger an alarm. Flickering
radiation from flames reaches the detector lens/filter unit, which only allows infrared
rays to pass and be focused upon the cell. The signal from the cell goes into the selective
amplifier, which is tuned to 25 Hz, then into a time delay unit (to minimise incidence
of false alarms, fire has to be present for a pre-determined period), trigger and alarm
circuits.

Neon lamp

Standard base

Time delay
unit

Amplifier and
frequency
unit tuned
to 25 Hz Photo-electric cell

Lens/filter

▲ Figure 5.10 Flame detector

Gas Explosion – Detector Meter

The instrument illustrated in Figure 5.11 is first charged with fresh air from the
atmosphere using the rubber aspirator bulb (A). On-off switch (S2) is closed together
with check switch (S1) and the compensatory filament (C) and detector filament (D) are
allowed to reach steady state working temperature. The zero adjustment rheostat (F)
can now be adjusted so that galvanometer (G) reads zero. Voltage is adjustable from
battery (B) by the rheostat (E). Switch S2 is now opened.

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 Other Measurements • 69

Filter
Gas
sample inlet Atmos.
A

C D
Combustion chamber
(aluminum die casting)

S1

F
E
S2
B

▲ Figure 5.11 Gas explosion – detector meter

The instrument is now charged from the suspect gas space and while operating the
bulb, the switch S2 is again closed. If a flammable or explosive gas is present it will cause
the detector filament to increase in temperature. This disturbs the bridge balance and
a current flows. Galvanometer G can be calibrated so that the scale is marked to read ‘%
of Lower Limit of Explosive Concentration of Gas’.

An alternative design has two ionising chambers, one reference (air) and the other
sample, each containing a radioactive ionising source. Combustion particles when
ionised are more bulky and less mobile than normal gas molecules so they are
readily neutralised. This results in higher resistance and voltage change at the sample
chamber – which activates alarms.

Gas Analysis

For detailed gas analysis an Orsat apparatus is used. However, a number of measurements
require to be continuously recorded. Two representative examples can be considered:
an oxygen analyser and a carbon dioxide analyser.

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 70 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Oxygen analyser

Gases can generally be classified as either diamagnetic or paramagnetic, the former

seek the weakest part of a magnetic field and the latter the strongest. Most of the
common gases are diamagnetic but oxygen is paramagnetic and use is made of this in
the oxygen analyser shown in Figure 5.12.

Two platinum wire resistances are heated by current from an ac bridge and the gas
to be measured enters the resistance chamber via a diffuser. One of the resistance
wires is placed in a magnetic field hence oxygen is drawn towards this resistance, thus
convection currents are set up around this resistance which is then cooled relatively
to the other resistance. The bridge is then unbalanced; the amount of unbalance is a
measure of the oxygen content and this is displayed on the galvanometer.

ac supply

% O2

Platinum wire
resistances
Magnetic
field

Baffle
Diffuser

Gas in Gas out

▲ Figure 5.12 Oxygen analyser

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 Other Measurements • 71

CO2 analyser

Refer Figure 5.13. Approximate thermal conductivities are in proportion:

CO2 =1
1 H2 O 1, CO = 4 , O2 N2 = 2

The sample enters via a filter and drier; water vapour is removed as it has the same
conductivity as CO2. The wire cell resistance is proportional to heat dissipation,
proportional to thermal conductivity of gas in the cell, proportional therefore to CO2
content. Air is used in the reference cell. Thus the only difference between gas sample
and air, from the thermal conductivity viewpoint is CO2 (as H2O removed and O2 and N2
have the same value). This assumes no CO or H2; if these are present (normally only very
small proportions) they will be registered as CO2 unless the sample is first passed over
a burner and these two gases burned off before the reading.

Thus the Wheatstone bridge electrical unbalance is dependent on CO2 content and the
unbalance electrical current is measured by the potentiometer.

Chemical absorption and mechanical types are also used.

To ac supply
Volts
compensating
coil
ll

M
ce

ea
ce

su
en

rin
To ac potentiometer

er

g
ce
ef
R

ll
Range
adjustment
rheostat

Temperature
compensating
coil
Zero
adjustment
rheostat

▲ Figure 5.13 Thermal conductivity type CO2 recorder

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 72 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Relative Humidity

A hair element will react to changes of humidity and provide a linear movement, with
negligible force, which can be converted to electrical or pneumatic signal and amplified
as required.

Water Analysis

The measurement of pH has been considered previously. Two other measurements are
commonly required, that is, electrical conductivity meter for dissolved solid assessment
and dissolved oxygen meter.

‘Dionic’ water purity meter

Specific conductivity mho/cm3 is the conductance of a column of mercury 1 cm2

cross-sectional area and 1 cm long. This is a large unit and micromho/cm3 (reciprocal
megohm) is used and when corrected to 20°C is called a dionic unit. Conductivity
of pure distilled water is about 0.5, fresh water about 500 dionic units. The sensor,
shown in Figure 5.14, measures conductivity of two water columns in parallel, that is,
between positive platinum rings and negative gunmetal collars. The insulating plunger,
operated by bi-metallic strip, varies cross-sectional area for automatic correction to
20°C. The measurement is by conventional ohmeter. The device should be used with
de-gassifying units to avoid errors due to occlusion of carbon dioxide.

Dissolved oxygen meter

The unit is shown in Figure 5.15. The sample water flows via a chamber which surrounds
the katharometer (Wheatstone bridge circuit) and receives pure hydrogen. Some
hydrogen is taken into solution and this releases some dissolved oxygen (in air). This
mixture passes to the atmosphere across one side of the bridge while the other side
is in pure hydrogen. The cooling effect differs on the two sides of the katharometer,
depending on air (oxygen) present, and resultant unbalance current operates indicator
or recorder calibrated directly in ppm oxygen. For very low oxygen content it is often
necessary to utilise an electro-chemical cell in place of this meter.

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 Other Measurements • 73

Temperature compensator
bi-metal strips Insulating plunger to vary the water
cross section automatically by
temperature compensator in or out
Gun metal casing to give automatic correction to 20°C
connected to negative

Insulating tube Platinum electrode

wire ring (positive)

Insulating tube

Insulating tube Platinum electrode

wire ring (positive)

Gun metal casing

connected to negative Flow of sample
(water)

▲ Figure 5.14 Dionic water purity meter

Sampled water
Oxygen
meter

Cooling
Cooling coil + To dc
water H2 + O2 –
H2
Constant
head
device

Orifice Hydrogen from

H2 local generator cell
Water

Drain Scrubbing
chamber

▲ Figure 5.15 Dissolved oxygen meter

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 74 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Hall Effect Sensor

The Hall effect sensor is a semi-conductor crystal that produces a voltage output
proportional to the presence and direction of magnetic flux. Applications include
measurement of shaft speed as shown in Figure 5.16. Here the ouput voltage will be an
ac signal whose frequency is directly proportional to shaft speed.

Hall effect sensors are also used for dc current measurement where the jaws of a clamp
meter (tong tester) are clamped around a cable. The magnetic field around the cable is
proportional to the current to be measured and the instrument will produce an output
proportional to the flux.

Hall
S S effect VOUT
sensor

▲ Figure 5.16 Hall effect sensor

Other Encoders

Various other methods exist for measurement of speed or position on rotating shafts
and for measurement of linear position. Besides the Hall effect, encoders use inductive,
capacitive and optical techniques.

Accuracy is enhanced by means of using multiple tracks with optical sensors as shown
in Figure 5.17. The tracks are arranged such that each of the 16 segments has a unique
binary value. Standard codes such as Gray code or Angular Pure Binary are used both
for position measurement and to achieve useful resolution at high shaft speeds.

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 Other Measurements • 75

15

0
1

▲ Figure 5.17 Optical sensors

Mass Air-Flow Measurement

Although akin to flow measurement, this technique measures the mass of air flow as
opposed to volume. This is essential for optimal performance of fuel injected engines.

There are two common methods, both of which rely on measurement of ambient air
temperature.

The traditional approach is the Vane Meter, in which an air flap door operates a
potentiometer which yields a resistance change proportional to mass air-flow.

More recently hot wire sensors have become common. In this method a platinum
resistance wire is suspended in the air intake. A fixed voltage source drives a current
through the wire. When air flows past the wire it cools and so reduces wire resistance
leading to an increase in current which is internally measured and used to determine
the mass of air flowing past the wire. Figure 5.18 shows an arrangement where R1 is
the measuring sensor and R2 is shielded from the air flow but gives a background
measure of temperature.

R2

R1

▲ Figure 5.18 Hot wire sensor

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 76 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Instrument Calibration: Testing

and Adjustment
This is generally a specialist subject. Pneumatic instruments would be tested by master
gauge, standard manometer or deadweight testers. Electrical instruments are tested
by standard resistors, potentiometers, capacitors, etc.

Using a Bourdon pressure gauge as example:

1. Zero (error) adjustment changes base point without changing the slope or shape of
the calibration curve. It is usually achieved by rotating the indicator pointer relative
to the movement, linkage and element.
2. Multiplication (magnification) adjustment alters the slope without changing base
point or shape. This is effected by altering the drive linkage length ratios between
primary element and indicator pointer.
3. Angularity adjustment changes the curve shape without altering base point and
alters scale calibration at the ends. This error is minimised by ensuring that link
arms are perpendicular with the pointer at mid-scale.

Figure 5.19 shows the calibration curves and adjustment for the Bourdon link-type
instrument mechanism.

M Z
A
100

D
A
I

0 T 100

▲ Figure 5.19 Instrument calibration and adjustment

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 Other Measurements • 77

Instrument readings (I), true values (T), desired result (D). Zero error and adjustment
(Z), multiplication error and adjustment (M), angularity error and adjustment (A) – error
curves or lines for actual values.

Over the design range, pointer movement bears a linear relationship to pressure, and
the scale is calibrated accordingly.

Hysteresis is a vibration phenomena. It is best eliminated by correctly meshed gearing

and fitted pivots to reduce backlash, etc.

Test Examples

1. Explain the principle of operation of a carbon dioxide recorder for monitoring the
uptake of gases.
State what normal maintenance it requires.
State what action is taken if the carbon dioxide content is unacceptably low.
If this action does not alter the carbon dioxide reading, explain how the accuracy of
the recorder is checked and adjusted.
2. Explain the term ‘photo-electric effect’ and describe equipment suitable for
crankcase monitoring and fire detection in which this phenomenon is utilised.
3. Describe, with the aid of sketches, a torsionmeter.
4. Explain the principle of operation and briefly describe the construction of the shaft
and indicator units.
5. Describe an application for an encoder.
6. Discuss the errors liable to be exhibited by link-type instruments. Describe how
such an instrument could be calibrated and adjusted to reduce these errors to a
minimum.

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 6
TELEMETERING
The objective of this chapter (and Chapter 7) is to link instrumentation (described in
preceding chapters) and measuring devices with control elements (as described in
subsequent chapters). Some repetition may inevitably result in the presentation.

There are a wide range of variables to be measured. Detection and measurement devices
are mainly electrical and electronic although a significant number are displacement-
operated mechanical types. Chemical devices are also used.

Transducers can generally be simplified into three basic reversible types:

Mechanical displacement ↔ Pneumatic

Mechanical displacement ↔ Electrical
Pneumatic ↔ Electrical

Pneumatic principles are invariably flapper nozzle, orifice, diaphragm. Electrical

principles include resistance change, variable inductance, variable capacitance, current
or voltage, with frequency and phase used to a limited extent. Conversion of electrical
signal is also used, that is, resistance-current, voltage-current, etc. and such modern
transducers often incorporate electronic oscillators and amplifiers.

Telemetering may be defined as signal transmission over a considerable distance. The

device at the measure point, usually a transducer, is then often called a transmitter with
the receiver located at the recording or control centre.

The discussion in this chapter will be divided into three sections: pneumatic transmitters,
electrical transmitters, receivers.

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 Telemetering • 79

Pneumatic Transmitters

Position-balance transducer (pneumatic)

Displacement of a mechanical linkage gives variation in pneumatic signal output

pressure. The flapper-nozzle is the basis of many pneumatic mechanisms and the
position (motion) balance is essentially a balance of positions (see Figure 6.1).

Ideally equal increments of flapper movement should produce equal increments of

pressure output, that is, linear proportionality. In practice this is only achieved when
there is limited flapper travel. To ensure increased sensitivity and linearity negative
feedback is used via a bellows. Linear output over the pressure range is obtained for
an effective flapper travel range near the nozzle of about 0.015 mm. Output signal
pressure is proportional to actuating link travel and the device is adjustable by varying
the mechanical advantage of the flapper lever, that is altering the x dimension to the
right or the left. A typical output pressure-flapper travel characteristic is included in
Figure 6.1. The device is obviously a displacement’air pressure transducer, displacement
variation from flow, level, etc. variables. A pneumatic relay can be fitted on the air
input.

Actuating 2
displacement
Spring
Output pressure bar

x
AR

Flapper
Line

Nozzle

Bellows
1
Constriction 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.3 4.9
Flapper travel
mm × 10–2
Input Output
air air
signal signal

▲ Figure 6.1 Position balance transducer (pneumatic)

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 80 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Force-balance transducer (pneumatic)

This is essentially a null method, that is, equal and opposite forces (torques) which
eliminates inherent errors of the position-balance device. Consider Figure 6.2, the
flapper is a constrained bar pivoted about a fulcrum (adjustment of which varies
mechanical advantage and thus changes proportion of input to output change).
Bellows have equal effective area. With the device in equilibrium assume an increase
in measured signal pressure which will produce a net up force and clockwise torque
on the bar. The flapper movement towards the nozzle will continue until the increased
output pressure in the feedback bellows produces an anti-clockwise torque, to balance
the actuating torque, and at this point equilibrium is restored. Again a displacement
variable to air pressure transducer. A relay may be fitted.

Electro-pneumatic transducer

The unit shown in Figure 6.3 is based on the force balance principle with input variable
of current (4–20 mA dc is usual). Electrical current signal variation causes a torque motor
to produce a variable force (F) which is balanced by the feedback pneumatic bellows
force (B) at equilibrium. The bar is circular and between the poles of the permanent
magnet acts as an armature when excited by a dc current. Consider an increase in
armature current; the strength of the armature poles will increase accordingly. The
S pole will move up as unlike poles attract and produce a clockwise moment about

Set

Measure

▲ Figure 6.2 Force balance transducer (pneumatic)

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 Telemetering • 81

F B

N N Pivot

S S

dc
input

▲ Figure 6.3 Electro-pneumatic transducer

the pivot whilst the N pole will move down producing an anti-clockwise moment.
The moment arm of the S pole force is greater so there is a net clockwise moment.
This action closes in on the nozzle giving a higher output pressure and increasing the
feedback bellows force until equilibrium is achieved, that is, a direct acting transducer.
An alternative torque motor design utilises a suspended coil within the magnetic field
of a permanent magnet. Figure 6.3 is an input electrical (current) to output pneumatic
pressure transducer (I/PP).

Electrical Transmitters
Consider the first three examples of position (motion) balance converters: variable
resistance, inductance and capacitance.

Variable resistance transducer

In this simple and early form of transducer the mechanical movement of the measuring
element connection varies the electrical circuit resistance. The device is restricted in
use due to contact problems, variations in wire connection resistance and the need
for a constant stabilised voltage supply. Two types are shown in Figure 6.4, that is, mV
measurement and mA measurement locally or remote; the latter is a potentiometer
technique.

Displacement may be due to any variable variation, that is, level, pressure, etc. via
Bourdon tube, diaphragm or similar displacement device. Provision of a cross-coil
measuring meter, or remote receiver, makes indication virtually independent of supply

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 82 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Link from
measuring
element

Constant
volts
mA mA

Constant
volts

▲ Figure 6.4 Variable contact resistance transducer

voltage variations. One coil is directly energised from supply (current proportional
to voltage) and a cross-coil is deflected by measurement current so that deflection
of the meter within the permanent magnet is proportional only to resistance of the
transmitter. This is a two-coil ratiometer.

Other resistance systems

The Wheatstone bridge principle is used in many cases, both dc and ac, with direct
or null balance techniques. The bridge together with electrical resistance sensors
for resistance thermometers (Chapter 1) and strain gauges (Chapter 2) have been
described in detail already. Another electrical resistance transmitter has also been
discussed previously in Chapter 3 namely the type utilising electrical resistors in
mercury for measurement of level.

Variable inductance transducer

The unit shown in Figure 6.5 is a differential transformer with three coils fully wound on a
cylindrical former (only half the winding is shown on the sketch for simplicity). The core,
which is moved laterally by displacement of a sensor element, provides the magnetic
linking flux path between coils. The primary ac voltage induces secondary voltages and
as the two secondary windings are in series opposition the two outputs are opposite in
magnitude and phase with the core laterally in the middle of the former.

With the core moved right the induced voltage in secondary 2 winding increases and
that in secondary 1 decreases so giving a differential output. Similarly movement
left gives a voltage difference but 180° out of phase. The characteristic can be linear

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 Telemetering • 83

Oscillator

Former

Primary

Core

Sec 1 Sec 2

Differential
transformer

Amplifier

Output

▲ Figure 6.5 Variable inductance transducer

with zero volts at mid-travel. Input displacement, from Bourdon tube or diaphragm
is converted to an electrical signal for telemetering to indicators, recorders, data
processing or electronic controllers.

Many electrical transducers are combined in the transmitting unit with oscillators and
amplifiers of solid state modular assemblies. The oscillator supply in Figure 6.5 from a
power supply unit is commonly at 12 V dc and incorporates a chopper unit, ac amplifier
and output-feedback stage. A stabilised current to the primary winding of about 5 mA
is often used from say a 1.6 kHz oscillator. The amplifier itself, 12 V dc supply, accepts
ac input from the differential transformer via ac bridge circuits at up to 2 mA and gives
output via demodulator-filter circuits at about 50 mA maximum, dc. It is effectively a dc
input dc output system. Components mentioned above are considered in more detail
in the next chapter.

This inductance ratio system can employ any type of receiver. For a simple system direct
ac supply, without oscillator and amplifier, can be used and ac output passed across a
bridge rectifier for each coil to a two-coil ratiometer with pointer indicator.

In an inductance balance system the receiver is identical to the transmitter with

secondary windings interconnected. Unbalanced emfs due to displacement and
inductance change at the transmitter result in corresponding displacement at the
receiver so as to maintain current in each part of the circuit constant.

(The lever and gearbox are mechanical transformers.)

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 84 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Variable capacitance transducer

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

Aε
C=
d

A is plate area, ε absolute permittivity and d plate separation. Change of capacitance

utilisation in conjunction with an ac bridge circuit has been considered previously with
reference to level probes (Chapter 3). For displacement measurement a parallel RL
resonant circuit can be utilised. Alternatively a differential capacitor principle can be
used for displacement-current conversion, and is now described.

Consider Figure 6.6. The central plate of the differential capacitor is moved vertically
by the displacement of a sensor device. The outer plates are connected to a combined
oscillator, amplifier, rectifier unit.

Movement of the centre plate towards one fixed plate and away from the other gives a
change in capacitance to the oscillator-amplifier. A change in output current to receiver
results.

Differential Input
capacitor

Measure Oscillator
sensor amplifier
signal rectifier

Output

▲ Figure 6.6 Differential capacitor transducer

Electronic Force-Balance System

An electro-pneumatic converter has already been described and an alternative

pneumatic (pressure, force, displacement, etc.) electric converter can now be considered
(Figure 6.7).

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 Telemetering • 85

Input force
from measure
Detector
element Span
(Inductor)
Input resistors
spring
Balance beam

Zero Feedback
Pivot
spring magnet
unit
(motor)

Indicator–
Oscillator Power
recorder–
amplifier supply
controller

Load

▲ Figure 6.7 Electronic force balance system

When movement varies the inductance, coupled to the oscillator amplifier, let us
assume amplifier output current increases. This will continue until the feedback current
on the force motor produces equilibrium. Effective full-scale beam travel is only about
25 μm. Input may be from the Bourdon tube or diaphragm. The device is referred to as
a PP/I transducer.

Voltage-Current Transducer

It is often necessary to use a mV/I converter when dealing with thermocouple or

resistance thermometer inputs. Such a device is shown in Figure 6.8.

Output
Amplifier
dc mA

Feedback
Input
dc mV 0

Filter
Regulated
dc power
supply

C
B
A

▲ Figure 6.8 Voltage–current transducer

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 86 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Deviation between input mV and a standardised zero suppression voltage, from a zener
diode power pack and bridge, is algebraically added and passed through a filter network
(to avoid stray ac pick-up). This signal is algebraically added to the feedback stabilising
loop of the amplifier and passed through the amplifier to output. Adjustable resistors
A, C, D allow temperature correction, zero adjustment and span control of feedback; B
measured value. A dc amplifier can be used. If an ac amplifier is preferred a chopper input
and synchro-rectifier output is needed, output and feedback isolated by a transformer.

Receivers
Receiver types are many and range from direct measuring meters, recorders, display
units, to controllers and analysing units. In many cases if a transducer is used it is
merely a form of converter device as already described in this chapter. Frequently it is
not possible to sensibly separate transmitter and receiver because they are inherently
linked in operating principle. With these provisos in mind a selection of units not
previously, or subsequently, described are now presented.

Receiver integrator

Refer to Figure 6.9. This receiver is for flow recording. Down force on bellows (B) from
increased (above datum) input signal (proportional to square of flow measurement)

Signal

S B X
F
N

W P

Air
R T
In J
To
counter Gearing

▲ Figure 6.9 Receiver integrator

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 Telemetering • 87

and about fulcrum (X) closes force bar (F) into nozzle (N). Increased pressure from relay
(R) acts on a 60 ‘tooth’ turbine wheel (T) to cause rotation and equilibrium is obtained
when up force due to centrifugal force (proportional to square of turbine wheel speed)
through thrust pin (P) on bar balances down force. Adjustment is via spring (S) causing
movement of weights (W) (up increases feedback force and reduces counts per unit
input pressure).

Turbine wheel speed is directly proportional to flow, and by gear reduction to the
counter, indication is of total flow

Potentiometric Pen Recorder

The potentiometer is used a great deal in instrument systems and also control systems
(position control, Chapter 14). For recording of small dc voltage it is usual to convert to
a suitable frequency ac and amplify although dc amplification can be used. Conversion
to ac is achieved in a dc chopper amplifier with output direct to servo-amplifier pen
drive motor.

Figure 6.10 is a simplified sketch of a continuous balance system.

Input dc voltage, from say a thermocouple, is measured against slidewire voltage

at B with a constant voltage bridge source. Difference between A and B is amplified
at the continuous balance unit so energising the balancing motor to move pen arm
and B until the voltage difference is zero. Similar arrangements utilise conductivity,
ratio, bridge, etc. circuits. The balancing motor is two phase with a reference winding

Thermocouple

– +

B
Scale Slide
Balancing wire
Continuous motor
balance
unit Constant
voltage unit
LV

HV
A

▲ Figure 6.10 Potentiometer circuit

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 88 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

and a control winding from the balance unit. Input to the balance unit incorporates
a converter and centre tap of an input transformer. The vibrating reed converter, in
moving between two contacts, allows current to pass alternately through each half of
the transformer. Secondary ac voltage is amplified and fed to the control winding of
the balancing motor, so timed with ac supply to give the correct restoring action. The
chart is driven by a constant speed geared motor. A damping feedback tachogenerator
driven from the balance motor is often fitted.

XY Recorder

Used to measure a quantity Y, varying with X, where X is not a function of time. Two
servo systems, perpendicularly connected, cause the pen to move to any area position
on the chart. Inputs cause perpendicular travel related to X and Y.

Position Motors (dc)

One technique is to feed current into a toroid resistor transmitter with three tappings
connecting to a three-phase star winding enclosing a two-pole rotor receiver. This is
sometimes referred to as a Desynn transmission link. A similar principle is used in the
position indicator (electric telegraph).

Figure 6.11 shows the arrangement in equilibrium with equal currents (I) in line B
and C and zero current in line A. The receiver rotor is locked by equal and opposite

+ –

Receiver
A
N S

S N

I x
Transmitter B
C
I

▲ Figure 6.11 Position indicator (electric telegraph)

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 Telemetering • 89

torques from the attractions on unlike pole faces. Assume the transmitter to be moved
30° clockwise. Current flows to receiver from line C subdivides at point X and equal
currents return through lines A and B of magnitude I/2. This creates a strong N pole
at fixed magnet X and two weak S poles at the other two fixed magnets. The receiver
indicator will therefore turn to the corresponding equilibrium position, that is, 30°
clockwise.

Position Motors (ac)

These devices are usually known by trade names such as synchro, resolver, magslip
and for larger powers, selsyn. Figure 6.12 shows a transmitter and receiver of a synchro
system.

Both rotors are supplied from the same ac source and stators are linked in star.
With rotors in the same angular position, emfs from transmitter and receiver stators
balance and there is no circulatory current. If the transmitter rotor is moved, induced
emfs are unequal and current circulates so producing a torque to bring the receiver
rotor into line and restore equilibrium. Zero receiver torque exists at alignment
and maximum occurs at 90° out of alignment. The resolver system is similar but
utilises two phase and is used for both fine control and data processing systems. An
intermediate synchro (follow through, hunter differential, etc.) can be arranged, with
three-phase rotor and stator connections, so that summing or differential control
outputs are possible.

T R

▲ Figure 6.12 Synchro system

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 90 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Current Transmission: 4–20 mA

Information is often transmitted with a full-scale span of 16 mA and an offset range of
4–20 mA. This approach is popular in process control as it offers the following benefits:

1. Some immunity to induced voltage noise.

2. Unaffected by line voltage drops.
3. Can differentiate between a value of zero and simple having no signal.
4. Not affected by stray thermocouple effects.
5. Not affected by contact resistances.
6. Can supply power to remote transducers.
7. Allows several components to be connected together in series as part of a process
control loop.

An example of a typical application using an isolated 4–20 mA loop is shown in

Figure 6.13.

Signal to be
transmitted Loop
supply

4–20 mA loop

Receiver

▲ Figure 6.13 4–20 mA loop

Test Examples
1. In a pneumatic telemetering system explain how the air flow through a nozzle in
a transmitter is varied. How does this variation cause a change in the signal to the
receiver?

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 Telemetering • 91

2. Sketch and describe a variable inductance and a variable capacitance type

of transducer. Discuss typical applications, with examples, of these devices in
measuring or control systems.
3. Describe a remote telemetering system. Detail on a suitable diagram both the
indicator and receiver unit and the connections between them.
4. Describe, with a suitable sketch, an electro-pneumatic converter. Explain the
operation when subject to a change in input. State two applications of such a
device.

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 7
ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
The subject is specialised and extensive. A full presentation is available from a wide
range of sources. For the purpose of this chapter an extreme rationalisation is necessary
as follows:

1. Components described are only those active devices with a direct application
to instrumentation and control and the basic introductory electronics theory is
reduced to a minimum.
2. Description is related to semi-conductor devices only.

The contents of this chapter are given in five sections: semi-conductors, rectifiers,
amplifiers, oscillators and other devices. It applies generally to linear integrated
(analogue) circuits in the frequency domain, that is, concerned with sinusoidal (or
similar) waveform and frequency analysis (current and voltage). Chapter 16 includes
integrated digital circuits in the time domain, that is, concerned usually with square
waveforms where the criteria is whether current or voltage is present or not, that is,
logic devices, computers, etc.

Semi-Conductors

Atomic theory

The basic theory of electronics relates to atomic physics with negatively charged
electrons orbiting around the positively charged nucleus. Bonding between electron(s)

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 Electronic Devices • 93

and nucleus decides conductivity, for example, copper as a good conductor has many
free electrons and mica as an insulator does not. Conventional current flow is positive
to negative. When considering electron drift movement, which takes place from the
negative terminal through the conductor to the positive terminal, it must be noted that
the flow is opposite to the conventional.

Germanium and silicon in pure form have a diamond lattice formation, each of four
valence (binding) electrons per atom, and electron flow is only possible by partial
lattice breakdown due to thermal energy. Arsenic and antimony have a five valency
shell readily fitting into the diamond lattice and leaving a surplus conduction electron.
Boron or gallium have a three-valency shell and while bonding into the lattice occurs a
missing electron creates a conduction hole.

Electron conduction

With conductors the electrons, which constitute the current flow, are capable of
drifting through the material. The electrons can be imagined to lie in a valance band
and an energy supply, heat for example, is sufficient to excite the electrons sufficiently
to allow them to jump across a narrow non-conducting band into the conducting drift
band.

With insulators a non-conducting band is wider and electron jump does not readily
occur, so that no current flows.

With intrinsic semi-conductors, such as germanium or silicon, the properties are midway
between conductors and insulators. Some electrons can break from the crystal lattice
bond structure, the gap created can then be filled by another electron, hence electron
movement does occur and this increases with temperature increase. Extrinsic semi-
conductor materials contain slightly impure or doped material, if arsenic (antimony,
phosphorus) is added to germanium or silicon there is a surplus of electrons in the
crystal lattice, such donor atoms give an n-type conductor. If boron (gallium, indium)
is added there is a positive gap or hole in the crystal lattice, such acceptor atoms give a
p-type conductor (Figure 7.1).

Conduction by electrons is similar to that in metals. For a p-type material, an electron

moves through the lattice, being attracted by the positive hole, to fill the hole, this
creates another hole, and so on. The hole then appears to move to the negative
through the lattice, this can be regarded as causing the conduction. Majority carriers,
electrons or holes in n-type and p-type impurities, greatly outnumber minority carriers
(which are temperature excited electrons). This activity at the semi-conductor junction
causes heating, which would lead to thermal runaway and device failure if unchecked.

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 94 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Si Si Si

Si B – Si

Si Si Si

▲ Figure 7.1 Silicon crystal lattice doped with Boron

VD

– – – ++ + +
N + ++ P
–
– – –

Electrons moving across Holes moving across

the junction the junction

▲ Figure 7.2 The n–p junction as a rectifier

The maximum junction temperature for solid state devices is usually fixed at about
125°C This restricts the case temperature to a lower figure depending on internal
thermal resistance and junction to case thermal resistance. For most instrumentation
applications power, levels are low and device failure is unlikely although temperature
rise is likely to affect linearity. In some control applications thermal management can
be essential to avoid failure.

When a p-type and an n-type material are made into a specific junction electron
flow to the holes in the p-type occurs. A negative charge exists in the p-type and a
positive charge in the n-type, thus giving a potential difference across the junction
which stops further migration of electrons. This n–p junction can act for example as
a rectifier, with the positive side connected to the n-type the potential difference is
increased, as shown in Figure 7.2, with the negative side connected to the n-type
the potential difference is reduced. A few random electrons (leakage current) can go
against the bias. When reverse biased, the holes and electrons are drawn away from
the junction leaving a depletion layer with virtually no current carriers.

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 Electronic Devices • 95

e e e
+ – + – – +

n p n p n p
+ h – + – + –

e e e
Equivalent circuit Reverse bias Forward bias
Semiconductor diode

C
I
E C
p n p
p n p B
Emitter Collector E
h h 0V –5 V
B
e e Base
–0.2 V

pnp bipolar transistor

▲ Figure 7.3 Solid state junctions, examples

Further consideration leads to transistors in which a pnp or npn sandwich exists. For npn
the emitter emits electrons, the collector collects electrons, and the base controls the
flow of electrons by controlling the charge concentration in the base region. For pnp
the polarity is reversed and the flow is as shown in Figure 7.3. A relatively larger emitter-
collector current can be controlled by a small base-collector current and voltage.

Current gain (collector to base current ratio) can easily be in the range 10–200. Power
gain may be as high as 50,000.

Silicon planar technique (diffusion) is the basic process used in bipolar (two carriers e
and h) solid state and integrated circuit chip technology for resistors, capacitors, diodes
and transistors in circuit.

Rectifiers

Metal rectifiers, valve diodes and thyratrons have generally been superseded by the
semi-conductor diode (p–n junction rectifier) and the thyristor (silicon controlled
rectifier). More complex devices such as tunnel, variable capacitance, microwave and
four-layer diodes are not considered in this book.

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 96 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Semi-conductor diode

When ac current is applied to the p–n junction a large current will flow when forward
biased polarity applies and conduction stops when reverse biased and the diode acts
like any other rectifier. This is confirmed by the characteristic shown in Figure 7.4.

If the reverse bias is increased beyond a certain value, called the breakdown voltage,
the reverse current will increase sharply and this is known as avalanche or zener current.
Rectification diodes never operate in the breakdown region but the zener diode,
used in voltage stabilisation and reference circuits, is operated in this region. Note in
particular the symbols shown in Figure 7.4 to represent semi-conductor rectification,
zener diodes, thyristor (silicon controlled rectifier) and the different scales on the axes.
Current flow is in the direction of the arrow, the bar to indicate non-reversal (see also
Figure 7.7, bridge rectifier circuit).

The diode is the simplest form of rectifier (Figures 7.5 and 7.6).

The bridge rectifier is shown in Figure 7.7.

When A is positive with respect to B current flows through D1 to the load and returns
through D3 to B. When B is positive with respect to A flow is through D2 and returns
through D4.

40
Forward bias

Gate (trigger) Rectifier

Thyristor (SCR) diode
μA

20

–V 60 40 20 0.5 1.0 V

Breakdown
Reverse bias

20
μA

40

Zener diode

▲ Figure 7.4 n–p junction characteristic

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 Electronic Devices • 97

VD

ID
p n

RD

▲ Figure 7.5 p–n junction forward biased

Current
or +
voltage
+
ac
Output 0
mains Time
– –
Transformer Diode

VAC V
0 t

V
VBC 0 t

VL D1 ON D2 ON VL
0 t

lL
IL
0 t

▲ Figure 7.6 Diode rectifier

The centre tap transformer rectifier is shown in Figure 7.8.

When E is positive with respect to F current flows through D1 to the load, returning to
G, D2 is reverse biased. When F is positive with respect to E flow is via D2 to the load,
returning to G, D1 is reverse biased.

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 98 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

D4 D1

+
ac mains
D3
VL RL
D2

Vs

0 t

D1 D2 D1
and and and Vaverage
VL D3 D4 D3
ON ON ON VL = 0.636 V
L
0 t

lL D1 and D2 and
0 D3 ON D4 ON
t

▲ Figure 7.7 Bridge rectifier

D1
E
+
dc
C load
ac G
supply –

F
D2

▲ Figure 7.8 Centre tap transformer rectifier

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 Electronic Devices • 99

The disadvantages of centre tap transformer rectifier are as follows.

1. Voltage across the load is only half of secondary voltage at a given instant of time.
2. 50% of the secondary power is used at a given instant, thus if you have a 23 VA
transformer you can only have a 12.5 VA (not withstanding losses) dc power
supply.

Applications

Low frequency (audio) signals cannot be efficiently radiated. A high frequency (radio)
carrier has a low frequency signal impressed on it at the transmitter by varying or
modulating the amplitude of the carrier wave in sympathy with the low frequency signal.
At the receiver the signal information is recovered from the carrier wave by a process
known as demodulation or detection. The wave at the receiver is first rectified (detected)
and the signal information recovered by passive networks (resistance–capacitance–
inductance). These networks are usually known as smoothing or filter circuits. Figure 7.9
shows a transmitter–receiver unit with fullwave bridge rectification-detection by semi-
conductor diodes and a high frequency capacitor (C1) filter with smoothing choke
inductor (L) and filter capacitor (C2). This is a capacitor input filter system, C1 is often
termed reservoir and C2 smoothing capacitor. A capacitor provides high impedance
to dc and an inductor high impedance to ac. The function of the filter may also be
explained by regarding it as an integrating network. In general conversion between ac
and dc is often required in instrument-control systems. Modulation, demodulation and
re-modulation are frequently used in the electronic systems to utilise the best component
for a particular duty of sensing, amplifying, control, etc. Low voltage supplies are often
required for transistorised equipment. Typically a mains transformer, bridge rectifier,
smoothing circuit and diode (zener) volts stabilisation is used.

Carrier
unmodulated (hf)
Signal (lf)
Modulated (hf & lf) L

+
dc
T R load
C1 C2
+

▲ Figure 7.9 Demodulation circuit

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 100 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Zener diode

Figure 7.10 shows two applications of zener diodes. As a voltage regulator (stabiliser) the
reverse connected zener diode conducts if input voltage is above breakdown voltage
and current from the supply is the sum of diode and load current. For input voltage
increase then current increases through both R and the diode but the diode resistance
decreases and current through the diode further increases. A larger volt drop across R
will occur but output voltage across the diode remains reasonably constant. Variations
of input or output cause shunt of more or less current through the diode resulting in
constant voltage, that is, across the diode regulation circuit (see also Figure 11.9).
The second diagram illustrates use as a trigger safety device. The relay will be held and
will not fire until a certain prescribed voltage is reached.

R
+ +
Load

Voltage regulator Trigger

Relay

– –

▲ Figure 7.10 Zener diode applications

Thyristor (silicon controlled rectifier)

From Figure 7.11 it will be noted that this is a pnpn sandwich. Consider the section
shown as an npn transistor which requires a base current from the gate to cause

A +

p
Various values
n of gate current
Gate npn
p
transistor
I

B VA–B

▲ Figure 7.11 Thyristor (SCR)

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 Electronic Devices • 101

conduction from collector to emitter. With A negative both top and bottom junctions
are reverse biased. With A positive and no gate voltage the middle junction is reverse
biased. As shown in Figure 7.11, and with a pulse of positive current injected into the
gate, then as the p–n junction (top) is already forward biased the device is turned on.
When conduction exceeds about 10 mA an avalanche (zener) effect occurs and gate
current is not required to maintain flow. To stop conduction, voltage has to be reduced
to zero and the device requires another signal to fire. High currents can be controlled
and the device is a very fast, high power gain, switch. Small gate current can switch a
large load current or gate controlled halfwave rectifier. Applications include controlled
rectification, inversion, stabilisation, regulation. Thyristor systems in excess of 10MW
power rating are well established as the major power control element for electric
(synchroconverter and cycloconverter) propulsion systems in ships. An application of
the thyristor is given in Chapter 14.

Triac and diac

A triac has two SCRs back to back with one gate controlling conduction in either
direction. A diac (no gate) builds up voltage to trigger pulse the triac gate current.

Gate turn-off device

Thyristors have become established as the preferred solid state switch for power levels
in the order of megawatts. They have one main disadvantage in that they are not self-
commutating, that is, they cannot be switched off by a command to the gate terminal.
A thyristor type device which has been developed to overcome this problem is the
gate turn-off (GTO) device. Reversal of pulse polarity at the gate terminal has the effect
of turning off the device. GTOs tend not to be applied at the highest power levels and
designers tend to rely instead upon the reverse bias effect of ac combined with power
factor control techniques.

Insulated gate bipolar transistor

The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines the robust power handling
characteristics of the bipolar transistor with the benefits of an insulated control terminal
as in field effect devices. Power handling capability is not as great as the thyristor but is

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 102 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

growing fast. Power converters of a few megawatts (MW) are now installed as the major
control devices for electric (pulse width modulation) propulsion systems in ships.

Amplifiers

Amplifiers are an essential part of instrumentation and control. The pneumatic amplifier
(relay) is described in Chapter 10. Feedback is an inherent addition but a detailed
discussion on this topic is reserved until the end of this chapter. Devices are active, that
is, utilising an external power source – as distinct from passive.

Rotating electrical amplifiers

The separately excited generator is often used in control systems. The Ward Leonard
type unit is generally well known and an application and description are given in
Chapter 14.

Magnetic amplifier

The magnetic amplifier is of interest because of its use in electronic components, often
in series with transistor amplifiers. A high permeability ferromagnetic core is wound
with an ac current coil.

The inductance opposes increases of current until the induced magnetic flux saturates
the core when the reactance now behaves as a resistor, that is, saturated reactor and
large increases in current can occur. A dc-energised control winding on one limb
of the core brings about, and varies, the degree of saturation and hence ac current
flow in the gate limb. Bias and feedback windings are also incorporated on gates to
improve flexibility and stability, and ac output can be rectified to dc which is filtered
and appreciably amplified above the input. The typical unit is shown in Figure 7.12; ac
input is from a transistorised oscillator and dc input is stabilised.

Flux due to dc is unidirectional through gate windings A and B but flux due to ac is, as
shown, in opposite directions. The ac output can be passed through a bridge rectifier
and filter. Positive feedback is utilised for gain adjustment without oscillation problems

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 Electronic Devices • 103

Input
transformer
B A B A
A Feed
back Bias

dc dc

Filter
input output

▲ Figure 7.12 Magnetic amplifier

because this unit is inherently very stable. The principle can also be used in a transducer
with a sensor core to vary inductance by movement.

Classification

Generally this depends on duty. If frequency is the criterion, the range is from zf (zero
frequency – dc amplifier) through If (audio), rf, vhf to uhf (900 MHz). Generally the first
two are of interest here (see Figure 7.26).

Another classification depends on the equipment to be controlled by the amplifier.

Voltage types give undistorted voltage output and power amplifiers are to provide
drive power. The latter is used to provide power to recorders, controllers, etc.

A third criterion depends on the position of the bias point in relation to the characteristic
curve of the device. If operated near the middle of the linear characteristic there is no
distortion and this is termed a Class A amplifier, which is ideal for voltage amplification
but has a low power efficiency. If biased at or near cut off this is termed Class B and
has a good power efficiency but severely distorted output – often halfwave. Two such
amplifiers can be matched as a push-pull amplifier, which via a transformer gives
undistorted output. Class C amplifiers are biased past cut off and have the highest
efficiency and greatest distortion (reverse biasing).

With transistors the device is usually utilised in one of two modes linear and non-linear.
In the former sinusoidal signals are amplified without distortion usually in two main
types, that is, small signal voltage amplification and power amplification. The non-linear
mode utilises switching from off to saturated condition very rapidly. Typical applications

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 104 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

include: oscillators, that is, square (or saw) wave supply generators, bistable (flip-flop)
devices used in counting circuits, etc.; static switching and hold (memory) circuits, logic
devices, etc. These applications are described later in this chapter and in Chapter 16.

Analysis of Transistor Behaviour

Junction transistor

The pnp junction is shown in Figure 7.13. Due to initial diffusion, one junction (emitter-
base) is forward biased and the other junction (base-collector) is reverse biased. The
former conducts heavily and positive carriers (holes) diffuse across the n region. If
this region is arranged to have few electrons little combination occurs and holes are
attracted across the next junction by the bias voltage. Emitter current is the sum of
collector current and base current. The collector current is much greater than the
base current, and proportional to it over a wide range, so that collector current can be
controlled by the base current. Power for emitter-collector current does not come from
the amplifier input current, that is, base current, but from an external power source.
This amplifier is an active device and in system terms can be treated as a ‘black box’, that
is, input, output and power source relationships required without details of internal
‘box’ arrangements. (For npn, biasing voltages are reversed and conduction is mainly
due to electrons). pnp is used in this text.

Factors of importance are transfer characteristic (function) (comparison of input and

output), dynamic range (of power), efficiency (on power basis), amplification (gain)
(magnitude of input and output voltages or currents) and frequency response (transit
times).

The input circuit is biased to produce steady base current flow. Changes in input current
cause much larger changes in output current, that is, current amplifier. It is a bipolar
(utilises both charge carriers) device.

Circuit configurations

Means to connect input, to supply power and to make use of output are necessary.
There are three ways to connect, differing in the way input and output are connected
to the transistor, and each gives different characteristics which will depend on duty.
Power must be consumed in the external circuit (load), usually by resistors, and the
collector current passes through the transistor and load resistor.

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 Electronic Devices • 105

Common base

E C
p n p

B
1.00 0.01 0.99

Input Output
(low R) Power (high R)
circut source circut

Common emitter
B E C

0.01 1.00 0.99

Common collector

B C E

0.01 0.99 1.00

▲ Figure 7.13 Circuit configurations

Configurations are as shown in Figure 7.13. These are common base, common emitter
and common collector. This depends on the terminal which is common to the input
and output signal; common emitter is the most often used. From Figure 7.13, for the
common base connection, assuming an ac input of say 45 mV and 1 kΩ resistor in the
collector circuit, then 990 mV will be developed across the resistor, that is, voltage gain
20. For the common emitter connection the input circuit has a much lower current,
therefore the input resistance is about 100 times higher and without the resistor
the current gain is 99. The common collector has similar characteristics to the latter.
Currents shown in Figure 7.13, in mA, are illustrative.

Transfer characteristics

These depend on circuit arrangement adopted as well as upon the transistor itself.
Consider the junction transistor as a current amplification device. The current transfer
ratio (α) compares collector and emitter currents and is less than unity (due to leakage).
Current gain (β) compares output and input currents, its value depends on the circuit
configuration and is obtained by applying Kirchoff ’s law to the base junction and

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 106 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

expressing the result in terms of α. Current gain is less than unity for common base and
typically between 10 and 200 for the other two configurations. Strictly current changes
are compared. Transfer characteristic is preferably linear. Equivalent circuits and ‘h’
parameters are used in transfer analysis.

The pnp transistor circuit (common emitter) is shown in Figure 7.14. In practice the
common junction is often earthed, output voltage tapped off after C to earth (via
capacitor), bias battery replaced by RC circuits and supply is from voltage power lines
not battery.

Characteristics are as shown in Figure 7.15 where variations of base current (at input)
give variations of collector-emitter voltage projected down from the load line. For the
load line – where it cuts baseline is supply voltage (cut off IB = 0), saturation at crossing

IC

RL

–
C +
IB
B
Holes
E
Input
IE

– +

▲ Figure 7.14 Transistor circuit (common emitter)

IB 0.2 mA

IB 0.15 mA
IC mV

IB 0.1 mA
Lo
ad
lin
e
fo
r R
L

VCE mV

▲ Figure 7.15 Collector characteristics (CE)

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 Electronic Devices • 107

with IB = 0.2 mA here, operating point for voltage amplifier (requiring minimum
distortion) at mid-length approximately. Class B amplifiers biased near cut off giving
halfwave pulses.

Transistor voltage amplifier

It is necessary to include a high resistance in series with the collector and tap off voltage
variations across it, and a gain of 250 can be achieved. If connected as a common emitter
a positive pulse into the base makes it less negative and fewer holes flow from emitter
to base. Collector current therefore decreases and the volt drop across the resistor
decreases which causes collector voltage to increase. There is a 180° phase reversal
between base input and collector output voltage signals. Voltage characteristic slopes
down so collector voltages decrease for base voltage increase but it is the amplification,
not the negative slope, that is important. If it is necessary not to have inverted output
two amplifiers in series are used – inversion is useful for negative feedback. Common
base connections are desirable for voltage amplification but are difficult to design so
that common emitter configurations are usually found.

Parameters

The common emitter circuit gives medium input and output impedance, good current
or voltage or power gain inversion. Common base gives low input and high output
impedance, no current gain but good voltage and medium power gain in phase
operation. Common collector gives high input and low output impedance, no voltage
and power gain but good current gain in phase operation. The latter is often used for
buffer stages connecting high impedance source to low impedance load (impedance
matching). The common emitter mode, pnp or npn, is most frequently used for current
amplification and especially for voltage amplification because a low input signal is
required.

Equivalent T-circuit

Presents a simple representation of the transistor to allow calculation of current,

voltage and power gains. Such a circuit is shown in DTp – SCOTVEC Class One
specimen examination question number 18 at the end of the book (common base
configuration).

Unijunction transistor

A bar of lightly doped n type material, with base connections B1 and B2 at each end,
has a p type material contact (emitter) made between the two. If the emitter junction
is reverse biased the bar acts as a potential divider. When input voltage is sufficient

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 108 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

to drive an emitter current it flows in the B1 emitter region. This decreases the region
resistance and emitter voltage (negative resistance characteristic). The device is used
for trigger operation, pulse oscillators, time delays and particularly for pulse generation
to fire thyristors. In Figure 7.16, C charges until voltage can eject emitter current. At
a certain value of this current the voltage V collapses giving a negative spike output
pulse with rapid discharge of C. The capacitor recharges and oscillation continues. This
device is therefore a simple relaxation oscillator but is described here in the general
context of the transistor.

Small signal junction transistor amplifier

This is a linear mode device. Figure 7.17 shows a pnp common emitter configuration
multi-(two) stage unit, the dotted line illustrates the staging, extension to more stages
is achieved in the same additive way. In a triode valve auto grid bias is used and in
transistors a similar principle is required. A suitable bias point which is stable with
temperature variation is essential. Several ways, all dependant on feedback, can be
used. In Figure 7.17, a resistor RE in the emitter lead maintains a constant base voltage

+
RL
B2
E Output

V C B1

▲ Figure 7.16 Unijunction transistor (oscillator)

–6 V

R1
C C
B pnp
E Output
Input R2
RE CE

0V

▲ Figure 7.17 Transistor two-stage amplifier (small signal)

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 Electronic Devices • 109

and any undue rise in the leakage (temperature induced) current causes the emitter
voltage to fall. The emitter–base junction approaches reverse bias so reducing current
through the unit. The potential divider R1 + R2 keeps base voltage constant when there
is no input signal. Capacitor CE acts as a bypass for ac components of emitter current.
Circuits typify voltage amplifiers.

Coupling between stages can either be by a transformer method or, as shown, resistor-
capacitor. Whilst current amplifier design is easily arranged, voltage amplification
requires a high input impedance to the first stage. Essentially this needs increased
feedback which can be achieved by omitting CE and C the interstage capacitor (direct
coupling). Other methods can be used such as emitter follower but this adds to
complexity. For one stage current amplifier, omit CE and take output across RL, connect
collector directly (no resistance) to the −6 V power supply.

Power amplifier

Power dissipation must be kept low so a high efficiency is important. Class B types are
preferred but single transistors cannot be used because the operating characteristic
range results in halfwave form outputs so that a push–pull twin arrangement is utilised.
Such amplifiers require high input currents and a power (driver) stage is used, usually
in Class A, the combination being classified as AB (linear mode). A typical arrangement
is shown in Figure 7.18.

The driver transistor feeds to the transformer phase splitter. Inputs to the power stage
are of equal amplitude and 180° out of phase. Each power transistor conducts for

Driver stage Power stage

–

C
C B pnp
B E
pnp Output
E
C
Input B pnp
E

▲ Figure 7.18 Push/pull power amplifier stage and driver

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 110 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

half a period and the complete waveform is restored in the output transformer. This
transformer has its primary ends connected to the transistor collector leads and centre
tap connected to the more negative lead. Signal flux is in the output transformer core
throughout the whole period, with the complete waveform in the secondary winding.
Power supplies are commonly ±6 V, as an order of magnitude.

dc amplifier

Most instrument signals require dc amplification of low voltages. This is difficult to

arrange as drift variation, largely caused by temperature variation in transistors, is
amplified and passed on. With ac amplifiers the coupling capacitor excludes variations
but with dc units the coupling is usually direct. Differential amplifiers have been used
but perfect matching is difficult. Zener diode stabilisation and feedback circuits are also
employed.

The solution often adopted is to use an inverter input to derive ac from dc, direct ac
amplifiers and a converter output to give dc from ac. The converter is essentially a
rectifier with smoother circuit, as described in the demodulation circuit of Figure 7.8, or
a transistorised feedback integrator.

The inverter is called a chopper and converts steady input into square waves, height
proportional to signal strength and easily amplified, by mechanical or transistor
switching devices. When transistors are used voltage and temperature stabilisation
are required. The transistor switch occupies four successive states, that is, off (voltage
applied between E and C with leakage current only flowing), on-transition (C current
rising and voltage falling), on (C current flowing and saturation voltage only between
E and C), off-transition (C current falling and voltage rising). Rating conditions require
careful design and a small offset voltage arises, temperature related, which causes
problems. A field effect transistor is suited to chopping and a circuit is shown in
Figure 7.19, such transistors have negligibly small voltage offset with the distinct
advantage of a very high input impedance. Junctions (JFET) utilise n or p channels
whilst metal oxide silicon (MOSFET) are n channel, either enhancement or depletion
type.

One JFET is an n type bar (lightly doped) with electron input (source) and output (drain)
at its ends. On both sides of the bar p type (heavily doped) material electrodes act as
the gate (reverse biased relative to source). A narrow channel through the centre is
controlled by the gate and impedance variation can arrange two conditions, saturation
and ‘pinch off ’ output voltage.

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 Electronic Devices • 111

A ac B
Out
amp

Drain
Gate

Source

▲ Figure 7.19 FET chopper circuit

In Figure 7.19 the FET varies its drain and source resistance according to voltage
level and polarity of the input signal. Essentially it is working as a make and break to
produce square waveform. Output, in the absence of any restoring mechanism, would
be symmetrical about a OV line as dc level is lost in the ac amplifier. The output can be
periodically shorted at B with another FET as at A, so that negative going portions are
removed and dc level restored. A smoothing circuit would be fitted at output. Source
line could well be earthed. A FET can also give large current variations for small changes
in gate voltage, that is, amplifier operation, if required. It is a unipolar device. Linear
and digital MOS integrated circuits are used in microprocessors in preference to bipolar
types. They use variation in gate voltage to vary current source-drain, utilise one carrier
and have high input impedance.

Operational amplifier

A combination of a high gain dc amplifier, that is, chopped, ac, smoothed, together with
feedback and input impedance is required in control systems. The complete amplifier
(with a gain of –A) is usually diagrammatically represented as a triangle. Such devices
are described in detail in Chapter 11. They are essentially voltage amplifiers, in cascade
multi-stage form, gain 105 – as an integrated circuit on a silicon chip, used in analogue
computation and digital logic.

Feedback analysis

This aspect has been mentioned previously but it is now necessary to consider a more
detailed analysis before concluding the work of this section. Consider Figure 7.20 of
a closed loop consisting of a feedback amplifier of forward gain G and the monitored

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 112 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

FV0

V1 – V0
+ G
e

▲ Figure 7.20 Closed loop (feedback amplifier block diagram)

fraction F of output fed back. Voltages are taken as the variables, V1 input, e error, V0
output (the more general terminology would be θ1, θ, θ0). Subtraction of V0 from V1 is
arranged with an odd number of amplifier stages, giving 180° phase shift, and adding
V0 to V1; this is negative feedback. Also see page 265.

V0 Ge
e V1 − FV
V0
V0 G(V1 FV
V0 )
V0 ⎛ V0 ⎞
=G F
V1 ⎝ V1 ⎟⎠
V0
(1+ GF ) = G
V1
V0 G
=
V1 1+ FG

Now if the ‘open loop’ gain FG is high compared to 1 (i.e. for a high value of amplifier
gain G):

1
Overall gain =
F

This is independent of G, which can vary, and only dependent on F which is fixed by
accurate stable resistors. The resistive input impedance is increased by a factor of
1 + FG. The marked improvement in performance over the open loop amplifier is at
the expense of additional amplifier stages made necessary by increasing G to make FG
much greater than unity.

Consider an amplifier with a gain of 104 and negative feedback fraction F one-hundredth,
that is, 10−2.

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 Electronic Devices • 113

10 4
Overall gain = = 99
1+ 10−2 ×10 4

Assume a change in G due to say variation of supply voltage, ageing of transistors, etc.
of as much as 50% reduction.

5×103
Overall gain = = 98
1+ 10−2 ×5×103

That is, fall of 50% amplifier gain results in about 1% fall in overall gain. Negative
feedback gives stability and accurate control.

Consider now the case of positive feedback.

V0 Ge
e = V1 + FV
V0

This, for electrical, is feedback voltage in phase with input voltage.

V0 G
=
V1 1− FG

Again there is increase of overall gain compared to ‘open loop’ gain. However there
is a marked disadvantage in that a small change in G causes a much greater change
in overall gain and also overall gain increases rapidly as FG increases so that when
FG = 1 the overall gain is infinite. Output is available with no input, that is, the amplifier
is an oscillator. Positive feedback use therefore causes instability and self oscillation.
Oscillators are very useful in instrumentation electronics but oscillatory situations in
control systems must be avoided. Instability and oscillation shows as practical hunting
or cycling on the control system which is most unsatisfactory.

Oscillators

An oscillator is an instrument for producing voltages that vary in a regular fashion.

The output may be sinusoidal, that is, a sinewave generator (harmonic oscillator) or
square, triangular, sawtooth in shape, that is, relaxation oscillators. The latter are mainly

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 114 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

important in control system equipment. A wide range of harmonic oscillators exist from
high frequency (LC types) to low frequency (RC types) but apart from basic principles
only the relaxation oscillator will be described because of its practical application.

Basic theory

An LC parallel circuit in which inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance is

resonant oscillatory, resonant frequency equals 1/2 π √LC, negligible supply current
and appreciable loop current (for an LC series circuit maximum supply current at this
frequency). In practice resistance is present and oscillations would diminish. If sufficient
energy, correctly timed, is supplied to the LC circuit utilising a transistor to make up
losses the oscillation can be maintained indefinitely. This energy is supplied as correct
phase and magnitude positive feedback.

Referring to Figure 7.21, LC is the frequency determining tuned circuit and the remainder
is oscillation maintaining. By mutual induction at L′ positive feedback is arranged from
the transistor.

Harmonic oscillators

An amplifier providing its own input functions as an oscillator and if the feedback is
small is a pure sinewave generator. Typical refinements for high frequency harmonic
work include Hartley and Colpitts oscillators. For lower frequency work in harmonic
generation the principle is similar to that above but the feedback line includes resistors
and capacitors. A three RC section input gives 180° phase shift and as a collector
voltage in a transistor is 180° out of phase with base voltage this technique gives in

RB L L C

C
C Input
B
CB Output
E

▲ Figure 7.21 Transistor oscillator

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 Electronic Devices • 115

phase between the two. A phase shift oscillator or Wien bridge network is regularly
used. Linear mode signal generators are of two types namely constant voltage which is
a low impedance source and constant current which is a high impedance source.

Relaxation oscillators

Such oscillators are used in the non-linear mode where rapid switching of transistors
from off to saturated (bottomed) is arranged. For sawtooth waveform a unijunction
transistor, as previously described and illustrated in Figure 7.16, can be used.
Alternatively a gas discharge tube with RC circuit is suitable usually with a thyratron (or
thyristor) controlling time base strike voltage. A more sophisticated method is to use
a single amplifier connected as an integrator (see Chapter 11). High current pulses of
short duration can be obtained from a blocking oscillator.

For rectangular waveform generators a push–pull blocking oscillator can be used as

shown in Figure 7.22. The transformer core material has a square form hysterisis loop.
When the supply is switched on (high starting resistance R) assume transistor 1 starts
conduction so that a voltage is developed across the collector winding (C) and induced
across base winding (B). Polarity is such that 1 is forward and 2 reverse biased so that
the positive feedback turns 1 full on and 2 is off. Collector current from 1 rapidly builds
up and the core of C saturates and voltage collapses which cuts off base drive to 1
and collector current starts to fall. A voltage is now induced in B to try and maintain
this current but reversed in sense; 2 is now biased on and 1 off and the half cycle is
repeated.

1
C

B
Output

▲ Figure 7.22 Push/pull blocking oscillator

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 116 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Two state circuits, with abrupt transition from one state to the other, can be arranged
with RC coupled amplifiers in place of the transformer coupling described. The basic
circuit has the output of one transistor connected to the input of another and vice versa.
Such devices are called free running (astable) multivibrators. If instead of two unstable
states only one is arranged, the circuit is called a monostable triggered multivibrator
or univibrator (flip-flop). The effect of a pulse is to flip the circuit into the unstable state
whereupon normal multivibrator action allows flop back into the stable state. A flip-
flop circuit is described in Chapter 16. Another method is to ‘clip’ sinusoidal waves using
zener diodes. Power supplies often ± 6 V, that is, of this order of magnitude.

Other Devices

Electronic digital devices are greatly used in logic circuits and computing, typical
applications are considered in Chapter 16. The speed of response and reliability of
transistor switching greatly enhance its use in annunciator and control circuits.

Certain specialist equipment, mainly used in analysis, such as ultra violet recorders,
wave and transfer function analysers etc. is best described from specialist literature
if required. Perhaps the most important in this respect is the oscilloscope, originally
known as the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).

Oscilloscope

The oscilloscope is shown in Figure 7.23. The full circuit includes power supply packs
and amplifiers. In addition a relaxation oscillator timebase (multivibrator saw tooth
generator) is required.

In Figure 7.23, the electron beam from the gun is focussed on to a fluorescent screen and
the glass tube is under high vacuum (pressure 10−6 mmHg). Input signals represented
as voltages are connected to the Y plates and deflections produced are shown on
the vertical axis of the screen. The timebase circuit is connected to the X plates and
the beam is deflected horizontally from the left to right with uniform speed and then
returned in almost zero time.

Although computer monitors are now used to perform many of the applications now
associated with measurement of electrical waveforms the oscilloscope is still heavily
used as a measurement device. Battery supplied scopes are robust and flexible, digital

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 Electronic Devices • 117

Heater
cathode
Screen
Modulator
Electron lens

Electron beam

Y X
Plates Plates

Electron
gun

▲ Figure 7.23 Oscilloscope

scopes have exceptional ability to detect spurious events and for some applications
cathode ray devices are preferred for their inherent responsiveness.

Other applications in analysis are numerous. A relevant practical application of the

scope is display of a pressure volume diagram from an IC engine. Screen scales can be
calibrated directly in the required units and the application of integration gives power
and torque characteristic on display.

Light emitting diode

The light emitting diode (LED) emits light when forward biased. Gallium arsenide gives
out energy as infra red radiation; phosphides and indium give green and yellow. LEDs
are well established as on-off or fault indicators and can be used in arrays, etc. Their low
power consumption makes them ideal for intrinsic safety applications.

LED technology continues to develop. Blue and white LEDs are now established as
options for low energy luminaries.

▲ Figure 7.24 LED

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 118 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Common applications in control are in optics whereby an electrical signal may be

converted to light for signalling purposes. The common symbol for the LED is shown in
Figure 7.24.

Photo-transistor

Photo-transistors have a base (or gate) connection which is light sensitive. The collector
and emitter arrangement may be as for a bipolar device so that a light signal may be
used to control electrical current. Photo-transistors and LEDs find extensive applications
in digital transmission of data.

Opto-coupler

Multi-channel devices combining the properties of LEDs and photo-transistors are now
used in digital instrumentation and control systems. They offer the benefit assisting
separation between low energy signals and electrical interference often generated by
electrical power systems.

Radio communication

The production, transmission and detection of sound or picture information is

by electromagnetic waves – the range and spectrum of such radiation is given in
Figure 7.26 (see also Figure 7.8).

Frequency Hz

103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021

103 100 10–3 10–6 10–9 10–12

Wavelength m
Radio x
Long Short VHF UHF Radar
I Red U Violet y

Visible

▲ Figure 7.25 Photo-transistor

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 Electronic Devices • 119

▲ Figure 7.26 Electromagnetic radiation spectrum

Fibre optics

Modulated emitted light (diode/laser) is pulsed at high frequency through optical

glass fibre cable then converted to electrical signal. Advantages – easy multiplexing,
no interference or hazards.

Test Examples

1. Explain why electronic devices are inherently suitable for display systems and
generally unsuitable for actuating systems. Describe any method by which a small
electrical signal may be amplified.
2. State the purpose served by transistors. Sketch the circuit diagram for an npn
voltage amplifier. Explain the precautions which should be taken regarding care,
handing and operating environment for transistorised devices.
3. Describe a halfwave rectifier. Sketch the output waveform: (i) without, (ii) with
a capacitor across the purely resistive load terminals. What modifications are
necessary to give fullwave rectification?
4. Draw a circuit diagram of a single-stage common emitter transistor amplifier.
Indicate the type of transistor and the supply polarities. Give details of one cause of
distortion that can arise in the circuit.

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 8
FINAL
CONTROLLING
ELEMENTS
Final controlling elements act directly on the controlled body, process or machine. In a
servo-mechanism this is a servo-motor, rectilinear or rotary, receiving amplifier output
and driving the load. Correcting unit (motor and correcting element) is applicable
to process control systems. An actuator is a motor with limited rotary or rectilinear
motion.

Correcting Units

Such devices may be pneumatically, hydraulically or electrically operated or a

combination and the word motor is applicable to all.

Diaphragm operated control valve

This unit, as described, is pneumatically operated and can be described in three parts:
motor, valve and positioner. Figure 8.1 refers to a fuel variable but is applicable to
any similar variable. Ring gland seals of Teflon, Neoprene bonding or aluminium foil
braiding are used, often lubricated.

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 Final Controlling Elements • 121

Hand jack

Hand jack
packing

Air

Diaphragm

Positioner
Spindle
packing

▲ Figure 8.1 Fuel oil control valve with positioner

Motor element

Air pressure acts on top of a synthetic rubber diaphragm and is opposed by upward
spring force, oil flow is right to left, hand regulation is possible and the fail-safe position
is shut (up). The pressure-stroke characteristic is based on linear which requires a
large constant area diaphragm, minimum friction and a linear spring force-deflection
characteristic. A limited travel motor-actuator-reverse action.

Correcting element (valve)

The valve can be single seated reverse action as shown, or direct action single seated,
or double seated (direct or reverse) which give balanced valve forces and less operating
energy and are widely used. Materials for all components depend on the medium being
controlled. The overall flow characteristic requires to be assessed for the piping system
as a whole, as well as for the valve, to achieve design conditions. In general valves may
be simplified into three types of variable % flow–% valve lift characteristics. Mitre valves
with wings (bevel or poppet) usually give inverted near parabola characteristics best
suited to on-off operation. Vee port (in wings) high lift or modified parabolic contoured

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 122 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

valve plugs can be designed for proportional control. Characteristics are then a true
linear relation between flow and valve travel for the former and near parabolic equal
percentage, that is, equal increments of valve travel give equal percentage change in
existing flow, for the latter. These three types are sometimes defined as quick opening,
linear and semi-logarithmic.

Maximum controllable flow %

Turn Down Ratio =
Minimum controllable flow%

That is, each a percentage of the theoretical (100%) flow.

Positioner

Such devices are necessary when:

a. there is a high pressure drop across the valve,

b. the valve is remote from the controller,
c. the medium being controlled is viscous,
d. there are high gland pressures required.

Essentially each of the above effectively increase friction, hysteresis or unbalanced

forces acting on the valve spindle. The positioner provides extra power to position the
valve accurately and speedily to offset these effects (Figure 8.2).

2 position
control Air supply
unit

Valve
movement

Controller
output pressure
p

▲ Figure 8.2 Valve positioner

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 Final Controlling Elements • 123

A motion feedback device from the valve spindle senses deviation between the
desired value position input signal and the actual valve position and supplies extra
correcting power. A flapper is connected at one end to the valve spindle and to a
pressure bellows at the other, with the nozzle between the two. Increase of p increases
pressure on the diaphragm until valve movement restores the flapper to the throttle
position and equilibrium is restored. Further speed boost can be added, as shown, by
inserting a pneumatic relay to apply full air pressure to the diaphragm. Both positioner
and relay (as described in Chapter 10) act as pneumatic amplifiers. Valve positioners
are very often used in sequence operation of valves in a system, that is, split range
control (Chapter 13). Double seated valves (two inlets through ends, outlet at centre)
are often used giving three way mixing and bypass arrangements on engine coolant
systems.

Piston operated control valve

Double seated valves with balanced valve forces are invariably utilised with diaphragm
control valves because of the characteristics of this actuator. However the piston
type actuator gives powerful valve forces, long stroke and accurate positioning so
that single seated valves can be used which often have a more desirable flow pattern
and require less maintenance. In the direct acting type a loading pressure on top of a
piston (down force) is maintained constant (supply air via combined reducing-relief
valve). Actuating air on the bottom of the piston (up force) is controlled in pressure
by a small relay pilot valve, diaphragm operated from input signal, and connecting to
supply (open up) or vent (close down).

Torque actuated control valve

There are two air motors, one for each direction of rotation of the valve spindle. Motors
are transverse to spindle and rotate the spindle by a ratchet and toothed wheel. Motors
are standard diaphragm or piston mechanisms. High torques for large valve forces can
be achieved by multiple diaphragms or duplication of motors. A diagrammatic sketch
is shown in Figure 8.3.

An alternative design utilises electric motor gear drive to the spindle by a similar
arrangement. The motor must be reversible, variable speed and fitted with limit
switches.

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 124 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Spindle
Motor

Air

Flow

▲ Figure 8.3 Torque actuated valve

Rotary cylinder control valve

The valve consists of a semi-rotary shutter operating in the square throat section of
the valve passage. Operating torque is transmitted to the shutter gate via a spindle
perpendicular to flow direction. The ‘swing through’ design of butterfly valve requires
a good spindle seal and tight shut off is best arranged by closure of shutter against a
flexible disc. Such valves are best suited to throttling operation between about 15° and
60° for reasonable turn down ratios. Torque requirement is not high and linear actuators
of any design are suitable. It is characterised by equal % flow.

Wax element temperature control valve

This type has a copper capsule containing wax whose expansion varies with temperature.
Movement is transmitted via a diaphragm, plunger and linkage to vary the position of
a shutter which rotates in the valve body. The valve is best suited to mixing or bypass
conditions, control normally being limited to a range of temperature of about 10°C, fail-
safe inherent in design. While the self-contained simple design is attractive for many
duties it is a fixed control. Figure 8.4 is a diagrammatic representation. Temperature rise
causing down-movement of the plunger, clockwise rotation, closing right and opening
left outlet connection. The basic three-port valve body can be designed with the
shutter operated by an external pneumatic cylinder operated from a remote pressure
controller activated by a temperature sensitive element.

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 Final Controlling Elements • 125

Inlet

Wax

Shutter

Outlet Outlet

▲ Figure 8.4 Wax element actuated valve

Servo-Motors

May be rectilinear or rotary; operated by air, fluid or electricity; applied in either process
or kinetic control systems.

Electric motors dc

Essentially the servo-motor is a conventional motor, series, shunt or compound, with

control of field current or armature voltage by the controlling device. High torque and
low inertia is required so that armatures are reduced in diameter and lengthened. Good
commutation over a wide range of speeds is necessary and design must allow for peak
transient changes. Performance is limited by heating caused by high armature currents
and magnetic saturation of iron paths. Reversal is arranged by reversing the current
through the field or armature via the controlling device, which is generally satisfactory,
although split field motors can be used.

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 126 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Electric motors ac

The three-phase cage rotor induction motor is a desirable machine in electrical work,
being low cost, robust and reliable. Unfortunately starting torque is low and the
torque-speed characteristic is non-linear so that control is difficult. Through most of the
twentieth century for servo use the torque characteristic had to be improved by using
high resistance rotors which unfortunately generate extra heat and cost. Commutator
motors are available but add to complexity and cost. However, toward the end of the
century variable frequency (and voltage) drives based on thyristor and then transistor
systems became commercially viable.

The two-phase induction motor is used in low power systems especially for position
control. Applications include instrument potentiometers, bridges and pen recorders.
Such a motor has two stator coils wound at right angles, which are fed with alternating
currents 90° out of phase, to produce the rotating magnetic field. For reasonable
modulation, torque is proportional to the two currents. If a fixed voltage and frequency
is applied to one reference winding, then torque is proportional to the voltage of the
other winding, which is connected to represent the amplitude of the control signal.
Characteristics, especially with a high resistance rotor, are reasonably linear over a
limited range. Heat generation at reference field and rotor are high.

Single-phase motors for servo systems are unsatisfactory except for on-off control and
special starting arrangements, such as split phase, are required.

Synchronous motors can be used for low power drives such as pen recorders, etc. where
synchronism of timing is required.

Hydraulic ram servo

Used for linear actuation, that is, ram or jack type, but can be utilised as a torque device
with multiple rams. Generally a medium control performance system used in position
devices. Normally short stroke but can operate with long stroke and high pressures
(ship steering gear). There is little in the construction calling for special attention.

Hydraulic variable delivery pump

Not strictly a final controlling element but has important applications in hydraulic
control systems with output to hydraulic servo-motor (linear or rotary). The swash plate
pump is a good example with alternatives such as Hele–Shaw eccentric slipper, tilting

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 Final Controlling Elements • 127

Valve plate
Plunger

Pad Rotor

Swash plate

▲ Figure 8.5 Variable delivery pump

trunnion, cam operated ball piston, etc. The hydraulic motor is virtually a reverse pump
and has similar construction. Consider Figure 8.5 illustrating the swash plate type.

Slipper pads bear against the swash plate face and plungers are driven in and out axially
for each revolution of the rotor. The swash plate movement varies effective stroke and
can reverse the flow. A number of axial plungers are used in the rotor. Delivery can be
to an identical motor with fixed swash plate.

Other types, particularly using a booster supply pump, have a similar design and can
give discharge pressures over 140 bar. Higher pressures give smaller components and
very positive action.

Hydraulic rotary vane servo

Details are as sketched in Figure 8.6. Rotation depends on which side of the vane
is connected to the pump pressure feed, this should be clear from the plan view as
sketched. The large rotary vane unit is normally designed for a maximum pressure
of about 90 bar as distortion and leakage are liable to occur at higher pressures. The
design is simple and effective. In fact the apparent space and weight saving is not as
great as may be imagined due to the higher pressures and integrated construction
utilised in modern hydraulic ram designs. There is, however, a definite space saving
but the first cost is higher. Absorption and transmission of torque relief is essential to
avoid excess radial loading of vanes. The three-vane type is used for rudder angles to
70°. Steel sealing strips backed by synthetic rubber are fitted into grooves along the
working faces of rotor and stator vanes.

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 128 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Oil manifold

1
2 elevation
(part section detail)

Full plan
(part section detail)
Shock
absorber

Stator

Rotor

Steel Anchor
sealing bracket
strips

▲ Figure 8.6 Hydraulic rotary vane servo

Pneumatic piston servo

Refer to Figure 8.7. The pilot valve has two outlets, one to the top and one to the bottom
of the servo-piston. If the valve is displaced from its neutral position then pressure at
one port increases while at the other port it decreases, so causing piston movement.
The movement of the piston is arranged, via linkage gear and cam, to vary the tension
on a spring giving an opposing moment to the signal pressure on the bellows. When
these two moments balance the pilot valve is at middle or neutral position and the
pressures on each side of the servo-piston balance, thus locking the piston.

(In the case of a diaphragm valve the pilot valve would only have one outlet to the
diaphragm top, the valve stem movement via the gear linkage and cam would alter the
spring restoring movement until equilibrium existed.) An incoming air signal inflates

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 Final Controlling Elements • 129

Balance beam

Bellows

Cam

Pilot
valve
Servo
piston Follower

Spring

Positioner

▲ Figure 8.7 Pneumatic piston servo and positioner

the bellows causing the balance beam to pivot about the right-hand end and operate
the pilot valve. This produces a second air signal whose relationship to the first signal is
dependent on the tension in the spring attached to the beam end point.

The mechanical movement of the valve, or other control device being operated, is
transmitted by a driving rod to the cam and linkage, thereby adjusting the tension
in the spring. By using a suitably shaped cam the position of the regulating unit to
which the positioner is attached may be given a predetermined relationship with the
incoming air signal.

1/120 bar change in signal pressure will give full travel to the pilot valve which could
give 1 1/3 bar variation in output pressure.

Other servo-motors

Variable couplings and clutches can be used, either hydraulic or electric, for rotary
speed control. Electromagnetic solenoid devices, linear and rotary, are available for
many purposes including electrical contact and relay operation and incremental digital
stepping motors.

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Test Examples

1. Make a detailed sketch of a simple diaphragm-operated control valve, such as a

reducing valve, although any other type of a similar control valve will be accepted.
Analyse the action of the interconnecting elements, that is, those parts affecting
control. Explain how load changes are sensed and the command signals are
transmitted to the actuator.
2. An air damper is controlled in position by variable air pressure to a pneumatic
actuator. Sketch and describe the system, describe the actuator and explain its
mode of operation.
3. Sketch and describe a control valve of the wax element type and show how it is
incorporated into a coolant system.
4. With the aid of simple sketches explain briefly what is meant by:
(i) a direct-acting diaphragm-operated valve;
(ii) a reverse-acting diaphragm-operated valve;
(iii) a linear characteristic valve;
(iv) an equal percentage characteristic valve.
Make a diagrammatic sketch of a valve positioner and explain its action.

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 PROCESS CONTROL
9
THEORY
Terminology

The following definitions should be considered in relation to Figure 9.1, which refers
to the loop system. Other definitions of terms are given at the appropriate place in the
text to cover and clarify essential points. Process control is concerned with physical
quantities involving variables such as temperature, pressure, flow, level, etc.

Accuracy

Accuracy is the conformity of an indicated value to an accepted standard value, or true

value. It is usually measured in terms of inaccuracy and expressed as accuracy.

It is a number or quantity which defines the limit that errors will not exceed, when
the device is used under reference operating conditions. The units to be used must be
stated explicitly. Typically a + and – sign precede the number or quantity. The absence
of a sign infers both signs (±).

Accuracy can be expressed in a number of forms:

Accuracy expressed in percentage of span, for example, ±1.5%.
Accuracy expressed in terms of the measured variable units, for example, ±1°C.

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 132 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Accuracy expressed in percentage of the maximum range value.

Accuracy expressed in percentage of actual reading.
Accuracy for a system with three elements:
A sensor with an accuracy of 1%.
A transmitter with an accuracy of 0.5%.
An indicator with an accuracy of 1%.
Absolute accuracy: + or –1 + or –0.5+ or –1 = + or –2.5%.
Most likely accuracy (Root Mean Square) = SQRT[(±1)2 ±(0.5)2±(1)2] = 1.5%.

Ambient

This is the surrounding environment with reference to the subject.

Attenuation

Attenuation is a decrease in signal magnitude over a period of time.

Automatic controller (Automatic regulator)

A portion of an automatic controlling or regulating system in which a signal representing

the controlled condition is compared with a signal representing the command signal
and which operates in such a way as to reduce the deviation.

Note. The two functions of an automatic controller or regulator, namely to determine

the deviation and to generate the control signal dependent on the deviation, are
in many devices carried out by two separate parts, the comparing element and the
controlling element respectively.

Calibration

The procedure of comparing and determining the performance accuracy is called

calibration. To configure a device so that the required output represents (to a defined
degree of accuracy) the respective input.

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 Process Control Theory • 133

Cascade control system

A control system in which one controller provides the command signal to one or more
other controllers.

Closed loop

Relates to a control loop where the process variable is used to calculate the controller
output. In a closed loop system the control action is independent of desired output.

Controller

This is a device which operates automatically to regulate the control of a process with
a control variable.

Control system

An arrangement of elements (amplifiers, converters, human operators, etc.)

interconnected and interacting in such a way as to maintain or affect, in a prescribed
manner, some condition of a body, process or machine which forms part of the system.

Command signal

The quantity or signal which is set or varied by some device or human agent external to
and independent of the control system and which is intended to determine the value
of the controlled condition. Symbol γi.

Converted command signal

A physical quantity related only to the command signal, and normally proportional to
it, but of a different physical kind suitable for operating the comparing element or the
coordinating element. Symbol θi.

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 134 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Note. In definitions where there is no ambiguity the term ‘command signal’ will be used
to imply the command signal itself or the converted command signal.

Comparing element

The element which accepts, in physically similar form, the command signal and
the controlled condition, or their equivalents, and determines the deviation or the
converted deviation.

Converted deviation

A physical quantity related only to the deviation, and normally proportional to it, but
of a different physical kind suitable for operating the amplifier element. It may also be
used for operating other elements in the system. Symbol θ = θ0 – θi.

Author’s note: Often written as θ = θi – θo, γ = γi – γ0.

Controlled condition

The physical quantity or condition of the controlled body, process or machine which it
is the purpose of the system to control. Symbol γ0.

Converted controlled condition

A physical quantity related only to the controlled condition and normally proportional
to it, but of a different physical kind suitable for operating the comparing element or
the co-ordinating element. Symbol θ0.
Note. In definitions where there is no ambiguity the term controlled condition will be
used to imply the controlled condition itself or the converted controlled condition.

Correcting unit

Of a process control system. The single unit containing the motor element and
correcting element in a process control system.

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 Process Control Theory • 135

Correcting element

The final controlling element in a process control system.

Dead time

The time interval between a change in a signal and the initiation of a perceptible
response to that change (a dead band region may exist on a controller).

Desired value

The value of the controlled condition which the operator desires to obtain.

Detecting element

The element which responds directly to the value of the controlled condition.

Deviation

The difference between the measured value of the controlled condition and the
command signal. Symbol γ= γ0 – γi.

Distance velocity lag

That time interval between an alteration in the value of a signal and its manifestation
unchanged at a later stage arising solely from the finite speed of propagation of the
signal.

For example, the time it takes for a heating effect to travel with the fluid from heat
source to detection element along a lagged pipeline. Lag = Distance/Velocity. Causes
phase lag. Theoretically no magnitude change.

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 136 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Error (absolute)

Algebraic difference between the indication and the true value of a quantity to be
measured. Absolute error = indication – true value. ΔX = X′ – X.

Input element

The element which is included, when necessary, to convert the actual command signal
into a converted command signal suitable for operating the comparing element.

Note. In some systems there is no input element as the command signal is taken,
without conversion, direct to the comparing element.

Load

The rate at which material or energy is fed into, or removed from, the plant (on a process
control or regulating system). (1) The controlled device. (2) The properties (e.g. inertia,
friction) of the controlled device that affect the operation of the system (of a kinetic
control system).

Measuring element

The element which responds to the signal from the detecting element and gives a
signal representing the controlled condition.

Measuring unit

A unit which gives a signal representing the controlled condition. It comprises a

detecting element and measuring element.

Note. Such a unit is used as the monitoring element of a process control system.

Measured variable

This is the physical quantity or condition which is to be measured.

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 Process Control Theory • 137

Monitoring feedback

The feedback of a signal representing the controlled condition along a separate path
provided for that purpose, for comparison with a signal representing the command
signal to form a signal representing the deviation (see Figure 9.1).

Motor element

The element which adjusts the correcting element in response to a signal from an
automatic controller.

Offset (droop)

Sustained deviation.

Processed
converted
Converted deviation
command Converted Controlled
Command Correcting unit Action condition
signal signal deviation
γi θi θ Amplifying φ A γo
Input Comparing and signal Motor Correcting Controlled
element element processing element element plant
elements

θo Converted
controlled
condition

Measuring unit
Controllers (monitoring element)

γo
Measuring Detecting
element Controlled element
condition

▲ Figure 9.1 Simple automatic control system showing some combinations of elements

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 138 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Overshoot

The difference between the maximum instantaneous value of the step function
response and its steady state value.

Process

The act of physically or chemically changing, including combining, matter or of

converting energy.

Process control system

A control system which is used to control some physical quantity or condition of a

process.

Set value (set point)

This is the command signal to a process system.

Settling time

The time taken to approach a final steady state within specified limits.

Note. The settling time depends on the limits specified and is meaningless unless these
limits are specified.

Example. In the particular case of a series LR circuit subject to a step function of voltage,
the settling time of the current to within 1% of its final value is approximately five times
the time constant L/R.

Signal processing

The processing of the information contained in a signal by modulating, demodulating,

mixing, gating, computing or filtering.

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 Process Control Theory • 139

Transfer lag

That part of the transmission characteristic, exclusive of distance-velocity lag,

which modifies the time-amplitude relationship of a signal and thus delays the full
manifestation of its influence.

For example the measure lag for the detection element, which is dependent on R and
C, causes phase lag and reduces amplitude.

The aim is to keep inherent lags as small as possible, together with reducing inertia and
increasing stiffness (or their equivalents) for the system. The alternative is to increase
system gain but this can create instability.

Response of Detection Elements

Time lags obviously occur in a plant due to the individual lags of components and
transmission of signal lags. The lags must be fully evaluated before the control design
can be established. As an illustration the lag of a temperature detector element can be
considered:

Consider a detector element which is directly inserted in a pipeline. The fluid flowing
increases in temperature at a uniform rate of say 10°C in 1 min.

Refer to Figure 9.2. The first indication of temperature change at the detector element
may be after about say 2 min and there may be a constant lag at a given reading of
about 6 min (ramp input).

If θF is the fluid temperature and θE is the element temperature:

F θ E α CE RF

CE is thermal capacity of element (mass times specific heat), RF is liquid to element

thermal resistance to heat flow

θ F θ E = kCE RF

where k is a constant.

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 140 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

κτ
Value of signals, °C

Input signal
θF
Output signal
θE

Response
2 6
Time, minutes

▲ Figure 9.2 Linear response of detector element

Measuring lag is θF – θE (say °C), CE RF is the time constant τ (say minutes)

θF θE = kτ

This lag consideration is based on linear variation: if the variation was exponential then
the measure lag is usually arbitrarily defined in terms of the time it takes for the output
signal amplitude to reach 63.2% of the input signal amplitude. The lag time on the
sketch is given in minutes but should preferably be reduced to seconds in practice.
Figure 9.2 assumes fairly heavily damped response. Under-damped response would
show in oscillation curves about the line θE.

If the disturbance causing the variation is a continuous sine form variation the
appearance would be as in Figure 9.3, note that the response has a reduced amplitude
and has a phase lag. τ is the time lag of detecting element, n is the period of process
disturbance, attenuation applies as gain is less than unity.

Considering the case of a temperature detector element in a pocket then to reduce

lags the time constant (CR) must be reduced to give quick response and the following
would be aimed at:

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 Process Control Theory • 141

Phase
Input lag
φ
signal
Output signal
Value of signals (response)

c
d 4 Time 8

Gain (amplification) = d/c

Attenuation (loss) = c/d
φ = tan–1 2πr radians
n

▲ Figure 9.3 Steady state response to sinusoidal signal

1. A close fitting thermometer in a pocket with immersion in a high conductivity fluid.

2. Clean fittings and a high velocity for the fluid to be measured (turbulent flow).
3. Light, good conductivity pocket material using deep immersion into the flow of
fluid.
4. Reduced piping distances, friction and inertia effects.

Types of control action

Can be illustrated by any variable; level is selected for this chapter.

Two-step controller action (on/off control)

Temperature

Time

This is the action of a controller whose output signal changes from one predetermined
value to another when the deviation changes sign.

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 142 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

It should be noted that the limits are not necessarily on-off although this is often used
(see Figure 9.4), especially in digital systems (Chapter 16).

A typical example of two-step controller action would be liquid-level control in a tank

with a varying supply and a required continuous and steady outflow. Overlap, which
could be adjustable, allows working between predetermined limits (differential gap or
overlap) and gives less irregular action; this would be suitable, as another example, for
refrigeration motor cut in and out control by room temperature.

Lag tends to allow overshoot and this should normally be reduced to reasonable limits.
The closeness of control is influenced by the capacity of the system and also that
property of an uncontrolled system to reach equilibrium for a fixed set of conditions
(inherent regulation).

Such action of two-step control is a simple but most useful method with numerous
applications in practice. By arranging more chosen values and corresponding correcting
signal steps the control can be made much closer with less overshoot, this method is
termed multi-step controller action.
Controlled condition γ0

γ01

Overlap
γ02

Time
Controller output
signal V

Time

▲ Figure 9.4 The action of a two-step controller with overlap

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 Process Control Theory • 143

Proportional control action (P)

Temperature

Time

The action of a controller whose output signal V (or Φ) is proportionate to the

deviation θ.

θ is the difference between the measured value of the controlled condition θ0 and the
command signal θi.

Vα θ
V K 1θ

The negative sign denotes that the correction signal is opposite in direction to
the deviation. K1 a constant depending on the controller characteristic is called the
proportional action factor.

Potential correction Φ (change of actual controlled condition γ0) is proportional to the

movement of the correcting unit (which depends on V).

Φα V
Φ = C1 V

where C1 is a constant depending on the correcting unit characteristic.

Now

V K 1θ
Φ = −K 1C1θ
Φ = −μθ

μ = Φ/θ and is numerically the proportional control factor, or simply the controller gain,
a typical value, in pneumatics, may be about 15.

Referring to Figure 9.5 and assuming linear characteristics, it is desired to maintain a

fixed height h in the tank while the outflow demand varies. As this is self-operating
(no intervening medium such as compressed air) we can utilise V, K1 and θ as symbols.

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 144 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

p q
P
–K1 = V 0.05 mm/m
θ
q ∼ 1×100 Adjusting
Ratio
p 0.05 screw
∼ 2000
1

θ = 1 m up

Float 25 m

V = 0.05 mm down Travel = 10 m

Valve travel
= 0 – 5 mm

▲ Figure 9.5 Liquid level control by self-operating controller

If h is set for 10 m, assume the valve is then 0.25 mm from the seat, K1 = 0.05 mm/m
(decided by leverage), then if h increases to 11 m the valve movement to shut in is 0.05
(11 – 10) = 0.05 mm, that is, the new valve position is 0.3 mm from the seat. There is no
controller gain here, much the reverse in fact.

Proportional band

That range of values of deviation corresponding to the full operating range of output
signal of the controlling unit, from proportional action only.

This band can be expressed as a percentage of the range of values of the controlled
condition which the measuring unit of the controller is designed to measure (see
Figures 9.6 and 9.7).

( Total valve span)

Proportional band = ×100
(Total measure span)× K 1

For the example for the given level controller, if the full measurement scale is from 0
to 20 m head, that is, 100%, and the full valve stroke is 0.5 mm, that is, 100% then 10 m
fully strokes the valve (i.e. 0.05 × 10 = 0.5).

10
Proportional band = ×100 = 50%
20

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 Process Control Theory • 145

Set
value

Controller ro to full scale

Ze
por
t pro tional flection give
n b De –2¼ ba s
ce 100 1¼ r

an
r
Pe

d
20 200
Indicator Adjuster Signal
Correcting
signal knob 1¼–2¼ bar

Measuring instrument
Valve for variable
positioner
Proportional band is per cent pointer
travel at instrument to give total
valve travel at control valve
100% P.B. pointer full scale for full V/V travel
Total
20% P.B. pointer th full scale for full V/V travel
valve
200% P.B. pointer full scale for ½ full V/V travel
travel

▲ Figure 9.6 Proportional band (not to scale)

20%
proportional
band

100
0%
20%

20%

10
Controller output range (%)

80
%
200

60

%
200
40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Measuring unit range (%)

▲ Figure 9.7 Proportional band

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 146 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Alternatively:

05
Proportional band = × 100 = 50%
0 05 × 20

If the proportional bandwidth is narrow then a big controlling movement is required

for a small deviation, and the control is sensitive, that is, high value of K1 and a small
offset results (see later). Too narrow a proportional bandwidth can however cause
instability and hunting. The practical result is a compromise, the set value must of
course be within the band.

Note: For good control the following are essential.

1. A high deviation reduction factor (hence high μ), that is, small deviation from
set value after a disturbance. High μ, means high K1 highly sensitive, narrow
proportional band, etc.
2. Minimum offset.
3. Low value of subsidence ratio at short oscillating period, that is, quick return to set
value after a disturbance.

These are achieved by plant analysis. Widening a proportional band causes an increase
of offset, of damping and of period of oscillation.

Offset

This is the sustained deviation due to an inherent characteristic of proportional control

action. (It should be noted that with all proportional controllers the set value differs from
the desired value by varying amounts depending on the given load conditions.) If K1 is
large, for a given deviation, the offset will be small; K1 is dependent on the proportional
band of the controller (see Figure 9.8). Consider the following analogy (as shown in
Figure 10.4).

A spring hanging from a support, with a mass of say 10 kg on the end, will have a
certain extension and the mass will be at a certain vertical position X. If the mass is
pulled down and released it will oscillate but will finally return to X. This is an example
of proportional action in that the spring restoring force is proportional to the extension
(also opposite in direction). The desired value position X is always reached.

Now if the mass is changed to say 20 kg, then after oscillation it will not return to X but
will return to a new position of equilibrium Y. Offset will be the difference between the
X and Y positions.

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 Process Control Theory • 147

Initial load

Load
Final load

Subsidence ratio - a/b

(for damped oscillation)
Controlled condition value

a
b
Final offset
Set value
Desired value
Initial
offset

Time

▲ Figure 9.8 Proportional controller action

This means, with proportional control, where a set value (the command signal to
a process control system) at a given load occurs it will only give coincidence with the
desired value at that load. At any other load offset exists. If this offset is acceptable to
a plant the proportional controller is satisfactory. If the offset is too great additional
refinements have to be incorporated into the controller (see Figures 9.10, 9.11 and
integral action later). In many cases of practical description in this book and elsewhere, for
simplicity, desired value, set value or set point, etc., are all used for the same thing and no
distinction is made on a fine point of principle.

Figure 9.9 illustrates another analogy using level control, that is, equilibrium before and
after a demand change with two different heads and valve settings.

Example of a human control loop. A man regulates the water inlet valve to a tank to
maintain gauge level with variable outflow demand. He is told the level required
(desired value), will see the level (measured value), after a change will compare the
two and decide on adjustment (correcting action), and finally there is amplification
for muscle action to operate the valve (correcting element). Proportional control will
arrest the change and hold it steady but at a point different from the original set value
due to the load change. The human operator would bring the level back to the desired
value after arresting the level, that is, he would apply re-set (integral) action to remove
offset. Overshoot would not occur because the operator would not, while adjusting
for offset, go on altering the valve right up until offset was gone. He would ease down
valve adjustment rate as desired value was approached, that is, apply a damping action,
based on rate (derivative).

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 148 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Valve Fulcrum
Inlet

Orginal offset
Desired value
Final offset- Float Old set value
New set value

Demand

▲ Figure 9.9 Simple proportional action control loop

Summation signal P+I Valve

positioner

Integral
Integral action unit
signal Reading
Proportional Sensor
Summing
signal
unit
2–term controller
Proportional Demand
action unit

▲ Figure 9.10 Proportional plus integral control loop

Integral control action (I)

This is the action of a controller whose output signal changes at a rate which is
proportional to the deviation.

Note: The object of integral control action is to reduce offset to zero.

dV
∝ −θ
dt

by the definition given above dt

dV
= −K 2 θ
dt

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 Process Control Theory • 149

K2 is called the integral action factor.

Φ = C1V
Φ = −C1K 2 ∫ θdt
Φ = −p ∫ d t

ρ is called the integral control factor.

Thus the potential correction Φ at a given time t is proportional to the area between the
desired and recorded values 0 ∫ 1 θdt is a mathematical way of writing that area. Rate
of change of potential correction with respect to time is proportional to the deviation
{dΦ/dt expresses mathematically rate of change of Φ with respect to t}.

Now

μ = C1K 1
ρ = C1K 2

and

K1 μ
∴ = =S
K2 ρ

Integral action time (S)

By definition: In a controller having proportional plus integral action, the time interval
in which the part of the output signal due to integral action increases by an amount
equal to the part of the output signal due to proportional action, when the deviation
is unchanging.
Temperature

Time

After time S then Vp = V1 and the controller output change equals 2Vp. Note that
S = μ/ρ, that is, integral action reduces controller gain. The larger the S time setting the
lesser the contribution from integral action to the potential correction. S is increased by
increasing resistance.

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 150 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Figure 9.11 is given assuming an instantaneous deviation change. This change is

referred to as step function input. Deviation under proportional action alone would
constantly increase, giving bigger offset, but the addition of integral action maintains
a constant deviation.

A more likely short-term action would give integral action until deviation ceased, that
is, no offset. Integral action reduces a previously fixed controller gain μ and introduces
extra lag, so is undesirable, it should not be used unless the use of a wide proportional
band gives too big offsets. See Figure 9.12.

Desired value
Deviation
θ

At time t 2: V1 = Vp

Controller Integral action t2

output adjustment V1 = –k2∫ θ dt
Ha∫ θdr between t1 and t2 t1
signal Immediate
proportional action VP = –k1θ
adjustment at t1
s
Integral action
time
t1 t t2
Time

▲ Figure 9.11 Proportional and integral controller action

1 2 3
Pen Overshoot
Level line

Load change Oscillatory

chart hunting

Level recorder

Too little integral Too much integral Correction integral

action effect, i.e. action effect, i.e. action effect, i.e.
reset takes a long overshoot and long verv slight overshoot
time time to damp out and quick damping

▲ Figure 9.12 Integral action time

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 Process Control Theory • 151

Adjusting
screw

Small piston
A Float
Slave
piston
B
Link

▲ Figure 9.13 Integral action on liquid-level control

Referring to Figure 9.13. If the level rises, the small piston moves up and high-pressure
fluid flows through the top port and returns through port B, this action via the link
closes the valve to reduce the inflow. This movement will always continue as long as
a deviation exists and the rate of travel depends on the area of the top port opening,
which is proportional to the deviation. Conversely fall in level causes oil to flow in at the
bottom port and return through port A. The only time the valve is not moving is at the
desired value, offset will never be possible.

Note: Proportional plus integral (P + I) can be applied by including the link shown
dotted in Figure 9.13. For a rising float, above set point, both act in the same direction
downwards to close the valve, pivot P can be moved to vary the individual actions. For
a falling float above set point the actions are in opposition. For a falling float below set
point both act to open the valve. Integral action always tends to reduce offset. Integral
action is not used alone; if it was the characteristic would be similar to two-step action.
Note the use here of a hydraulic controller (small and slave piston) for the integral
action itself. Proportionally controlled first-order open loop systems, with an inherent
integration characteristic (e.g. shaped lavatory cisterns), respond exponentially to a
stop function when the loop is closed.

Derivative control action (D) (Basic action 4)

This is the action of a controller whose output signal is proportional to the rate at which
the deviation is changing.

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 152 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Note: The object of derivative control action is to give quicker response and supplement
inadequate proportional control damping.

dθ
V ∝− by definition above
dt
dθ
V Ka
dt

K3 is called the derivative action factor.

Φ = C1V
dθ
Φ = −C1K 3
dt
dθ
Φ = −η
dt

η is called the derivative control factor.

Now

μ = C1K 1
η = C1K a
K1 μ 1
∴ = =
K3 η T

Derivative action time (T)

By definition: In a controller having proportional plus derivative action, the time interval
in which the part of the output signal due to proportional action increases by an amount
equal to the part of the signal due to derivative action, when the deviation is changing
at a constant rate. Such deviation change is referred to as ramp function input.

In Figure 9.14 the derivative action is assumed instantaneous. After time T then VD = Vp
and total controller output signal change equals 2Vp. Use of derivative action increases
μ and gives phase lead, which are desirable, but T is limited as too much derivative
action may cause instability and hunting. Note that T = K3/K1 the larger the T setting
the greater the derivative action contribution to the potential correction (increased by
increasing resistance).

Referring to Figure 9.15. Now from mechanics, rate of change of displacement with
respect to time is velocity. At reasonable velocities damping resistance is proportional

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 Process Control Theory • 153

Desired value
Deviation
dθ Slope = dθ
dt
dt

At time t2 then VD =VP

Controller Proportional
action adjustment vP = –K1θ
output between t1 and t2
signal
Immediate
derivative action dθ
vD = –K3 dt
adjustment at t1
T
Derivative action
time
t1 t2
Time

▲ Figure 9.14 Proportional and derivative controller action

Adjusting
screw

Oil

Float
Piston
Cylinder
Spring

▲ Figure 9.15 Derivative action on liquid-level control

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 154 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

to velocity, so one would expect some form of damping device in this rate response
action.

Derivative control is not used alone, it is a transient condition which must be combined
with proportional control.

If the level rises at a certain rate the piston (in the dashpot) moves down at a certain
velocity; proportional to this velocity is a down force on the cylinder which acts to
close the valve in, the cylinder motion is resisted by a spring. Valve displacement is
proportional to down force. Whenever the float stops changing position the down
force ceases and the springs return the cylinder to its original position.

Note: Proportional plus derivative (P + D), the two terms can be applied by including
the link shown dotted; proportional plus derivative plus integral (P + D + I), the three
terms can be applied by including the link shown dotted and the link shown chain
dotted. For a rising float, for (P + D + I) with the arrangement shown, above set point, all
act in the same direction downward to close the valve, pivot P can be moved to affect
the value of all control factors.

Three-term controller

P + I + D actions, combined, are illustrated for level control in Figure 9.16.

Three-term controller

P+D Level sensor/

transducer
P+I+D

Valve
positioner

Supply Demand

▲ Figure 9.16 Three-term controller

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 Process Control Theory • 155

Distance time graphs of control actions

Refer to Figure 9.17. Such analysis gives a clear pictorial representation. Slope of a
distance time graph is velocity; an inclined straight line is constant velocity as the slope
is constant, a curve of decreasing slope represents deceleration. The top two diagrams
should be self-explanatory, relative heights depend on proportionality factor. For
integral action note that whenever the variable is away from desired value the integral
effect is always moving to correct. For the value at any instant on the integral sketch
think of the characteristic at that instant on the first sketch, applied on the opposite
side of the axis, and to a suitable scaled factor. For derivative action note that it opposes
the motion of the variable irrespective of the desired value.

The value of the signal on the fourth sketch is the change of slope of the first sketch,
again on the opposite side of axis, that is, slope only changes at four points on sketch
one and at such points the derivative effect is acting almost instantaneously.

Level
rise

Linear Sinusoidal Tank level

Set value
(variable)

Level
fall
Valve
open
Proportional
action signal
Valve
close

Valve
open
Integral
action signal
Valve
close
Valve
open
Derivative
action signal
Valve
close

Time Time

▲ Figure 9.17 Distance-time graphs of control actions

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 156 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Cascade control

Consider a multiple capacity system for level control, the two capacitor tank system
illustrated in Figure 9.18 is an example. Single capacitor systems respond quickly to
load changes and are easy to control utilising correct proportional band and reset
action but interaction occurs with multiple systems. Tank A acts as a lag effect on
the controlled process from tank B so the combination is less sensitive, especially to
supply variations. This is an inherent problem with large inertia (mass, heat capacity,
etc.) systems as, for example, in IC engine coolant circuits.

Consider Figure 9.18. There are two variables, supply and output demand, affecting
the controlled variable which is level in tank B. The slave controller with level sensing
from tank A controls the input supply control valve according to the set point and is a
single capacitor control loop for tank A. The master controller with level sensing from
tank B (the controlled variable) controls the input supply quantity to tank B, that is,
the level in tank A, and is a single capacitor control loop for tank B. This is achieved
because the master controller signal controls the set point of the slave controller. A
two capacitor system has therefore been simplified to two single capacitor systems
which are more easily controlled. Alternatively sensing for the slave could be flow
rate at supply rather than tank A level. The process can be extended to multi-capacity
systems with control of any desired variable. The principle is utilised very often in
practice, for example, IC engine coolant and Butterworth heating, as described in
Chapter 13. If a certain pressure range of controller output is divided up by relays or
controllers for different functions, in, for example, a sequence, this may be termed
Controlled

A B
level

Sensor Sensor Variable

Variable
supply demand

Control
valve Level Level
controller controller
Slave Master

Set point Set point

(variable) (fixed)

▲ Figure 9.18 Cascade control (level)

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 Process Control Theory • 157

split range control. This is also utilised in practice, for example, exhaust range pressure
control (Chapter 13).

Example – level control

When considering numerical questions it is often best to utilise a tabular approach as

the following example illustrates:

The sketch (Figure 9.19) shows a single element boiler water level control system.
Assuming that the system has been adjusted so that the level is at the desired value of
16 cm (‘half glass’) when the load is 500 kg/min, determine:

Steam flow (load)

0 – 600 kg/min
Boiler drum
32 cm

Level transmitter
20 – 100 kN/m2
–16 – +16 cm

Desired
value Reverse acting
controller
prop: band = 80%

Regulating unit
20 – 100 kN/m2
0 – 800 kg/min

Feed flow

▲ Figure 9.19 Example – level control

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 158 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

a. the offset if the load is reduced to zero,

b. the proportional band setting required such that the offset is limited to 8 cm if the
load changes from 500 to 100 kg/min,

Steam flow load (kg/min) 500 0 100

Level (cm) 16 32 24
Controller input (kN/m2) 60 100 80
Range change (kN/m2) 40 20
2
Controller output (kN/m ) 70 20 30
Range change (kN/m2) 50 40

that is, offset 16 cm, proportional band 50%. Unless stated to the contrary, a linear
proportionality is assumed between the indicator/controller variable scale ranges in
such cases. A similar question is included at the end of the book – specimen examination
question number 15, HND (BTEC & SCOTVEC). An alternative solution to the previous is:
System proportional control factor μ equals multiple of proportionality characteristics/
coefficients, that is, 31.25 = 2.5 × 1.25 × 10 when Φ = –μθ and as Φ = –500 kg/min so
θ = +16 cm. Similarly working in the reverse direction from μθ = +8 cm the controller
characteristic/coefficient, or proportional action factor K1 is now 2 (gain), proportional
band is 50%.

Similar questions are included at the end of the book, including those requiring graph
plots of controller signals – after analysis by a method such as just described. When the
controller includes integral action the approach is similar but it must be remembered
that integral action time (S) elapses while the signal changes (by integral action) by an
equal amount to the immediate proportional action signal. See HNC (BTEC & SCOTVEC)
specimen examination questions number 16 and number 18 HND (BTEC & SCOTVEC).

Test Examples

1. Explain the meaning of the following terms relating to process control:

(a) desired value,
(b) error signal,
(c) detecting element,

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 Process Control Theory • 159

(d) feedback,
(e) reset action,
(f) servo-motor.
2. Explain the meaning of the following terms using suitable diagrams where
appropriate:
(a) potential correction,
(b) proportional control,
(c) integral control,
(d) integral action time,
(e) derivative control,
(f) derivative action time.
3. Draw simple diagrams showing the response of a detecting element suffering from
a distance velocity lag equivalent to 5 s and a single transfer lag, when subjected to
disturbances in the form of:
(a) a step,
(b) a ramp.
Illustrate, on two simple diagrams, the effect of an increase in frequency on ‘phase
lag’ and ‘attenuation’ for a detecting element suffering from transfer lag.
4. A temperature measuring device suffers a distance-velocity lag of 15 s and also
exhibits a simple transfer lag with a time constant of 40 s. If the temperature being
monitored jumps suddenly from 30°C to 35°C, what temperature does the device
indicate 55 s after this step change? (33.16°C)

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 10PNEUMATIC
CONTROL
PRINCIPLES
Note: The bar is used as the unit of pressure in this section. 1 bar = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2.

Pneumatic Two-Step Control Technique

Refer to Figure 10.1. The constriction may be about 0.2 mm bore and the nozzle about
0.75 mm outlet bore; these sizes are largely fixed by air purity condition, that is, particle
filtration size.

With the flapper, or baffle, moved away from the nozzle, full nozzle pressure drop
occurs, pressure p may be about 1.2 bar or less. With the flapper almost closing the
nozzle, pressure p may be near 2 bar, that is, almost supply pressure. Two values of
pressure p can be arranged, which will depend on the flapper position, which is in turn
decided by the measure signal movement. An on-off operation or low-rate and high-
rate operation can be utilised with these two pressures.

Average flapper travel between two limits is often less than 0.05 mm. The nearer the
flapper to the nozzle the stronger the measure signal force required; this is a limitation.
The relation between flapper travel and pressure p is non-linear, that is, equal increments

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 Pneumatic Control Principles • 161

Pivot

Atmosphere
Flapper Constriction (C)
Nozzle (N)
(F)
Air pressure
supply

Deviation
θ Correcting unit
Pressure
(air operated diaphragm
To measure (p)
control valve)
unit

Plant
fluid

▲ Figure 10.1 Two-step pneumatic control

of flapper travel do not give equal increments of pressure p, but over a fairly wide range
of travel, say 30–70%, the relation is reasonably linear, that is, linear between 0.015 and
0.033 mm in 0.05 mm travel.

The Relay

Provides pneumatic amplification, proportional movement and reduced time lag. It is

equivalent in action to an electronic amplifi[Link] p increases (see Figure 10.2) then the
bellows act to close the bleed port and supply air passes, and conversely if p decreases
a continuous bleed to atmosphere occurs. Amplification by a fraction of 16 can easily be
arranged, for example, a flapper travel of 0.01 mm causing a change of p on the bellows of
0.05 bar could give output from 1.2 to 2 bars. Flapper travel is approximately proportional,
by a linear relation, to output signal in this throttle position of 0.05 bar bellows pressure
range. An alternative type of relay is given in Figure 10.3 for comparison.

N C
Air supply

To controlling unit (open)

Bleed port (shut)
Bellows

Fixed
p

▲ Figure 10.2 Relay valve (continuous bleed)

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 162 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

C
N
Diaphragm
Air supply
Vent
2 bar input
Double pressure
seat value
1 14 1 34 bar output pressure

Positioner

Flow

▲ Figure 10.3 Alternative design of relay valve

Various alternatives and refinements can be added, for example, a bellows connected
to the relay output will give action proportional to output utilising negative feedback,
etc. The relay could introduce further non-linearity if not properly matched in design.

Pneumatic Proportional Control

Technique

This utilises adjustable (negative) feedback due to the bellows and flapper linkage.
Input (from the measure signal) is compared to output (from the relay signal) and
the action is to reduce this difference, so matching input to output. Any desired ratio
between input and output can be achieved by adjusting the linkage ratio a : b shown
in Figure 10.4. For a 50% proportional band then the measurement change is 50% of
scale for full valve stroke, that is, under ideal conditions the control should operate to
maintain measured value and desired value together at 50% valve stroke. Varying load
means the controller keeps conditions stable within the proportional band, but not at
the desired value; maximum offset cannot exceed half band width.

Refer to Figure 10.4. Consider the measure link moving right, this decreases the nozzle
escape and pressure p increases. Pressure p acts, via the relay, on the bellows so tending
to act in the opposite direction to the initial movement with proportional action
against the spring (just as for the simple spring analogy p. 148 earlier). This decreases
the sensitivity (flapper travel near nozzle). The ratio a : b (which is adjustable) decides
the bandwidth, this action is the simple lever principle (feedback can never exceed
deviation).

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 Pneumatic Control Principles • 163

Flapper
Spring
Spring
Bellows (B1) F = –5′x θ
Φ = −μθ
Fixed x m
p Decides
p n V and Φ value
a Mechanical Analogy
C
Air supply
N p Relay
b F
Correcting
unit
To measure
unit
θ Plant
fluid

▲ Figure 10.4 Pneumatic proportional control with negative feedback

This cancellation whereby a pressure increase moves the flapper to lower the pressure
means that a greater movement of the measure unit, for a given change in control line
pressure, is required so ensuring proportional action. This also gives a wider proportional
band without increasing mechanical linkages which would reduce accuracy. The relay
shown in all sketches is not in practice necessarily fitted to all controllers. Without the
bellows the proportional flapper travel region is very small.

Bellows movement is proportional to pressure p.

x m − np
mθ

where x is movement of flapper next to the nozzle, m and n are proportionality

constants (including the adjustments a and b) for the deviation θ and the negative
feedback pressure p (which also decides V and Φ).

x is negligible compared to other movements.

∴ np = mθ
m
∴p = − θ
n
∴ Φ = − μθ

That is, potential correction is proportional to the deviation and equals the proportional
control factor multiplied by the deviation. The negative sign indicates opposite
direction.

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 164 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Stack Type Controller Principle (P Action)

Refer to Figure 10.5. The construction is of air chambers stacked on top of each other,
separated by diaphragms and incorporating relay valves, nozzles and restrictor control
valves.

The measured value (controlled condition) enters at chamber C and the set value
(command signal) set up at the reducing valve enters at chamber B. Variations between
these two values causes the diaphragm arrangement to move up or down vertically so
that air flow through the nozzle to the chamber D controls cancellation of the deviation
caused by the pressure variation.

Pressures at A and B would be equal if control valve X were closed, hence pressures at
C and D would equalise as D pressure (controller output signal) changed, this means
100% proportional band.

Conversely if X were opened fully pressures at A and D would be equal so that deviation
from set value would cause the nozzle to be fully opened or closed. This is two-step
control action. Valve Y can act as an adjustment but essentially it prevents direct
connection between output and set value air lines.

A
Y

X
C

D Nozzle

Relay

▲ Figure 10.5 Stack type controller principle (P action)

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 Pneumatic Control Principles • 165

Variation of the setting of X between open and closed gives proportional band variation
between 0% and 100%.

By utilising different stacking arrangements, for example, capacity bellows, different

connections to control valves (restrictors), variable bellows areas, etc. then the correct
proportional, derivative or integral actions can be incorporated as required. P, P + D,
P + I actions separately generated and combined in an addition unit give three-term
action without interaction problems.

Pneumatic Proportional Plus Integral

Control Technique
Integral (reset) action can be regarded as a slow cancellation of the sensitivity reduction
provided by the negative feedback of the proportional system.

Refer to Figure 10.6. Without the needle value adjustable restrictor I, the proportional
negative feedback bellows B, the effect would be completely cancelled by the
proportional positive feedback bellows B2 effect (assuming equal bellows sizes and
form), simulated two-step or near proportional action for limited flapper travel would
result (depending on flapper travel utilised). Similarly in the steady state with the needle
value as there would be zero pressure difference across it.

Capacity tank (C)

Adjustable
integral
restrictor

B2 I B1

p2 p

N C

Air
p Relay supply
F

To
To measure unit correcting
θ unit

▲ Figure 10.6 Pneumatic proportional plus integral control with negative feedback

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 166 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

When a disturbance causes a deviation to occur (say p increases) then the rate of p2
change is proportional to the deviation effect p – p2.

If the measure unit moves right under a constant deviation increase then p increases
giving near proportional action Vp immediately. Negative feedback to bellows B1 reduces
sensitivity giving wider proportional band and true proportional action.

Deviation, under proportional action alone, would become greater, more offset
would occur. However bellows B2 exerts positive feedback to raise pressure p2 at a rate
dependent on the deviation, and this maintains constant deviation. Integral action
would continue until deviation ceased and there would be no offset, that is, restoration
to desired value. A repeat is accomplished when the amount of change in air pressure in
the reset (integral or floating) bellows equals the amount of original change in output
pressure to the proportional bellows.

x m − n( p − p2 )
mθ

That is, negative feedback due to p and positive feedback due to p2. Again taking
x = 0:

m
p p2 = θ for whole action
n

now

dp2
∝p p2 for integral action
dt

that is, rate of change of pressure p2 is proportional to the difference of pressure.

dp2 1
= (p p2 )
dt CR

CR is a time constant dependent on the capacity C of the tank and the resistance R of
the restrictor I, CR is the integral action time S.

dp2 m
S = θ
dt n

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 Pneumatic Control Principles • 167

integrating

m
n∫
Sp2 = θdt

m
p2 = ∫ θdt
nS

Thus for the whole action

m m
p= θ + ∫ θdt
n nS

applying negative direction sign, with p equivalent to Φ

⎛ 1 ⎞
Φ = − μ 1+ ∫ θ dt for
fo ( P + I )
⎝ S ⎠

Note: Consider the distinct analogies.

dp2 1
Pressure: = ( p p2 )
dt CR

where rate of pressure p2 with respect to time is proportional to excess pressure p – p2.
CR time constant, C tank capacity and R restrictor flow resistance.

dV
V2 1
Electrical: = (V V2 )
dt CR

where rate of change of voltage V2 with respect to time across a condenser is proportional
to excess voltage V – V2. CR time constant, C capacitance of the condenser and R current
resistor resistance, the latter often negligibly small.

dθ E 1
Temperature: = (θ F θ E )
dt CR

where rate of change of temperature θE across a detector element with respect to time
is proportional to excess temperature θE – θF. CR time constant, C is thermal capacity of
element and R thermal resistance to heat flow.

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 168 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pneumatic Proportional Plus

Derivative Control Technique
Derivative (rate) action increases sensitivity by restricting the negative feedback provided
by the proportional system so that during the change high speed sensitivity occurs but
when the change ceases ordinary proportional action occurs.

Refer to Figure 10.7. Without the needle valve adjustable restrictor D, proportional
action results, similarly for the steady state with the needle valve. When a disturbance
causes a deviation to occur (say p increases) then the rate of p1 change is proportional
to the deviation effect p – p1. Derivative action stabilises more quickly after a change.
Considering the inner bellows, the smaller area gives less force per unit pressure change
of p, a narrower proportional band, higher sensitivity and less feedback occurs than if
the same pressure effect acted on the larger outer bellows.

If the effective area of the inner bellows was one quarter of that of the outer bellows
then an instantaneous deviation produces a finite response equivalent to four times
the normal proportional action with negative feedback for the same actuating signal
applied to the outer bellows.

Considering the outer bellows which gives the derivative action then the change of
pressure via the relay across the resistance and tank (D and C) gives a pressure drop
proportional to the rate of chance of activating signal deviation. This means the

Capacity
tank (C)

B1

p1
Adjustable
p derivative
restrictor (D)

N C
Air
supply
p Relay
F

To
To measure unit correcting
θ unit

▲ Figure 10.7 Pneumatic proportional plus derivative control with negative feedback

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 Pneumatic Control Principles • 169

sensitivity reduction due to negative feedback is adjusted in line with the rate of
change of the deviation.

The combination bellows means that when movement starts (say to the right) to increase,
the narrow proportional band, caused by p only on the small bellows, gives high output
relay signal pressure. Such exaggerated output is then amended for derivative action by
p1 on the large bellows until the measure movement ceases and pressure in the outer
bellows equals pressure in the inner bellows (no pressure drop). This means the control
valve operates sooner for the same rate of change from the measure unit.

Double bellows are not always utilised, strictly the derivative action is on the outer
bellows only. This arrangement has disadvantages as phase lag to the derivative action
occurs (see compound controllers later).

The inner bellows gives proportional action only, for simplicity regard this bellows as
omitted.

x m − np1
mθ

negative derivative action feedback due to p1.

Taking x = 0 as previously:

m
p1 = θ for whole action
n
Now

dp1 1
= (p p1 ) for derivative action only
dt CR

CR is the time constant, dependent on capacity C of the tank and resistance R of the
restrictor D, CR is derivative action time T.

Rearrange the last expression:

⎛ d ⎞
p = p1 T + 1
⎝ dt ⎠
m ⎛ d ⎞
p= θ T +1
n ⎝ dt ⎠
m ⎛ dθ ⎞
p= T +θ
n ⎝ dt ⎠
m ⎛ dθ ⎞
p= 1 T +θ
n1 ⎝ dt ⎠

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 170 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

where m1 and n1 are new proportionality constants to allow for the proportionality
feedback effect of the combined bellows.

Now applying the negative sign to indicate the opposite direction and with p equivalent
to potential correction Φ.

⎛ dθ ⎞
Φ = −μ θ + T for ( P + D )
⎝ dt ⎠

Pneumatic Compound Controller

(P + I + D)
Three term (P + I + D) or two term (P + I or P + D). A controller action in which the output
signal from the controller is the result of more than one operation on the deviation.

⎛ K K dθ ⎞
V K 1 ⎜1+ 2 ∫ θ dt + a ⎟ for three term
⎝ K1 K 1dt ⎠
⎛ 1 dθ ⎞
Φ = − μ θ + ∫ θ dt + T for three term
⎝ S dt ⎠

Figure 10.8 shows the compound pneumatic controller, the action should be clear from
previous diagrams.

Capacity tank (C)

B2 B2
p
2
p p
2
Y D
N x C Air
supply
p Relay
F
To
To measure unit
θ correcting
unit

▲ Figure 10.8 Compound (P + I + D) pneumatic controller

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 Pneumatic Control Principles • 171

Interaction

With the pneumatic arrangement shown in Figure 10.8, but D at X, adjustment of

either I or D affects each of the three actions. Thus the effective action times (S and T)
differ from the nominal (dial set) action times. D can be moved from X to Y which may
improve performance but still gives interaction. For truly independent adjustments then
derivative and integral actions should be generated separately based on proportional
action and combined in a relay (see also Chapter 15).

Air Supplies

An adequate supply of clean, dry compressed air is required with well-designed,

installed and maintained air line systems.

Quantity is defined under standard intake conditions, that is, 15°C and 1 bar, which
relate size, capacity and consumption.

Quality requires that filtration removes solid particles, oil and water. If dew point can
be reduced at high temperature, below any likely ambient temperature of the system,
the installation can be kept dry. High compression, with interstage and after cooling is
effective especially when large delivery receivers allow cooling under pressure. Absorber
filters such as silica gel or activated alumina should be fitted at low level system points to
act as moisture traps – such traps should also be fitted adjacent to reducing valves.

Compressors are either arranged to run continuously, fitted with unloading devices
to allow running light when pressure supply is reached, or have pre-set cut in and cut
out pressure switches. Machine capacity should be such that 50% time loading only
is required; a 3 kW unit (4 bar) would meet this criteria when delivering output of one
cubic metre (referred to standard conditions) for up to ten instruments.

Air lines should have a gradient of at least 1 : 50, with moisture traps at lowest points,
and instrument tappings are taken from the top of headers. Final stage filters are often
of the ceramic type and silicone impregnation makes them water repellant. Annealed
seamless copper tubing, pickled inside and out, is often used – especially for single
instrument loads. Polythene and PVC tubing is resistant to corrosive atmospheres and
is also much cheaper for larger installations. For the supply to say ten instruments the
hp line (4–7 bar) would be about 12 mm bore, delivery through 18 mm reducing valve
and filter to a 25 mm bore lp header (at 1.5 bar).

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 172 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Test Examples

1. Describe the operating principle of a pneumatic controller. Explain what is meant

by the term ‘proportional action’. Show by means of a simple sketch how the
controller functions to maintain a particular system in equilibrium.
2. (a) Make a diagrammatic sketch of a two-term (P + I) pneumatic controller of a
nozzle-flapper type and briefly describe its operation.
(b) With reference to the diagram describe briefly how the controller could be set
before commissioning.
(c) With reference to the diagram describe briefly how the proportional band
adjustment could be calibrated.
3. (a) Sketch a three-term nozzle flapper controller which has provision for receiving
pneumatic desired value and measured variable signals.
(b) Explain how the proportional action is generated and how the gain may be
varied.
(c) Describe how the integral action is generated and how the degree of integral
action may be varied.
(d) Describe how the derivative action is generated and how the degree of
derivative action may be varied.
(e) Explain why a relay valve is necessary and what additional benefits may result
from its use.
4. Describe, with the aid of a suitable sketch, the construction of a P + D controller.
Explain, using a graph, the open-loop response to a ramp change in measured
value. How can the controller be changed from direct-acting to reverse-acting?

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 ELECTRONIC
11
CONTROL
PRINCIPLES
Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) have become an essential building block in many

instrumentation systems being used to amplify tiny electrical signals from sensors
to more robust levels suitable for processing and transmission, which in turn use
op-amps.

The basic op-amp has two inputs, an inverting input (–) and a non-inverting input (+)
and one output.

Op amps are considered to have very high input impedance and low output impedance.
This means that they do not become an unnecessary load on the signal source but do
not in turn become overloaded by whatever they are driving. Furthermore, the open-
loop gain of the op-amp is extremely high.

A signal applied to the inverting input will have its polarity reversed on the output. A
signal applied to the non-inverting input will retain its polarity on the output.

The closed-loop gain or amplification of the signal is determined by a feedback

element (usually a resistor) that feeds some of the output signal back to the inverting

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 174 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

input. Whole textbooks have been written on the subject of the op-amp, so in this
chapter a review is made of the common applications which are relevant to control
and instrumentation.

Most op-amps need a bipolar power supply of at least ±5 V with sophisticated high
performance devices requiring higher values. This is indicated in the following examples
as ±Vs.

The inverting amplifier

The inverting op-amp is the most basic application. Figure 11.1 represents the op-amp
as a triangle with two inputs (–, +) and one output. External resistors R1 and R2 establish
the inverting configuration.

Virtual Earth concept

To understand the operation of this and other op-amp arrangements it is helpful to

consider the Virtual Earth concept.

Due to the high input impedance of the IC the current drawn by the ( – ) input is
negligible and since the open-loop gain (A) is very high, a change in the output voltage
is brought about by a change in the ( – ) input terminal of negligible magnitude.

Point ‘X’ is therefore held at Virtual Earth potential.

R2

IF +Vs
R1
Iin
–
X
+
V1
Vo
–Vs

0V

▲ Figure 11.1 Inverting amplifier

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 Electronic Control Principles • 175

V1 −V
Hence Iin = = If = o
R1 R2
Vo V1
=
R2 R1

−R2
Therefore Vo = ×V1
R1

Vo −R
and voltage gain of amplifier, AV = 2
V1 R1

Although the input resistance of the IC can be very high the input resistance of this
amplifier = R1.

The non-inverting amplifier

⎡ R1 ⎤
Vin (+) Vin (−) = Vo ⎢ ⎥ by potential divider action (Figure 11.2)
⎢R +R ⎥
⎣ 1 2⎦

⎡R R ⎤ ⎡ R ⎤
Therefore Vo = ⎢ 1 2 ⎥ × Vin = + ⎢1+ 2 ⎥ Vin
R
⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ R1 ⎦

R2

+Vs

Vin (–) –

+
Vin (+)
R1 Vo
–Vs

0V

▲ Figure 11.2 Non-inverting amplifier

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 176 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

1+ R2
and voltage gain of amplifier, AV =
R1

The inverting summing amplifier (Figure 11.3)

I1 + I2 + I3 = IF

V1 V2 V3 −Vo
+ + =
R1 R2 R3 RF

⎡R V R V RV ⎤
that is, Vo = − ⎢ F + F 2 + F 3 ⎥
⎢ R R2 R3 ⎥⎦
⎣ 1

and if all resistances are the same value, for example, R1 = R2 = R3 = R

then

RF
Vo = − [V + V + V ]
R

The difference amplifier (subtractor)

The aim of the subtractor amp (Figure 11.4) is to provide an output which is equal to
the difference of the two input signals or proportional to their difference.

Make resistor R1 = R2 and RF = R3

RF

I1 IF
R1 +Vs
I2
R2 –
I3
R3
V1 +
V2
V3 Vo
–Vs

0V

▲ Figure 11.3 Inverting summing amplifier

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 Electronic Control Principles • 177

RF

I1 +Vs
I1 x
R1 –
I2 y
R2 +
V1 I2
R3 Vo
V2 –Vs

0V

▲ Figure 11.4 Difference amplifier (subtractor)

now Vx = Vy

⎡ V1 Vx ⎤ ⎡ Vx Vo ⎤
Current I1 = ⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥ (i)
⎢ R ⎥ ⎢ R ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ F ⎦

and

⎡ V2 Vy ⎤ ⎡ Vy ⎤
Current I2 = ⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥ (ii)
⎢ R ⎥ ⎢R ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 3⎦

Therefore from equation (i)

⎡ V1 Vx ⎤ ⎡ Vx Vo ⎤
⎢ − ⎥= ⎢ − ⎥
⎢R R ⎥ ⎢R ⎥
⎣ 1 1⎦ ⎣ f Rf ⎦
⎡ V1 Vo ⎤ ⎡ Vx Vx ⎤
⎢ − ⎥= ⎢ − ⎥
⎢R R ⎥ ⎢R ⎥
⎣ 1 f ⎦ ⎣ f R1 ⎦

On substituting Vx = Vy R1 = R2 and Rf = R3 into equation (ii)

⎡ V2 Vx ⎤ Vx
⎢ ⎥=
⎢ R ⎥ R
⎣ 1 ⎦ f

⎡ V2 Vx ⎤ Vx
⎢ − ⎥= (iii)
⎢R ⎥
⎣ 1 R1 ⎦ Rf

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 178 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

V2 ⎡V V ⎤
=⎢ x + x⎥ (iv)
R1 ⎢⎣ Rf R1 ⎥⎦

On equating (iii) and (iv)

V2 ⎡V V ⎤ ⎡ V V ⎤ V2
= ⎢ 1 + o ⎥ therefore ⎢ 1 + o ⎥ =
⎢
R1 ⎣ R1 Rf ⎦⎥ ⎢R ⎥
⎣ 1 Rf ⎦ Rf

therefore

Vo ⎡⎢ V2 V1 ⎤⎥ V2 V1
= − =
Rf ⎢⎣ R1 R1 ⎥⎦ R1
R
Vo = f (V V )
R1

The unity gain follower (buffer amplifier) (Figure 11.5)

From the non-inverting amplifier we have deduced that the output voltage (Vo) can be
calculated.

⎡ R ⎤
Therefore Vo = + ⎢1+ 2 ⎥ Vin … if we extract R2 and R1
⎢ R1 ⎥⎦
⎣

+Vs

Vo
–

+
Vin

Vin Vo
–Vs

0V

▲ Figure 11.5 Buffer amplifier

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 Electronic Control Principles • 179

so Vo = Vin

Vo
and voltage gain, V = =1
Vin

The circuit has a voltage gain of unity, a very high input resistance (e.g. 100 MΩ) and a
very low output resistance (e.g. <1 Ω).

It is used to ‘match’ a high resistance source to a low resistance load and is connected
between the source and load.

The comparator

In the configuration two voltages are compared and the difference is amplified

This is one of the few applications where the op-amp is used in open-loop mode (i.e. no
negative feedback applied), as opposed to the closed-loop mode.

The open-loop voltage gain for the 741 op-amp = 200,000 therefore if Vsupply = ±5 V

⎡ ±5 ⎤
then Vin (Sat ) 25μV
⎣ 200000 ⎦

The differential comparator

This circuit (Figure 11.6) compares one voltage with another of the same polarity.

If + V1 = + V2 then Vo = 0 V

Now for a very small difference between V1 and V2 the op-amp ‘saturates’

that is,

if V1 > V2 by 25 μV, Vo will be at – Vo (sat) … approx 90% of –Vs

if V2 > V1 by 25 μV, Vo will be at +Vo (sat) … approx 90% of +Vs

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 180 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

+Vs

+V1
Vo
+V2
–Vs

0V

▲ Figure 11.6 Differential comparator

Application of the comparator

The Schmitt trigger circuit (Figure 11.7)

This is a regenerative (positive feedback) comparator. The circuit is used for voltage
level detection, reshaping pulses with poorly defined (leading and trailing) edges and
‘squaring’ sine wave signals.

The Schmitt trigger is basically a fast acting electronic switch that changes state at
a specific voltage trip point (UTL, i.e. upper trip or threshold level). A feature of the
Schmitt is that the circuit does not switch back immediately once the input signal is
reduced to just below the input upper threshold level, but at a specifically designed
lower input level (i.e. lower trip or threshold level). Because there is a distinct difference
between upper and lower trip voltage levels, the circuit is said to possess hysteris (or
backlash).

This is useful in eliminating noise superimposed upon the input signal.

The Schmitt trigger can be constructed using various electronic technologies:

a. Discrete components
b. An operational amplifier
c. Be available as ready constructed integrated circuit devices

Only (b) is considered in detail here.

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 Electronic Control Principles • 181

U.T.L.
Input L.T.L.

time

Vout (sat)
Output

time

U.T.L.

Sine time
input

L.T.L.

+Vout (sat)

Output time

–Vout (sat)

▲ Figure 11.7 Schmitt trigger circuit

The non-inverting Schmitt trigger (Figure 11.8)

Another common way that op-amps are used are in comparator circuits. A comparator
circuit will compare the voltage on the two inputs and then make the output high or
low. This is accomplished by having one input the voltage reference (Vref ) and the other
input is the voltage input (Vin). Shown below are the two ways to hook up a comparator
circuit.

Note: V has been mainly used previously as the symbol for controller output signal.
In this chapter, V is used as a general symbol for voltage, suffix i or 1, etc. for input
(alternative E or e, for V, sometimes used elsewhere).

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 182 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Electronic two-step control technique

On-off devices find a wide range of application using this simple switching technique. A
typical example is room temperature control in which a bi-metallic strip closes or opens
electrical connections leading to energy input. Small permanent magnets ensure snap
action and differential gap is adjustable. Digital devices are often used.

Electronic proportional control technique

Apply Ohm’s law to the circuit of Figures 11.1–11.8.

V1 Vx V1
I1 = = as Vx is zero
R1 R1
V Vx Vo
IF = o = as Vx is zero
RF RF
I1 = −IF

because the amplifier input current is considered to be zero.

This is Kirchhoff s law for currents at a point.

RF
−Vo = V1
R1

Action is scalar multiplication (Vo proportional to V1) with the multiplying factor RF/R1
and the negative sign indicating inversion. Adjustable circuit gain (proportional band)

R2

+Vs
R1
+
–
Vin Vo = +/– Vo (sat)
–Vs

0V

▲ Figure 11.8 Non-inverting Schmitt trigger circuit

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 Electronic Control Principles • 183

is achieved by altering RF with R1 fixed (RF/R1 = 1 is 100% bandwidth). For multiplying

factors below unity an adjustable potentiometer (attenuator) can be used. Vo = tV1
where t = r/R the tapping ratio. Removal of the minus sign can be achieved by using
two amplifiers in series. G = RF/R1 is commonly 1 or 10, gain.

Consider now two inputs as shown in Figure 11.9.

⎛V V ⎞
Vo RF ⎜⎜⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎝ R1 R2 ⎟⎠

where V1 and V2 are negative inputs. This is essentially a summer (and scalar) action
which can be extended to further inputs as required. If R1 = R2 = R3 = etc. = RF then
Vo = – (V1 + V2 + V3 + etc.), that is, summation only. Ratio control of inputs can be achieved
by adjustment of the respective input resistances. A controller must produce an output
signal proportional to the deviation between desired and measured values. The two
signals can be compared (comparing element), perhaps elsewhere, by opposition
flow through a common resistor, the voltage across which now represents deviation
(error) signal for transmission to the amplifier input. If one input voltage is applied as
negative to a summer the result is effectively subtraction. For Figure 11.9 if V1 and V2 are
regarded as measured value and desired value (in opposition) this gives error input and
proportional to deviation control action, bandwidth adjustment at RF. Amplifier power
supplies and earth lines are omitted for simplicity.

Electronic integral (reset) control technique

Consider the circuit of Figure 11.10: By placing a capacitor CF in the feedback circuit a
limit is placed on the amplifier response rate to change of input signal.

RF
Negative
feedback

R1
V1
Measured
value e
A Vo
R2 Error
signal
V2
Desired
value

▲ Figure 11.9 Electronic proportional control

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 184 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

CF

IF

V1 R1 I1 Vo
A

▲ Figure 11.10 Electronic integral (reset) control

For a capacitor

C Q /V
∴Q
QF CFVo
dQF dV
V
IF = = CF o
dt dt
1
∫ dVV = CF ∫ IF dt

but

V1
I1 IF and I1 =
R1
1
CF R1 ∫
Vo = − V1dt

That is, output voltage is the integral voltage with the time constant (reset rate)
dependent on CF and R1. If, as for the two previous sketches, there is a modification
to two inputs, via resistors representing measured and desired values, then amplifier
input voltage corresponds to error voltage, that is, output voltage is the integral of
error input voltage. A feedback resistor RF is necessary to give proportional addition
and make adjustment more easy, with a fixed capacitor, alternatively potentiometer
adjustment could be provided. Integral action is essentially rate control in the feedback
network of the circuit by capacitance. RF and R2 additions shown dotted. Integral action
is very rarely applied on its own.

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 Electronic Control Principles • 185

Electronic derivative (rate) control technique

Consider the circuit of Figure 11.11 in which it is necessary to consider P + D

combinations: A capacitor CD is in the input circuit, together with a resistor R1, to
produce a rate of change component.

In the steady state there is no current through CD.

I1 IF
R
Vo = − F V1
R1

In the transient (changing) state:

V1
I1 =
R1
dV
V1
Ic CD
dt
I1 + Ic = −IF
Vo
I1 + Ic = −
RF
Vo RF (I1 Ic )
⎛V V⎞
dV
Vo RF ⎜ 1 + CD 1 ⎟
⎝ R1 dt ⎠

RF

R1 IF

I1
V1 A Vo
Ic

CD

▲ Figure 11.11 Electronic proportional plus derivative control

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 186 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The output voltage therefore has two desired components, that is, proportional to input
and proportional to rate of change of input. The feedback resistor is necessary to give
proportional addition and adjustment. If, as before, measured value and desired value
inputs through resistors are applied then input voltage is deviation error signal and
output voltage is signal to final control element. The phase advance network ahead of
the amplifier gives attenuation across the CR circuit which requires compensation with
increased gain at the amplifier. The R2 desired value resistor is shown dotted. Derivative
action is never applied on its own.

Electronic compound controller (P + I + D)

A controller action in which the output signal from the controller is the result of more
than one operation on the deviation (error signal), in this case three, that is, three-term
controller.

⎛V V⎞
V1dt + CD 1 ⎟⎟⎟
1 dV
Vo RF ⎜⎜⎜ 1 + ∫
⎝ R1 CF R1 dt ⎟⎠

leading to:

RF ⎛⎜ 1 V1 ⎞⎟
dV
Vo = − ⎜V1 +
R1 ⎜⎝ CF ∫ V dt + R C
1 1 D
⎟
dt ⎟⎟⎠

The relation with the proportional, integral and derivative factors given previously and
equations relating to Figure 10.8 are obvious.

Referring to Figure 11.12: The sketch shows the compound electronic controller,
the action should be clear from previous diagrams and should be compared with
Figure 10.8. Similar remarks about interaction apply as for the pneumatic case.
The upper sketch illustrates grouping to controller (note the summer, and the
potentiometer gain adjustment) while the lower sketch is basic operational amplifier
configuration.

Figure 11.13 is a typical response curve for (P + I + D) action. Figure 11.14 is a simplified
form of electrical circuit which can be compared with the previous sketch and to the
complete electronic controller diagram given later in Chapter 12.

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 Electronic Control Principles • 187

Control function generator

Desired
value Gain Reset Rate

–
+ A
Output
Measured
value

CF RF

R1
Measured
value
CD A
Desired Output
value R2

▲ Figure 11.12 Electronic controller (compound P + I +D)

Sinusoidal
signal

Input

P
Separate
outputs
I
D

Combined

0 Time t

▲ Figure 11.13 Response to sinusoidal signal (compound P + I +D)

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 188 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

From output From input

bridge (feedback) bridge (measure)

Feedback Input
volts volts
RI (decides S)

Output
volts
CD

RD (decides T)

CI

▲ Figure 11.14 Electronic controller circuit (compound P + I + D)

Note: With electric-electronic controllers:

1. For output voltage to be proportional to input voltage it is necessary to add a

resistor (R1) in the feedforward path to the amplifier (i.e. in series) and a resistor (RF ,
adjustable) in the feedback path (i.e. in parallel).
2. If output volts are to be proportional to deviation, represented by error input volts
(e), then error signal is applied as input to the circuit of 1.
3. For the addition of integral action to 2 above it is necessary to include a capacitor
(CF) in the feedback circuit in series with resistor RF .
4. For the addition of derivative action to 2 above it is necessary to include a capacitor
(CD) in the feedforward circuit to the amplifier in parallel with the resistor R1.
5. If P + I + D action is required to combine 2, 3, 4, above, then

⎛R R de ⎞⎟
Vo = −⎜⎜ F e + F ∫ e dt + R C ⎟
⎜⎝ R1 dt ⎟⎟⎠
F D
R1CF

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 Electronic Control Principles • 189

Black box analysis

It is useful to summarise some of the preceding work in this chapter utilising this
analysis approach, concerned with external relationships and not internal circuitry
(which includes operational amplifier with negative feedback loop). Amplifier power
supplies and earthing are important and actual voltage used depends on the amplifier
and conditions of working.

Refer to Figure 11.15 for illustrative connections:

A is null offset B amplifier inverting input (–)

C amplifier non-inverting input (+) D supply (–6 V)
E spare terminal F supply (+6 V)
G output (feedback to B) H null offset

Only two input signals (maximum), are considered to either B or C for simplicity of
illustrations. Terminology for Figure 11.15 should be clear except for null offset, which
needs elaboration. In derivation of equations the input current to the operational
amplifier is assumed negligibly small, and where resistances are specified equal that
these are exactly so. This is practically not possible. To balance input resistances, and
reduce such offset, terminal C (when not in use) is earthed through a resistance (RE) of
magnitude equal to the equivalent resistance of feedback and input circuits in parallel.
To balance any remaining offset, and this is particularly important for integrating

A E

B F

C G

D H

▲ Figure 11.15 Black box analysis (operational amplifier)

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 190 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

circuits, terminals A and H are used to give offset null. They connect a tapped (resistor)
potentiometer across the ends of the amplifier to supply lead (usually negative) so
giving compensation for inherent offset at amplifier input.

Consider now various configurations applied to Figure 11.15:

1. Inverter Vo = –V1
Input voltage signal V1 through a resistor R1 to terminal B, terminal C earthed
through a resistor RE. R1 = RF. Output voltage signal Vo at terminal G (also see
Figure 11.1–11.8, upper lead to A is inverting input, lower lead to A is non-inverting
input – shown earthed).
2. Inverter summer Vo = –(V1 + V2)
As for inverter but input signals V1 and V2 in parallel to B. R1 = R2 = RF (also see
Figure 11.9).
3. Scalar inverter summer Vo = –(aV1 + bV2)
As for inverter summer but a = RF/R1, b = RF/R2, R1 ≠ R2, RF usually adjustable (see
previous sketches).
4. Inverter multiplier Vo = –at V1
As for inverter but input potentiometer (resistance R) connected across Vx and
earth, with a tapping lead to Rx then to B. a = RF/R1, R1 ≠ R2 ≠ RF, tapping ratio t = r/R,
which is less than unity.
5. Inverter divisor Vo = –V1/t
As for inverter but output potentiometer (resistance R) connected across V0 and
earth, with a tapping lead to make the feedback loop through RF to B, tapping ratio
t = r/R, which is less than unity.
6. Non-inverting summer Vo = V1 + V2.
V1 input through R1 in parallel with V2 input through R2 into C, which is led to
earth via resistor R3, B earthed through resistor R4. R1 = R2, R4 = RF, R3 = R1/2 (as two
inputs).
7. Subtracter Vo = V1 – V2
V1 through R1 to C, earthed via resistor R3. V2 through R2 to B. All resistances equal.
8. Non-inverting multiplier Vo = cV1
V1 through R1 to C. B earthed through R4. R1 = R4. c = (RF + R4)/R4.
9. Integrator

The circuit has already been sketched in Figure 11.10. The amplifier C terminal could be
earthed through RE and terminals A and H connected.

The analysis could be further extended to two- and three-term controllers.

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 Electronic Control Principles • 191

Transistor stabilisation control

The constant current (shunt) stabiliser utilising a zener diode has been described
previously (Figure 7.10). Voltage (or series) stabilisation based on an integrated circuit,
that is, transistor, gives better results. The principle is to use the transistor (T) as a
variable resistor by a feedback control loop (see Figure 11.16). Transistor resistance
depends on emitter-base potential which is controlled by output voltage. Output (Vo)
and standardised (zener) voltage (V) are compared and error voltage (e) is fed to the
transistor base through a difference amplifier (A).

V
e

T Vo
V1

▲ Figure 11.16 Transistor stabilisation control

A
C
Metal Oxide
B D

n+ p n+ p n+ p n+ n+ p-type
–n –n –n –n
silicon
Diode Resistor Transistor Capacitor

C D

A npn

▲ Figure 11.17 Integrated circuit components

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 192 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Integrated circuits

These were originally developed for non-linear or digital (logic) circuitry but are
increasingly used for linear amplifiers, including operational amplifiers. The circuit
components are produced by oxidising, etching and diffusion on a silicon chip (see
page 191) as shown in Figure 11.17. A MOSFET (see page 110) is often utilised within
printed circuit boards. A microprocessor is a very large integrated chip circuit.

ac R1
input – A B +

R2 T1

R3
T2 C

▲ Figure 11.18 Time delay circuit

Test Examples

1. Derive an expression for the gain of an inverting op-amp.

2. A non-inverting op-amp is configured with Rin = 10 kΩ and RF = 47 kΩ. Calculate the
value of Av.
3. Describe a three-term electronic controller. Show on a diagram the variation in
controller output due to:
(a) proportional action,
(b) integral action,
(c) derivative action,
(d) combination P + I + D.
4. Describe, in detail, an electronic operational amplifier. Discuss the various methods
of adjusting gain and comment on the uses of this device in control or measuring
systems.

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 Electronic Control Principles • 193

5. Show, by means of simple sketches, how an electronic controller arranged for

proportional control action can be modified to include:
(a) integral action,
(b) derivative action.
6. Figure 11.18 illustrates a time delay circuit which includes a rectifier and a rhyristor.
The network varies lighting intensity, that is, it is a typical dimmer switch circuit.
Describe in detail the principle of operation.

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 12ACTUAL
CONTROLLER
TYPES
There are numerous forms of controllers produced by a large number of specialist
instrument and control equipment manufacturers. As a representative selection of
well-proven practice twelve types are discussed here: one mechanical, one mechanical-
hydraulic, one electro-pneumatic, three electronic and six pneumatic. In some
controllers the action is given as (P + I + D). It should be remembered that the simplest
control suitable ought to be used and the controllers described are also available as
simple (P) or (P + I) or (P + D). The description so given is mainly to cover the more
complex cases, which can then be easily simplified.

Mechanical Controller

Utilises a lever principle extended to a mechanical differential. A drives (1) anti-clockwise

and B drives (2) clockwise. If A and B have the same speed then C revolves but the shaft
has no linear motion. If A tends to speed up then C follows (1) and the shaft moves
linearly to alter the supply and increase the revolutions of B. A proportional action
exists, synchronism reduces movement to zero and a distinct anti-hunt characteristic
exists (see Figure 12.1).

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 Actual Controller Types • 195

Supply

Shaft

To B
C

1 2

Drive A Drive B

▲ Figure 12.1 Mechanical controller

Mechanical-Hydraulic Controller
(Governor)
The device is illustrated in Figure 12.2.

For say an increase in engine load the flyweights move radially inwards and pilot valve
Y moves down so allowing the servo-power amplifier (S) to move up under admitted
oil pressure. This increases the fuel control setting and also rotates feedback link AB
and reset link CD anti-clockwise about pivot A (initially fixed as reset piston R has equal
pressures on each side).

Due to CD rotation pilot valve X moves down allowing R to move down due to oil
escape to drain. As R moves down to a new equilibrium position, AB pivots about B
and rotates CD clockwise so closing X, locking R and restoring D to its original position.
The engine is now running at original speed but at a different load. The governor is
P + I, that is, isochronous. To reduce the governor to simple proportional pivot A is fixed,
R and X eliminated and link CD removed. The conical form spring gives linearity to the
speed measuring system.

A similar device is shown in Figure 14.9 and an electrical alternative in Figure 14.10.

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 196 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Speed control

A D B
C Speeder
Flyweights spring

Gears

Drive

Oil X Y
inlet

R S

Oil Oil To fuel

inlet drain control

▲ Figure 12.2 Mechanical-hydraulic controller (governor)

Electro-Pneumatic Controller

The controller shown in Figure 12.3 is a converter. A sliding contact resistor S is moved
by the valve spindle to form the position feedback and the input measure signal is
at contact M. If Say VM + VS > 0 then relay A is energised and supply air flows to the
diaphragm top to move the spindle down. If VM + VS < 0 relay B is energised and air from
the diaphragm top is vented, so allowing the valve spindle to move up. Movement
ceases as soon as VM and VS equate to zero when both nozzles are closed and no current
flows. Proportional band, for the valve positioner, is adjustable at P.

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 Actual Controller Types • 197

S
VS

ac
supply

P
VM

B A

Vent Supply

▲ Figure 12.3 Electro-pneumatic controller

Electronic Controller (1)

Refer to Figure 12.4 (and also refer back to Figure 11.7). Considering first just the
proportional action. The deviation (by the transducer) causes movement of the
adjustable rheostat at A so that A and B now have a voltage difference, that is, the input
Wheatstone bridge circuit is unbalanced and current therefore flows between A and B.

This current produces an input voltage which is an indication of the error (deviation)
magnitude from the desired value. Current flows to the amplifier, then to the electric
motor. As the motor moves to alter the controlling element it moves the adjustable
rheostat at X so that X and Y have a voltage difference, that is, the output bridge is
unbalanced; current therefore flows between X and Y. This current is arranged to be
opposite in direction to the current between A and B. The fixed resistance R therefore
has opposing current flow and when the volt drop across the output bridge equals the

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 198 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Correcting
signal
Rev. motor
Bellows

Measure
deviation
input
Output
bridge Input bridge
X A

Supply Supply Proportional

band
adjustment
rheostat
Y B

Feedback
Signal Error signal
R volts EF volts ES Amplifier

Output signal volts

EO
To motor
CD

RI RD

CI

▲ Figure 12.4 Electronic (P + I + D) controller

volt drop across the input bridge (i.e. feedback equals input) the voltage across the
amplifier is zero and motion stops. Therefore for each A position there is a proportional
X position.

For output to equal zero, feedback volts equals supply volts and is opposite in direction,
that is, EF = –ES or as ES is adjustable, due to the adjustable rheostat for proportional
band, and introduces linkage and rheostat proportionality factors:

Φ = −μθ

To add integral action replace R by an adjustable resistor R1 and a capacitor C1. Thus
there is a continuous adjustment of feedback. Current flow charges the capacitor which
then resists further current flow.

To add derivative action retain R and add an adjustable resistor RD and a capacitor CD.
The capacitor must be charged at a rate equal to the rate of change of input supply ES.

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 Actual Controller Types • 199

To give (P + I + D) omit R and replace by the dotted circuit containing CD, R D, C1, R1
as shown in the sketch. A more modern design of this type utilises photo cells and
electronic valves (or transistors) but the principle is much the same as above.

Note. Mathematics could be introduced to show:

E = EF + E C
1
RICI ∫
E = EF + EF dt ( )

and

E = EF + ED
dEF
E = EF + RD CD ( )
dt

where E is voltage on output bridge, EC is volt drop across capacitor C1 and ED is volt
drop across resistor RD.

Possibly a more simplified sketch arrangement of an alternative type of electronic

controller is shown in Figure 12.5.

Electronic Controller (2)

Refer to Figure 12.5. The detector element transmits a dc signal (measured value)
which is usually amplified and may then be in the range 0–40 V, 0–10 mA. Similarly
the desired value from a fixed resistor is supplied in opposition to the first signal. The
two signals are compared and the difference between them is obtained by passing
the two currents in opposite directions through a common resistor, thus voltage
across the resistor is proportional to deviation. The resistor acts as a sensitivity control
potentiometer in that the proportional band can be varied by varying the ratio
between the two parts of the potentiometer, the variation is 2–200% range, or more.
Thus pure proportional action is obtained with direct action from the measured value
and negative feedback from the desired value.

The signal is then passed through a transistorised chopper (capacity modulator) to give
ac which is then amplified in an ac amplifier and (if necessary) rectified for use at the

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 200 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Measured
value
E1

RP
e1 ∝ θ Chopper Amplifier Rectifier Actuator

Desired
value

E2
CI RD
CD
R1 e2

Integral Derivative

▲ Figure 12.5 Electronic (P + I + D) controller (2)

actuator. This procedure is usually necessary as dc amplifiers are subject to drift which
at zero true input would affect the deviation and hence the controller output.

The voltage developed across the correcting unit signal from the actuating unit is
fed back through the derivative and integral networks in cascade. Some interaction
occurs which is reduced by an auto-resistor in the derivative unit. Note that the
final positioner action gives signal feedback whereas an alternative described in all
controllers given previously has the feedback signal straight back after the amplifier
itself. An obvious advantage of electronic controllers is their flexibility, high speed
of signal transmission and high gain. As automatic controls develop, more complex
controller actions, further than P + I + D, will certainly be required and electronic
controllers will provide the most convenient method. Voltage difference e1 α θ and
feedback voltage is e2, equilibrium exists when e1 = e2. I and D actions are generated
by resistance capacity systems C1 R1 and CDRD. Action times are adjusted by variable
resistors R1 and RD.

With RD equal to zero then only P + I action is generated, that is, integral action shunted
via CD. If R1 is made infinite then P + D action is generated, CDRD and C1 are in series.

Electronic Controller (3)

The circuit is much simplified to facilitate the description of this modern unit. Refer to
Figure 12.6.

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 Actual Controller Types • 201

Measure

Supply
+(dc)
K
B Negative feedback
–(dc)
I
Positive feedback Output
C oscillator +(dc)
Measure L
Set F
J
D E
G H

–(dc)
Output

▲ Figure 12.6 Electronic (P + I + D) controller (3)

The derivative (rate) circuit is shown at A, B, C. Time adjustment is by adjustable resistor-

capacitor (A) to the measure input. Rate amplifier (B) is transistorised (solid state), two
stage, npn, dc type, of overall gain about 10, and introduces a signal to the bridge
network (D) proportional to the rate of change of measurement. Separate derivative
addition gives no interaction and rapid action as the unit is in the forward loop and not
in the feedback loop. A filter (C) gives smoothing (RC network).

The dc measure signal (10–50 mA) and set point signal are developed across resistors
and any error signal will unbalance the bridge until the amplifier output and negative
feedback rebalance. A resistor (K) decides the gain by controlling feedback so
proportional action and variable bandwidth are achieved. The function of the bridge
is to impress the resultant error and feedback signals on the main amplifier (H) until
equilibrium occurs.

The adjustable resistor and capacitor across the bridge determine the rate at which
output changes (hence feedback) to drive the measurement to coincide with set point,
that is, integral (reset) action.

The controller amplifier part of the circuit is E, F, G, H, I, J. The main amplifier is similar to
the rate amplifier but is four stage, ac, gain about 2000. The main amplifier bridge circuit
consists of two diodes (E) arranged so that their capacitance change is proportional to

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 202 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

dc voltage change across them, initial set bias and arranged in opposition for large
unbalance to small signal, plus the split inductive transformer winding (F). Error input
causes amplifier bridge unbalance (due to capacitance change) and an ac mV signal
will enter H due to the oscillator (I). H is providing a positive feedback oscillating circuit
for bridge excitation developed in the oscillator loop, tuned to resonant circuit for
bridge (G).

Output level is demodulated and raised by a two-stage output amplifier (J) to an output
signal in the range 4–20 mA, dc power supply, external load (L) and negative feedback
(2–15 V) via diodes and resistor K. Note transformer couplings to isolate controller input
and output circuits. External switching is provided with internal circuitry for set point
change, limits automanual transfer, etc. Essentially the unit described is a chopper-type
dc amplifier fully transistorised. It consists of a transistor input chopper, a high gain ac
amplifier and a transistor output chopper (demodulator) with feedback.

Pneumatic Controller (1)

This unit gives (P), (P + D), (P + I), (P + I + D) control actions and also provides addition
(or subtraction), multiplication ( or division) and averaging computing actions, as may
be required. This controller is an ideal example to illustrate all the basic actions in as simple
a manner as possible.

Refer to Figure 12.7. The principle is that of the simple lever using force-balance. Four
bellows act on the beam (lever) and variations of bellows forces or level fulcrum ratio
(a : b) will affect the magnitude of the output signal.

( p4 p3 )a ( p1 − p2 )b
b
∴ p4 = ( p1 p2 ) + p3
a

variations of a, b, p1, p2 or p3 obviously affect the value of p4 (output). Bellows forces or

level fulcrum ratio (a : b) will affect the magnitude of the output signal.

( p4 p3 )a ( p1 − p2 )b
b
∴ p4 = ( p1 p2 ) + p3
a

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 Actual Controller Types • 203

Input Input

p2 p3

Beam
b a
Fulcrum p4
p1
Input Input Output

Principle

C
p2 Set value p2 Set value Integral p3
action I
b a b a
p1 Measure Output p4 p1 Measure Output p4
value value value value
Proportional (P) P+I
C
p2 Set value Integral p3
p3 I
action
b a b a
p4 p1 Measure Output p4
p1 Measure Output
value value value value
Averaging D
C p
5 p3
p3 Derivative
action Output
b a b a
p1 p4
p1 Measure Output p4
value value P+I+D
Addition (or substraction)

b a
p1 Measure Output p4
value value
Multiplication (or division)

▲ Figure 12.7 Pneumatic controller (1)

variations of a, b, p1, p2 or p3 obviously affect the value of p4 (output). When used for
proportional action:

b
p4 = ( p1 p2 ) with p3 = 0
a

that is, difference between set value and measure value yields a proportional output
signal which is adjustable by the a : b ratio.

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 204 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

When integral action is added, the restrictor I and capacity tank C give the necessary
integral action via p3 bellows. When derivative action is also added, the restrictor D
and capacity tank C give the necessary derivative action via an extra p5 bellows on the
extra (lower) totaliser. The P + I output from the upper totaliser p4 bellows is fed to
the p3 bellows of the lower totaliser to give P + I + D output from the lower totaliser p
bellows.

For averaging:

Taking a b then as p2 p4
p4 1
2
( p1 + p3 )

For addition:

Taking a b then as p2 = 0
p4 p1 = p3

Subtraction can be arranged utilising the other bellows p2 in place of bellows p3. For
multiplication:

with p3=p2 = 0

p1b = p4 a
b
p4 = p1
a

and ratio (a : b) decides multiplication factor if over unity. Division can be arranged by
making the ratio (a : b) less than unity.

Pneumatic Controller (2)

This unit gives (P + I + D) actions (Figure 12.8).

Forces exist due to four bellows on the force balancing floating disc which acts as the
flapper, and the resultant moments of bellows forces determines the throttle position.
With the fulcrums over the proportional and reset bellows there is no feedback effect
and the distance between the centre line of the adjusting lever and the other two
bellows is a maximum so giving 0% proportional band (see A). With the centre line
of the adjusting lever about 1 unit from the proportional bellows and about 4 units

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 Actual Controller Types • 205

Reducing tube

Relay
Proportional band dial
Fulcrums 100
200 300 400

Proportional band Nozzle

adjusting lever
Force balancing
floating disc
Set (B) or measurement
(A) bellows Reset bellows
Proportioning bellows
Measurement (B)
or set (A) bellows
Reset
Derivative capacity
Controller
capacity action tank
tank reversing plate
A
B

Decreasing Increasing
Measurement Adjustable
increases output restrictor
Adjustable (reset)
restrictor
(derivative)

Controller manifold

(A) 0% (B) 25%

(C) 100% (D) ∞

▲ Figure 12.8 Pneumatic controller (2)

from the set bellows gives a 25% proportional band (see B). 100% proportional band
exists for C. Infinite proportional band exists for D. Note the reversed controller action
available if required. Derivative addition gives delayed feedback with differential across
the resistor where flow is proportional to rate of change of deviation. Integral addition
gives the usual delayed feedback, on the reset bellows.

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 206 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pneumatic Controller (3)

Refer to Figure 12.9. The sketch is for a proportional controller but other types are
available with integral or derivative action added. The sensing element, in this case
thermo-sensitive system, on a change of conditions will, via the Bourdon tube, alter
the flapper position. This decides the control pressure, which is led back via the

Control Inlet
pressure gauge pressure gauge

Sensitivity adjustment

Proportioning Spring
orifice Valve
Primary orifice

Vent

Primary Secondary
diaphragm diaphragm

Setting
adjustment
Bourdon

Flapper
Primary
nozzle
Proportioning
bellows

Bulb
Control Operating air
valve at 2–4 bar

▲ Figure 12.9 Pneumatic controller (3)

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 Actual Controller Types • 207

proportioning orifice and sensitivity adjustment to the proportioning bellows. For

maximum sensitivity this pressure feedback is vented and no pressure acts on the
bellows. If sensitivity is decreased the resulting pressure builds up on the proportional
bellows, contracts the bellows and moves the nozzle away from the flapper. This means
a greater flapper travel is required to close the nozzle, that is, a wider proportional
band. The relay pilot valve assembly shown has a null position non-bleed action. When
the flapper approaches the nozzle the control pressure increases, this lifts the primary
diaphragm causing the valve to open and allow air pressure above the secondary
diaphragm to the outlets (3). Increase of pressure above the secondary diaphragm will
tend to balance pressure under the primary diaphragm; at balance the diaphragms
return to the original position, the valve closes on both seats and balanced pressure
acts on the control valve. For flapper travel away from the nozzle, pressure above the
secondary diaphragm will vent until balance is restored.

Pneumatic Controller (4)

The relay (Figure 12.10) receives a proportional signal as input and modifies it to
proportional plus integral. The relay consists of four chambers isolated from each
other internally by metallic diaphragms connected to a central post, spring loaded at
one end and operating inlet and exhaust valves through a beam at the opposite end.
Alteration in chamber A pressure will affect a similar change in chamber D due to the
repositioning of the valves caused by beam movement from the bellows. Flow also
occurs to C via the restrictor throttle valve, as C is at a lower pressure, so giving a similar
effect to the initial down movement but at a rate dependent on the deviation, that
is, integral action (adjustable by throttling valve). This regenerative effect continues
until there is a return to the required setting when the supply proportional controller
restores A chamber to balance giving a balance of C and D chambers and repositioning
at the new required position. The spring maintains a given set value, and at equilibrium
both valves are slightly open.

The relay is easily modified to an averaging relay, that is, taking two signals, combining
and giving a resultant output. Loading pressure comes into A as before and also in
through the throttling valve to C directly. Thus two effects are combined, and the C
signal can employ any time delay dependent on the valve orifice opening. C and D are
not connected.

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 208 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Spring

A
Valve stem
assembly

Exhaust
D
valve

Inlet
valve

Exhaust

Air supply

▲ Figure 12.10 Pneumatic controller (4)

Such a relay controller is characteristic of many similar designs usually called stack
type (often without use of beams, that is, valve and diaphragm action in one line only).
They are sometimes termed blind controllers as they are often sited close to the control
function to minimise distance-velocity lags.

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 Actual Controller Types • 209

Pneumatic Controller (5) (Fuel–Air Ratio)

Change in combustion air flow is measured in terms of pressure difference across the
air register, and is transmitted via the large bellows to the ratio beam (Figure 12.11).
Change in fuel oil pressure, caused by the master pressure controller due to variations
of steam pressure, is fed to the smaller OF bellows. These two signals are in opposition
when applied to the beam system.

Between the beams there is a movable roller fulcrum the movement of which, by the
ratio adjustment screw, gives different equilibrium conditions and the ratio is indicated
on the ratio scale. Beam lever position operates a linkage to the pilot valve which varies
control air output signal. This output signal is fed to the averaging relay where it ‘trims’
the signal being fed through to the air damper actuators. The adjustable proportional
band and negative feedback bellows should be noted. This type of controller utilises
proportional control only.

The correct fuel : air ratio can be maintained irrespective of the numbers of burners in
use provided that air registers are closed on burners which are not in use.

Fine mesh chain drive

Neutral
position 0
indicator
O.F.
pressure
tapping Prop. adj.
O.F. pivot
bellows

Differential
air pressure
bellows Ratio
Movable scale
fulcrum

Pilot
valve
Ratio
Registers hp beams
air tapping
Furnace lp Control Supply
air air 10
air tapping
output input

Ratio
adjustment

▲ Figure 12.11 Pneumatic controller (5) (fuel–air ratio)

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 210 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Pneumatic Controller (6) (Viscosity)

The viscosity sensor has been described previously (Figure 5.2). The high pressure
connection (+) and low pressure connection (–) is led to a D/P cell. Consider
Figure 12.12.

Differential pressure is applied across the diaphragm D of the transmitter (cell).

Increasing D/P (increasing viscosity) causes the diaphragm and balance beam to move
to the left. The inlet supply nozzle B is opened by the flapper F which allows build up
of air pressure in the feedback bellows B. This gives a restoring action on the balance
beam until equilibrium is again reached. Discharge nozzle A is shut. Air pressure in the
feedback bellows is the output signal of the controller through C to a diaphragm valve
regulating steam to the oil fuel heater.

– +

D D

R B

▲ Figure 12.12 Pneumatic controller (6) (viscosity)

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 Actual Controller Types • 211

For decreasing viscosity, discharge nozzle A is opened giving air bleed, and inlet nozzle
B is closed. At equilibrium nozzles are virtually closed which reduces air wastage. Zero
adjustment is at Z and range adjustment at R. The proportional action is readily extended
to include integral action by adjustable reset control on the feedback bellows. Sensor
and controller are described as a control circuit, see Figure 13.19.

Electrical Positional Control

Closed-loop control systems using an electric motor as the main actuator are well
established. Figure 12.13 shows a typical arrangement using an optical encoder as the
position sensor.

Digital to Gray to
analogue binary
Output position

converter

Coded disc (graycode)

converter
signal

Power
Demand amplifier
Gearbox

signal (variable
Motor
speed
drive)

Load

Tacho -
generator
Output derivative signal

▲ Figure 12.13 Electrical position control system

Test Examples

1. Sketch and describe an instrument to maintain the viscosity of a fuel at a constant

value. Explain how it corrects any deviation of the viscosity from the desired
value.

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 212 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

2. Explain why load sensing governors are usually fitted to engines driving alternators.
Sketch a governor for this duty and explain its action.
3. Describe, with the aid of a sketch, a specific type of three-term pneumatic controller.
Discuss how the separate control actions are generated and adjusted.
4. An electronic controller incorporates an integrating and differentiating network.
Sketch each circuit. A square wave input is applied first to one circuit and then to
the other with display on a CRO. Illustrate the input and output (2) wave forms on
a common time base diagram.

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 TYPICAL CONTROL
13
CIRCUITS
The number of different control loops utilised is large. Applications for each of steam,
motor (IC engine), general, engineering knowledge sections will now be considered.
Much process control is still pneumatic, and illustrations are mainly biased to this type.
Electronic sensing and control devices can easily be substituted but the final power
control element is often pneumatic. Control of displacement, velocity and acceleration
using electrical-electronic servo-mechanisms are detailed in the next chapter.

Steam Plant

Auto-combustion and feed system control have been used for many years. Modern
sophisticated sub-systems for temperature, pressure, level, flow, etc. are interlinked
into boiler and turbine overall control systems suitable for remote and transient
conditions.

Exhaust range pressure control

This utilises sequence operation with valve positioners, see Figure 13.1.

Range pressure (1 bar) is sensed and converted to a pneumatic pressure signal by

the transducer. This signal is transmitted and compared with the set value and any
deviation causes the controller to give an output signal change proportional to the

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 214 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Exhaust steam range

Trans.
R R R

VP VP Vp
1p
bleed Condenser Desup.
dump steam

Reg. Loading
signal
Controller
Air supply

▲ Figure 13.1 Exhaust range pressure control

deviation. Output signal 2 to 1.75 bar gives dumping to condenser, 1⋅75 to 1⋅5 bar 1p
bleed is fed in, 1⋅5 to 1⋅25 bar desuperheated steam is fed in while bleed remains full
open. Thus exhaust range is constant pressure maintained. In the diagram R is for relay
and VP is for valve positioner. This is split range control.

Turbine gland steam pressure control

Such an arrangement is given in Figure 13.2 from which it will be noted that gland
steam pressure is sensed and supply is either increased or dumped.

Air supply

Valve
positioner
Pressure
controller

To condenser 3 way To gland

or heater valve steam box

Gland steam supply

▲ Figure 13.2 Turbine gland steam pressure control

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 Typical Control Circuits • 215

Sootblower control

The sootblower system utilises air for both control and blowing. Operational rotation
of the blower head is achieved by means of an air piston ratchet mechanism. The
sequence of operation is governed by the distributor operated by a similar air piston
ratchet mechanism. The supply air to both pistons comes from the pilot valve whose
operation is dependent on the charging and discharging rate of the air reservoir.
Adjustable control orifices are provided at entry to reservoir (charging) and on the
atmosphere line (discharging). Each impulse or air puff blast rotates both ratchet gears
by one tooth and gives a blowing blast for a few seconds (Figure 13.3).

Air supply

Reservoir
Distributor

Pilot
valve

Main
air
valve Blower
Blowing
air
Atmosphere

▲ Figure 13.3 Sootblower control

Condenser circulating water temperature control

This system utilises constant pump speed with water recirculation. For reduced power or
low sea temperature operation the condenser may be operating far from design conditions.
Excessive high vacuum results in possible turbine erosion, and low temperatures give
excessive undercooling of condensate which reduces plant efficiency.

Refer to Figure 13.4. A fall of sea temperature would generally be arranged to decrease
the air loading pressure, giving bellows expansion, which through the positioner allows
air to the top of the servo piston so allowing more of the scoop into the discharge pipe
and giving more recirculation.

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 216 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Discharge
overboard

Positioner

Air supply Pilot

valve

Sea
Control
inlet
loading
pressure

Double Circ:
Controller scoop pump
valve

Thermal element
Condenser

▲ Figure 13.4 Condenser circulating water temperature control

Steam temperature control

Refer to Figure 13.5. Superheat control is based here on the amount of steam flow
through the attemperator. The sensing element input signal to the steam temperature
transmitter (T) is directed to the recorder-controller (C), which is often three term.
Output signal from this controller is combined in an adding relay (A) with the output
signal from a steam flow transmitter (F). Relay output signal passes through the control
station (S) (hand-auto) to operate the valve positioner with linked control valves to vary
attemperator flow rate.

Two-element control allows more effective operation during transients. Increased

steam flow would reduce temperature without the second element action which
would be reducing flow through the attemperator. Split range control (two valves and
positioners) could be used in place of two linked valves from one positioner.

Note. Three term usually means P + I + D and three element usually means a combination
of three variables in a controller, for example, pressure, level, flow.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 217

F
Steam
drum
Primary
superheater
Attemperator

Linked S A
VP
valves

C
Secondary Set
superheater

T
Steam flow

▲ Figure 13.5 Steam temperature control

Steam flow/air flow rate control

Refer to Figure 13.6. Steam flow rate is sensed at the orifice plate with tappings to a
steam flow transducer consisting of a D/P cell (1) usually supplied with condensed
water. The cell would incorporate a square root eliminator, perhaps mercury well
type with mechanical linkage to variable inductance (2) operated amplifier (3). The
air flow rate is similarly sensed. Outputs from both D/P cells are fed to an electronic
computing relay whose output signal is related to required air flow for the measured
steam demand. A tapping can be arranged to the burner fuel supply controller. The
computing relay output signal enters a three-term electronic controller. The electrical
signal output from the controller operates the final control element. This element is a
damper in the inlet air duct. An electro-pneumatic converter and power cylinder are
required. Note direct signal measures of the four variables at pen recorder.

Bridge control (turbine machinery) instrumentation and alarms

For the bridge console the least instrumentation and alarm indicators the better.
Alarms and instruments should be limited to only those that are vitally necessary.

Suggested alarms could be for the following: (1) High salinity, (2) low feed pump
suction pressure, (3) high condenser water level, (4) low vacuum, (5) lubricating oil

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 218 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Turbine
Steam
load control
flow
valves

Steam flow
1 2 3
transducer
4 pen
0–15 mA
recorder

Air duct

Air
Flow

Air flow
1 23
Power transducer
cylinder
Computing
Electro -
relay
pneumatic
converter
Three term
controller

▲ Figure 13.6 Steam flow/air flow rate control

pressure, (6) low level of tank contents. For direct instruments opinion is divided but no
more than say another six indications should be necessary. Engine console and alarms
would obviously provide full instrumentation. A typical simplified system is given in
Figure 13.7. This system has direct control at the steam manoeuvring valves. This is
essentially a combination electro-pneumatic although all-pneumatic or all-electric can
easily be arranged.

The following points with reference to Figure 13.7 should be noted:

1. It is assumed that all normal safety protection devices and control are provided, for
example, loss of lubricating oil pressure, high or low water level in boilers, electrical
failure, etc.
2. Subsidiary control loops have been omitted, for example, evaporators, generator,
etc.

Consider now the individual aspects relating to Figure 13.7.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 219

Bridge

Engine Printer
room

Telegraph
Control Manoeuvring
BR/ER position transmitter
indicator

Bridge or
engine
room
selector Programme
selection
Tacho relays and
generator interlocks
Speed
controller Timing
Essential safety
Speed sequence
circuit locks
feedback relays

Pressure
converter
Pressure
controller AST.
AHD.
Emerg. Direct
hand action
Pressure
Actuators
feedback

▲ Figure 13.7 Bridge control (turbines)

Selector: Bridge or engine room control can be arranged at the selector in the engine
room. When one is selected the other is ineffective.
Duplication: Both transmission control systems are normally identical and operation of
the one selected gives slave movement of the other.
Manoeuvring: A separate sequence is arranged, for example, opening astern master
valve, opening turbine drains, etc., but if this separate control is not applied
separately it will be automatically applied from the main transmitter.
Interlocks: Essential blocks are necessary such as no valve opening with turning gear
in, etc.

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 220 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Programme Relays: The correct sequence operation is arranged for the various actions,
for example, manoeuvring conditions satisfied before moving on to say valve
opening sequences, etc.
Timing Relays: To prevent excessive speed changes, by too rapid signals, which would
endanger engines and boilers. For example, half speed in say 21 min, emergency
swings from say full ahead to full astern allow astern braking steam usage, rotation
slightly ahead and astern at say 3 min intervals of a sustained stop of engines, etc.
(manoeuvring valves now usually can be operated sequentially).
Essential Safety Locks: Override on timing by such elements as low boiler water drum
level, low turbine inlet steam pressure, etc.
Emergency Control: Direct hand control of manoeuvring valves camshaft.
Local Control: Independent power control at the actuators themselves.
Feedbacks: The steam pressure feedback gives accurate positioning for pressure of
the actuator. Speed feedback is arranged so that a difference of speed between
measured and desired values causes an additional trimming signal to the
controller. This may be necessary as pressure and speed are not well correlated at
low speeds.

Outline description

The following is a brief description of one type of electronic bridge control for a large
single screw turbine vessel to illustrate the main essentials. Movement of a control
lever modifies the output of an attached transmitter (electronic signal 0–10 mA dc). The
transmitted signal is passed, via override, alarm and cut out units to the desired flow
module which is connected to a time relay and feeds to the controller. The electronic
controller compares desired speed with actual speed as detected by a tachometer
generator and dc amplifier. The correct controller signal is passed to the manoeuvring
valve positioner from which a return signal of camshaft position is fed back to the dc
amplifier, thus giving the command signal to the actuator reversing starter. The two
control levers are independent and do not follow each other; an engine room override
of bridge control is supplied. The rate of valve opening is controlled by the actuators so
that too rapid valve opening is prevented by a time delay, full normal valve operation
shut to open, or vice versa, occurs in about 1 min, this can be reduced to about 20 s in
emergency by full movement of the telegraph from full speed direct to or through stop.
A near linear rev/min to control lever position exists. Auto-blast refers to the automatic
time delay opening of the ahead manoeuvring valve for a short period after a certain
length of time has lapsed – this has an override cut out for close docking, etc.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 221

IC Engine Plant

IC engine plants now utilise general (mainly thermal) auto-control to a great extent and
manoeuvring systems, etc., have always involved fairly detailed devices. The efficiency
is virtually inherent in the design, however auto-control can still give improvements to
efficiency of operation.

Jacket (or piston) temperature control – single element

Refer to Figure 13.8. The sensing element may be on the supply or return line to the
engine, and there are certain advantages for each case. The three-way valve (two
entry and one exit) varies the re-circulation or supply to the cooler and functions as a
mixing valve. This valve may be of the rotary cylinder type or diaphragm operated type.
Integral action is usually incorporated in the controller as offset may be appreciable
otherwise (up to 9°C). This system is often preferred. An alternative arrangement is to
throttle the sea water supply for the cooler. This gives a big capacity lag in the system
as one variable (sea water) controls the other variable (fresh water). Valve selection is
most important. Maximum pressure and temperature, maximum flow rate, minimum
flow rate, valve and line pressure drops, etc. must be carefully assessed so that the
valve gives the best results. The controller shown in Figure 13.8 is pneumatic but an

Controller Air supply

S.W. inlet
Fresh water
return from
Sensing element engine
(thermal)
Cooler Fresh water
3 way
valve
supply from
engine

S.W. outlet

▲ Figure 13.8 Jacket (or piston) temperature control – single element

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 222 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

electronic controller with a rotary valve is also common. Engine coolant is shown as
fresh water but could equally well be oil. Most loops on a motor ship are single element,
for example, temperature control of lubricating oil, fuel, air, water, etc.

Two-element cooling loop

More sophisticated loops are sometimes found on auxiliary boiler controls (pressure,
level, etc.) as well as main engine coolant.

In the latter case a two-element type may be advantageous as heat transfer rates are
high and sea water temperature becomes more critical than in smaller single-element
loops. The two variables involved are engine load and sea water temperature.

If the engine is considered to be at a fixed load then by reference to Figure 13.9 it is

seen that the water inlet temperature is fixed by the set value of the controller A which
accounts for water temperature changes (controller A is ‘slave’).

Now if the engine load changes the inlet water temperature should change, that is,
the lower the load the higher the water temperature. This is achieved by changing
the desired value of controller A according to the engine load variations. Controller

D.V.
B

F.W. return

F.W. supply

D.V.
A
Cooler

S.W.
outlet
S.W. Control Actuator
inlet valve

Overboard

▲ Figure 13.9 Two-element cooling loop

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 Typical Control Circuits • 223

B (the ‘master’) provides an indication of engine load by measuring the return water
temperature. Controller B signal changes the set value of controller A (cascade control).
A fresh water heater may be placed in the engine supply line with heat input controlled
by controller A. Split range (level) control allows heat input at low coolant temperatures
and cold input at high coolant temperatures. The system works equally well for oil
coolants. The actuator can be operated by local or remote controls with the controllers
out of operation.

Overall coolant system control

The sketch given previously in Figure 13.8 for jacket (or piston) coolant temperature
control is typical. Similar systems can apply almost exactly for lubricating oil, turbo
blowers, scavenge air, fuel valve, etc. coolants. Each system is controlled separately so
that adjustments can be made to individual systems without affecting the others.

One obvious arrangement for sea water supply is to utilise independent tappings
(both main engines and auxiliaries) from a continuously circulated ring main – in
this design individual sizes and flow rates require very careful investigation. A typical
ring main system is given in Figure 13.10. For simplicity no duplication of coolers,
indication of individual valves, strum or strainer boxes, etc. is shown. Note that only
main engine circuits are controlled in this given case. It is advisable to have say four
pumps capable of operation on the main. The pumps preferably should be divided
with say two constant speed and two controllable speed to allow flexibility; harbour
circulation is best arranged by a feed into the main from say the ballast pump. The
individual control is shown on the jacket cooler only for illustration. The control here is
direct control of the sea water quantity utilising two-way diaphragm control valves. All
main engine circuits shown in the diagram are so controlled and any auxiliary circuits
can be similarly controlled if required. Certain discharges, where convenient, can be
combined to reduce the number of shipside valves.

Series or parallel arrangement

Another alternative is a series or parallel arrangement. The two diagrams given in

Figure 13.11 illustrate series circulation with three-way valves with bypass, and parallel
circulation with two-way valves with direct supply; the latter arrangement requires a
satisfactory system pressure control such as control flow from pump or dump of excess
water (as shown). Grouping of the coolers and choice or combination of systems can
be arranged dependent on flow and temperature considerations. No duplication is
shown.

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 224 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Fuel
To To Scav
valve
air
refrigerator generators cooler
water
cooler

Lub
oil
cooler

Spare and
other services:-
Piston
Air conditioning water
distiller Etc. cooler
Aux: condenser

Jacket
water
cooler

To air
compressors

Harbour Sea
circulation water
pump

▲ Figure 13.10 Overall coolant system control (ring main)

Overboard

Overboard
3 way Jacket
control water
valve cooler Piston Jacket
Lub. oil
water water
cooler
cooler cooler
2 way
control
Piston valve
Lub. oil
water
cooler
cooler

Overboard
Sea Sea
water water
pump pump

Series Parallel

▲ Figure 13.11 Overall coolant system control (series and parallel)

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 Typical Control Circuits • 225

Boiler oil purification control system for IC engine

This system shown in Figure 13.12 is designed to maintain a working level in the boiler
oil service tank to the main engine. The oil supply from the dirty oil tanks continuously
passes through a self-cleaning purifier. The oil fuel heater (at purifier, or if also provided
on the main engine supply rundown) can easily be arranged to give fixed oil temperature
or controlled viscosity in a similar manner to the previously described temperature flow
control system.

Waste heat flash evaporator control

This system is shown in Figure 13.13. Waste, or low grade heat, from engine coolant has
good energy potential. Fresh water jacket (or piston) coolant evaporates sea water in
the second stage heat exchanger which is condensed at about 0.1 bar in the first stage
pre-heater and removed by the distillate pump.

Operating Dirty boiler oil tanks

air

Level
control
switch

Clean boiler
oil tank
Relief to
dirty boiler
oil tanks
Heater

Diaphragm
control valve Self
cleaning
purifier

▲ Figure 13.12 Boiler oil purification control system for IC engine

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 226 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

SW in
Air
ejector
Air out

Distillate
pump
F
Scrubber
de-mister
C

CW in
Brine
ejector CW out

SW out

▲ Figure 13.13 Waste heat flash evaporator control

When the pressure sensor-transducer (P) allows the controller (C) to operate the sea
and coolant inlet valves, vapour production starts. Control is by measurement of water
flow at the flow sensor transducer (F) and the signal allows the controller to regulate
water inlet valves accordingly.

Bridge control (direct reversing IC engine)

It is suggested that the section on bridge control for turbines should be read again as
there are many obvious similarities.

Instrumentation and Alarms: Minimum usage, suggested alarms (bridge console):

(1) Low starting air pressure, (2) lubricating oil discharge pressure and temperature,
(3) cooling water discharge pressure and temperature, (4) tank contents level
gauge, (5) fuel oil discharge pressure and temperature, (6) scavenge belt pressure.
A further six instruments could be provided.

Note: All normal protective devices are assumed, subsidiary control loops are not
considered.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 227

E.R. Control Bridge

control selector control

Programme
Speed feedback
initiated e.g.
half ahead

Sufficient Camshaft
Fuel lever
starting correct
at zero
air ahead

And
logic
unit

Air
Direct
admitted
local
control
At firing
speed
fuel
admitted Engine
Engine
running
Air off running in
above
correct
firing
direction
speed
And
logic
unit

Fuel lever
adjusted
Tacho
to correct
generator
setting

Governor

▲ Figure 13.14 Bridge control (direct reversing Ic engine)

Refer to Figure 13.14 and consider the following:

Selector: Bridge or engine room control is in the engine room. With one selected the
other is inoperative.
Duplication: Both transmission control systems are identical master and slave functions
as selected.
Interlocks: Essential blocks are necessary, such as no action with turning gear in, etc.

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 228 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Programme and timing relays: Consider say a requirement of ‘half ahead’. The programme
must satisfy a sequence such as:
1. Fuel admission check for zero.
2. Air lever to ahead.
3. Sufficient air and camshaft direction checks.
4. Air admitted.
5. Adjustable delay period for firing speed.
6. Fuel admitted.
7. Delay checks for air off, correct direction, rotation above firing speed.
8. Adjust fuel for set value speed.

Essential safety locks: Override on timing by such elements as low lubricating oil
pressure, low cooling water pressure, etc.
Emergency and local control: Directly at the engine controls themselves. Further
protective considerations:

1. Speed governor.
2. Non-operation of air lever during direction alteration.
3. Failure to fire requires alarm indication and sequence repeat with a maximum
of say four consecutive attempts before overall lock.
4. Movement of control lever for fuel for a speed out of a critical speed range if the
bridge speed selection is within this range.
5. Emergency full ahead to full astern, etc., actions, must have time delays to allow
fall of speed before firing revolutions, astern air open, engine stop, correct
astern timing and setting.

Outline description
The following is a brief description of one type of electronic-pneumatic bridge control
for a given large single screw direct coupled IC engine to illustrate the main essentials.
The IC engine lends itself to remote control more easily than turbine machinery.

Movement of the telegraph lever actuates a variable transformer so giving signals

to the engine room electronic controller which transmits, in the correct sequence,
a signal series to operate solenoid valves at the engine. One set of solenoid valves
controls starting air to the engine while a second set regulates fuel supply; the latter,
via the manual fuel admission lever, is coupled to a pneumatic cylinder whose speed of
travel is governed by an integral hydraulic cylinder in which rate of oil displacement is
governed by flow regulators. This cylinder also actuates a variable transformer giving a
reset signal when fuel lever position matches telegraph setting.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 229

With the engine on bridge control the engine control box starting air lever is ineffective
and the fuel control rack is held clear of the box fuel lever. Normal fuel pump control is
eliminated and fuel pressure, in a common rail, is automatically adjusted to speed and
load by a spring loaded relief valve. Engine override of bridge control is provided.

The function of the electronic controller is to give the following sequence for say start
to half ahead: Ensure fuel at zero, admit starting air in correct direction, check direction,
time delay to allow engine to reach firing speed, admit fuel, time delay to cut off air,
time delay and check revolutions, adjust revolutions. Similar functions apply for astern
or movements from ahead to astern directly. Lever travel time to full can be varied from
stop to full between adjustable time limits of 21 min and 6 min. Fault and alarm circuits
and protection are built into the system.

Remote control (detail – Ic engine)

Pneumatic reversing and starting systems have been an integral part of IC engine
equipment for many years. Figure 13.14 and description are fairly general and it is now
appropriate to extend this to a more detailed arrangement.

Consider Figure 13.15 and the following nomenclature: (1) telegraph receiver; (2) speed
lever; (3) start lever; (4) shut off lever; (5) bridge maximum speed lever; (6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11) selector pilot valves; bridge or control room, ahead, astern, speed, start, maximum
speed; (12) telegraph transmitter; (13) speed cam; (14) programme motor drive; (15)
speed cam (fine control); (16) control cam ahead-astern; (17, 18, 19) selector pilot
valves; speed, astern, ahead; (20, 21, 22) control valves; flow, speed, flow; (24) solenoid
valve; (25) timing volume; (23, 26, 27) double check valves. There are ten relay valves,
two each ahead and astern plus, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. A is air supply, B outlet lifts engine speed
lever handgrip out of gear to allow remote operation, C outlet to speed set, D from and
to direction interlocks, E outlet to reversing interlock, F outlet to starting servo, G outlet
to reversing servo, L to solenoid valve.

With the engine telegraph set at remote control position the control air at a pressure of
about 8 bar flows through line A to all nine pilot valves (as shown full lines) if lever 4 is
opened. There is an additional section on the engine telegraph for remote control and
also on the control room telegraph for bridge control position. As 4 is open air passes
through B, C, D, E to operate interlocks. Air also passes to the upper ahead or astern
direction selector relay valves, partly clears speed set relay valve X for operation (via
21) and clears the starting routine at X and Z via 24 (from line L).

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 230 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Engine Control Bridge

room room

1 2 3 4 5 12

9 10 11 14
6 7 18
13 15
8
16 19
17

AST AHD

U V

W X

20 21

Y Z

22 23 24
A
AHD AST
25 26
G
D
G
D 27

F
BC DE
C

▲ Figure 13.15 Pneumatic remote control system

Operation of 1 selects either control room or bridge and output from six loads either
U or V accordingly. Ahead lines 7, 19 lead to V and 1 as appropriate feeds top ahead
relay valve and goes out via line G to position the reversing servo at the engine (astern
similarly through 8, 19 via U and top astern relay valve to other line G).

Speed set from 2, 9 leads to W (directly loaded from control room) (via 6 or from bridge
via 17, 5, 11, 20) thence to X and line C to act on speed set servo.

Start from 3, 10 through 23 and either of lower ahead-astern relay valves past 27 via
line F to engine starting cylinder servo (depending on loading signal from either line D
direction interlocks). 23 is also cleared from 26, through Y and Z, with built in flow and
timing control at 22 and 25.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 231

The engine will, for example, reverse, start and gradually reach selected speed in
an automatically programmed sequence. Two fine set speed buttons allow speed
variation from fixed values. The system has built in avoidance of critical speed ranges
and acceleration to full speed when on bridge control. This pneumatic system is readily
adaptable to electronic signals to servos.

General Plant
General control applications have always been used and the ship steering gear control
system is perhaps a classic example. Early control components included the safety
valve and watt governor. A selection of typical systems is now given.

Auto-combustion and attemperator control system

For simplicity no feed water control or similar controls are shown in this system but
they are commonly fitted in practice (Figure 13.16).

For main propulsion steam turbine drive wide-range fuel oil burners are a very desirable
feature with automatic combustion control as they allow manoeuvring without
the need to change burners. Burners must have a high turn down ratio. Mechanical
atomisation burners have a turn down ratio of about 2 : 1 whereas steam atomisation
assisted burners have a turn down ratio of about 20 : 1. The ‘steam’ burners however
induce a water loss of about 0.75% of steam flow. The ideal arrangement is to utilise
‘steam assisted’ burners during manoeuvring and ‘mechanical’ burners at full power.
This gives full automatic control over the manoeuvring range. An automatic dumping
valve to the condenser ensures a nominal steam flow when the main turbines are
stopped. Until recently automatic combustion control was only used at full power, in
fact the main need and modern application is when load changes, that is, manoeuvring
transients.

For IC engine plant especially in view of the Clean Air Act, combustion control of boilers
is virtually essential.

Figure 13.16 is fairly simple in principle and can be considered suitable for auxiliary
boiler practice in motor ships. The detail should be taken in conjunction with the
following system on the more fully automated auxiliary automatic boiler.

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 232 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Steam Pressure
Temperature
flow transmitter
transmitter
transmitter
Adding
Controller (Rising relay
D.V. flow
rising (Falling
signal) pressure
Adding rising
relay signal)

Gas
flow
Fuel
Fuel oil limiting
controller relay
D.V. D.V. Air flow
controller

Feedback Feedback
Air available signal

Air flow
transmitter

▲ Figure 13.16 Auto-combustion and attemperator control system

Refer to Figure 13.16. The common signal at the adding relay for pressure and flow
adjusts the desired values of both air and oil flow systems. As both these loops are
independent sub-groups of a closed nature they will keep changing respective flow
rates until the desired value (or set value) is reached. Under normal operation steam
flow signals are in advance of steam pressure signals and this anticipatory action is
good control practice. The fuel limiting relay in the oil sub-loop (fuel–air ratio control)
receives the feedback signal from the air flow rate and compares the required fuel rate
with air availability. Fuel rate cannot be increased until an increased air flow signal
allows the alteration of the desired value setting at the fuel controller.

Attemperation also has anticipatory control in that the load change signal acts before
the temperature change signal. The function of the attemperator is to limit steam
temperature at low boiler loads; there is a consistent relation between the two.
Command signal choice between fuel pressure, fuel flow, fuel flow/steam flow, etc.
show significant variations in response characteristics and research still proceeds.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 233

Auxiliary boiler automatic fuel and control system

Refer to Figure 13.17 for the lighting sequence.

1. The pressure switch initiates the start of the cycle. The switch is often arranged
to cut in at about 1 bar below the working pressure and cut out at about 1/5 bar
above the working pressure (this differential is adjustable).
2. The master initiating relay now allows ‘air-on’. The air feedback confirms ‘air-on’ and
allows a 30 s time delay to proceed.
3. The master now allows the arc to be struck by the electrode relay. The ‘arc made’
feedback signal allows a 3 s time delay to proceed.
4. The master now allows the fuel initiating signal to proceed. The solenoid valve
allows fuel on to the burner. The ‘fuel on’ feedback signal allows a 5 s time delay to
proceed (this may be preceded by a fuel heating sequence for boiler oils).
5. The master now examines the photo-electric cell. If in order the cycle is complete,
if not then fuel is shut off, an alarm bell rings and the cycle is repeated.

Pressure
switch

Feed
Boiler
box Variable Master
limb initiating
Water level High and
low level relay
alarms

Fixed Fuel
limb
Photo
Air initiator signal

cell Fuel initiator signal

Non
Solenoid valve
conducting
charging Electrode
Electrode initiator signal
fluid relay
Traps d.c. D.V.
supply
Level Fan
controller
and Feed
amplifier Note:
Feedback
Mercury signal lines
Variable Centrifugal shown dotted
speed motor feed pump
Electroflo
level
transmitter

▲ Figure 13.17 Auxiliary automatic boiler control system

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 234 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Refer to Figure 13.17 for emergency devices: Obviously failure of any item in the above
sequential cycle causes shut down and alarm. In addition the following apply:

a. High or low water levels initiate alarms and allow the master to interrupt and shut
down the sequential system.
b. Water level is controlled by an electroflo type of feed regulator and controller.
Sequential level resistors are immersed in conducting mercury or non-conducting
fluid, so deciding pump speed by variable limb level. The fixed limb level passes
over a weir in the feed box.

Drum level controller (feed regulator)

Robot feed regulators are proportional controllers (single term) working on a fairly
sensitive proportional band. Due to drum contents ‘swell’ and ‘shrinkage’ during
manoeuvring load changes, the action is temporarily in the wrong direction. This
wrong action is very severe due to the narrow bandwidth and hand operation of feed
checks was often necessary. Proportional action is made less sensitive, and this reduces
the severity of the short term wrong way action but introduces offset. Offset is got
rid of by the addition of integral action, that is, the control is two term for the single
element action.

A two-element action is obtained by incorporating a steam flow measurement to reduce

severe feed flow variations when manoeuvring. This signal would give an anticipatory
action, which is usually desirable in all control systems. The level signal would act as a
trimmer and has a wide proportional band so as not to affect the system during swell
and shrinkage.

Three-element control gives the highest value of performance. Feed flow is compared
to steam flow for the correct 1 : 1 ratio. If the ratio is incorrect then an out of balance
signal is given to the controller. Drum level again acts as a trimming device on a wide
proportional band with integral action. Single-, two- and three-element actions are
illustrated in Figure 13.18.

Viscosity control

Refer to Figure 13.19. A continuous sample of oil is passed across a capillary tube. The
measurement of viscosity has been considered previously (Chapters 5 and 12). Flow is
laminar in the tube so that viscosity is directly proportional to pressure drop. Pressure

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 Typical Control Circuits • 235

Level
transmitter
D.V.

Controller
(P+ I )

Single element

Steam flow Feed

transmitter

Adding
relay

Two element
Ratio
relay

Feed flow
transmitter

Three element

▲ Figure 13.18 Feed regulators

difference is sensed by D/P cell transmitter and the signal passed to a controller and
recorder. The controller if supplied by air can transmit a direct power signal to operate a
diaphragm control valve. This valve controls steam input to an oil fuel heater. P control
is generally adequate, and rate and/or reset are easily added. The sensor has been
described previously (Figure 5.3) and so has the controller (Figure 12.12).

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 236 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Controller

Steam

Recorder
D/P
cell Viscometer

Diaphragm Capillary
control
valve

Oil
Heater

▲ Figure 13.19 Viscosity control

Refrigeration control

Refrigeration and air conditioning utilise a considerable degree of control. Two examples
are now given (Figure 13.20).

Air conditioning (upper sketch). Air (fresh and recirculated) is control sprayed with steam
to fix humidity. Air is heated (steam grid) or cooled (brine grid) with steam (or brine)
and quantity controlled by temperature. The air is now passed to the various zones
where sub-units adjust the air temperature to the thermostat setting of the zone. This
is achieved by controlling the steam supply to a calorifier.

Refrigeration chamber (lower sketch). The brine quantity, for adjusting air temperature,
is controlled irrespective of fan direction (suction or delivery) with the controller bulb
in bypass pocket sensing air delivery temperature to chamber.

Alternator control

Consider Figure 13.21 and regard this as a main system (A–J) and sub-system (K–M).

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 Typical Control Circuits • 237

Controller

To Steam
zone
Relay
Pilot
valve
Reducing
Humidistat valve Air
Brine
Recirc.
To zone Fan Fresh duct

Heat Humidifier
exchanger
To Sub-master Master
zone Air

Ambient
thermometer

Hot water
calorifier
Steam
Cabin
Zone
thermostat
Air

Cabin

Delivery duct
Normal

Reversed
Cooler
Fan suction duct

Pressure
operated
valve
Controller
Brine in
Air supply
Brine return

▲ Figure 13.20 Refrigeration control

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 238 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

B
Outputs Inputs

N M

E I K L
F

J
G G

▲ Figure 13.21 Alternator control

Main system (load sharing)

One alternator is shown (A) of say a four-set installation. Current, voltage, power factor
sensors give power computation at relay (B) which is amplified (C). Total electrical
load is computed at relay (E), fractioned off to enter relay (D). The two signals at D
are compared for load sharing, error signal triggers (F) and thyristor switches (G) for
increase/decrease in speed signal to governor controller (H) with feedback loop to
alternator input power. Total computed power is fed to relay (I) which functions to start
another alternator at say 75% maximum rated load of those alternators in operation.
The signal is also fed to stop relay (J) which is arranged to shut down an alternator
when computed load is say 60%, 40% and 20% of maximum rated load for the four
alternator unit.

Sub-system (alternator start)

This particular sub-system is shown dotted in Figure 13.21. Obviously a start signal for
another required alternator will need a pre-start routine relay (K). This would initiate
air, lubrication, cooling, input power, etc., and start the alternator up to running speed.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 239

Relay (L) will arrange synchronisation (voltage, frequency, phase) and initiate a signal
to close circuit breaker (M).

The main control switchboard (N) would be arranged to handle all monitored inputs
from individual alternators. Standard protection from engine faults would be provided.
Normal electrical protection is required, for example, reverse power trips, overload
alarm (105%) and trip, preferential tripping, etc. These could be regarded as module
systems within a particular subsystem. Obviously a shut down arrangement sub-
system, similar to K–M, is required in which individual alternator off loading takes place
and circuit breaker opening at 10% full load occurs.

Butterworth heating control

In Figure 13.22, P1 and P3 are pressure sensors, P2 pressure controller; T1 temperature

sensor and T2 temperature controller; L1 level sensor and L2 level controller; R1 and R2

P3

T1 T2

R1 R2

P2

Steam
A1
P1

Heat
exchanger

Heat
exchanger

L1 L2
Condensate
A2
SW

▲ Figure 13.22 Butterworth heating control

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 240 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

relays; A1 and A2 actuators. Signals of pressure and temperature enter R1 and the lower
value is passed on to R2. Control is inherently on temperature with pressure over-ride.
Signals from R1 and the water-pressure sensor enter R2 and the lower value is passed
on to A1. This provides protection against water supply failure. Condensate level is
controlled as shown. The system can be pneumatic, electronic or a combination of
the two. The control problem is essentially the difficulty of handling large quantities of
water, with high velocities, maintaining close temperature control and controlling one
variable by means of another variable. The system shown has utilised cascade control
principles, effectively utilising temperature master reset to pressure slave, the latter
being a pressure control system.

Oil–water separator interface level control

The level sensor has been described in Chapter 3. The control system of Figure 13.23
utilises two probes with the lower probe (shown) giving a balanced electrical bridge in
water and the upper probe (not shown) giving balance in oil or air.

With the pump started and supplying water to the separator to rise to the lower
probe level, the bridge is balanced and the solenoid de-energised. When water rises
to the upper probe its bridge is unbalanced and the output signal is amplified which

Pilot
1
valve

Solenoid
2 3

Oil Amplifier
discharge
valve

Interface ac
bridge

Probe

Shell ac
supply

▲ Figure 13.23 Oil–water separator interface level control

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 Typical Control Circuits • 241

energises a ‘left-hand’ solenoid (not shown) which moves the pilot valve to the left. This
allows clean water pressure to pass (from 1) to close the oil discharge valve (through 2).
Shell pressure rises and a spring loaded water discharge valve is opened. As oil build up
occurs the oil–water interface moves down, de-energises the left-hand solenoid and
then energises the ‘right hand’ solenoid; the pilot valve moves right (as shown) and
water pressure opens the oil discharge valve (through 3) and the water discharge valve
closes. Each probe and valve has a signal indicator lamp and an alarm bell operates
when the lower probe bridge is unbalanced. A third probe at a low level can be arranged
to cut out the pump if oil falls to that point.

Controllable pitch propeller

Use of these propellers has increased with the greater use of unidirectional gas turbine
and multi-diesel drives and bridge control. Engine room (or bridge) signal is fed to a
torque-speed selector which fixes engine speed and propeller pitch – feedbacks apply
from each. Consider Figure 13.24.

The input fluid signal acts on the diaphragm in the valve housing and directs pressure
oil via one piston valve through the tube to one side (left) of the servo piston or via
the other piston valve outside the tube (in the annulus) to the other side (right) of the
servo piston. Movement of the servo piston, through a crank pin ring and sliding blocks
rotates blades and varies pitch.

Input
signal
Blade
rotation
Drain
Ahead Astern
thrust thrust p Pressure
Valve
Bearing ring housing
Crank One
Servo blade Fixed
piston Tail Shaft ring
Boss

Thrust Piston Annulus s c o

Tube
rod

▲ Figure 13.24 Controllable pitch propeller

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 242 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The feedback restoring signal, to restore piston valves to the neutral position at correct
pitch position, is dependent on spring(s) force (i.e. servo piston position) which acts to
vary the orifice (o) by control piston (c) so fixing feedback pressure loading on the pilot
valve (p) in the valve housing. The central part of the tailshaft includes a shaft coupling
and pitch lock device (not shown).

Auto steering (block diagram)

The ship steering gear (on auto pilot) utilises classic control principles best illustrated
by a block diagram. Figure 13.25 shows a block diagram for auto steering. The controller
will be three term with adjustment for beam sea (or wind) and dead band operation
to reduce response to small random signals. Both rudder and ship are acted upon by
external forces.

Feedback

Feedback

Controller Transmitter Receiver Amplifier Actuator Rudder Ship Compass

Set Energy External Actual

course input input course
Manual External
input input

▲ Figure 13.25 Auto steering (block diagram)

‘Heavy’ fuel oil separation

Consider the circuit in Figure 13.26. The self-cleaning purifier has no gravity disc;
sludge and water collect on the bowl periphery. When the water build up leads to
some discharging with the clean oil it is sensed (capacitance interface detection) at the
transducer which signals the microprocessor. If the time since the last sludge discharge
exceeds a pre-set value the sludge and water is discharged from the bowl, otherwise
only water is discharged through the water valve. Essentially it works as a separator
but works also as a purifier to discharge water via a paring disc when the water valve
is opened.

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 Typical Control Circuits • 243

Signal Signal conditioning

convertor and processing

Separator Transducer
Dirty Clean
oil oil

Sludge
&
water Water

▲ Figure 13.26 ‘Heavy’ fuel oil separation

Test Examples

1. Sketch and describe a fully automatic, oil fired, packaged steam boiler.
Explain how it operates.
State what attention is needed to ensure safe operation.
Give two advantages possessed over conventional boiler installations.
2. Sketch and describe a system of control for manoeuvring a main engine from the
bridge.
Explain how control is transferred to the engine or control room upon failure of
bridge control.
3. Describe with a block diagram, an automatic combustion control system, with
particular reference to the methods of measuring each of the following data:
(a) pressure,
(b) level,
(c) flow,
(d) temperature.

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 244 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

4. Define the terms:

(a) cascade control,
(b) split level control.
Discuss the application of such principles within a description, utilising sketches, of
an automatically controlled lubricating oil system and an automatically controlled
cooling water system of the type used in auxiliary diesel driven generators.

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 KINETIC CONTROL
14
SYSTEMS
Kinetic Control System

A control system, the purpose of which is to control the displacement, or the velocity, or
the acceleration, or any higher time derivative of the position of the controlled device.
(It should be noted that forces and torques are involved in the above definition.)

Servo-Mechanism

An automatic monitored kinetic control system which includes a power amplifier in

the main forward path. (Includes continuous, discontinuous, on-off, multi-step, etc.
actions.)

Position Systems

The control of position (displacement) in a system (linear or angular).

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 246 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Position control servo-mechanism (dc)

Consider the electrical example of Figure 14.1 in which the output servo-motor shaft
is required to follow the input shaft. As long as there is a difference of angular position
between these shafts, measured by toroidal potentiometers, a difference of potential
will cause current to flow in the required direction through the amplifier and servo-
motor shunt field. The armature of the servo-motor carries a constant voltage (stability
with large ballast resistor R) and hence a torque and motor shaft rotation occurs as
soon as the field is excited.

(A constantly excited motor series field can additionally be connected across the
mains if the inertia of the servo-motor is high.) As an alternative shunt field current
can be arranged to be constant and armature voltage varied. The system as considered
however has the true relationship that torque is proportional to actuating signal and is
generally independent of rotational speed. The principle is effectively used in practical
electrical ship steering gears. (Ward-Leonard system). Reference should also be made
to Figure 14.2, the simple block diagram of the system. While a detailed analysis of
the dynamics of such a control system is given later, at this stage it is clear that output
torque is proportional to deviation, that is, proportional action. Field control is used for

R
Servo-
motor

θ1 θ0

Amplifier Sh

γ1 Energy
input γ0

▲ Figure 14.1 Position control servo-mechanism (dc)

Monitoring feedback

θ1 – θ1 – θ0 Servo- θ0
+ A
motor

▲ Figure 14.2 Block diagram (one-term position)

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 Kinetic Control Systems • 247

small powers and armature control for higher powers, the latter utilising a series ballast
resistor (dc) or rectifier from ac supply.

System response

The effects of energy transfer including inertia, friction, etc. need to be considered
whether mechanical or electrical, and so on. Descriptive analysis is often presented
electrically for any system due to ease of diagram circuitry and the mechanical, or the
other such, equivalents can then be simply derived.

Consider a step input to the servo-mechanism of Figure 14.1. At the instant of applying
input, maximum deviation exists, and the servo motor first accelerates rapidly; when
deviation ceases the motor stops. This is an ideal situation because in practice inertia
of the motor causes overshoot, reverse current and rotation, with oscillation. Such
oscillation would continue but for the frictional effects, static and viscous, which damp
out oscillation.

Referring to Figure 14.3 for the step input θi curve one represents the undamped
oscillation (of natural frequency ωn) response at output θ0. Curve two represents light
damping (damping factor k < ωn), curve three critical damping (minimum time without
oscillation to equilibrium k = ωn) and curve four heavy damping, that is, aperiodic
(k > ωn). As a first assumption viscous friction is assumed to account for all frictional
effects, with resisting friction force (or torque) proportional to velocity. Damping, to
prevent overshoot, limits amplifier gain and speed response.
ωt
=
1
θ

1 2

3
2
θ0

θ0

4
θ1
3
4

t t
Step input Ramp input

▲ Figure 14.3 System response

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 248 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Also given in Figure 14.3 is output response θ0 to ramp input θi for the three types of
damped condition. θ0 does not equal θi in the steady state, that is, error with output
lagging input. This is a position lag (offset) due to velocity (rate) which is termed a
velocity misalignment (friction proportional to velocity). A ramp input of position equals
a step input of velocity.

Overshoot

This occurs with proportional control and is due to inertia effects. It can be reduced by
any of three methods.

Friction damping

Friction is non-linear and regarded in two components: static (Coulomb) and viscous;
the former gives steady state error and is usually neglected in simple analysis. Viscous
friction is proportional to velocity and gives damping due to absorption of kinetic
energy. Such damping, when utilised, is achieved by increasing load torque as velocity
is increased. Damping devices employing viscous friction are not often used because of
the following disadvantages: increased response time to achieve steady state, increased
losses, increased energy input with a larger velocity misalignment to produce this input.
Viscous and static friction are of course always naturally present to an extent.

Stabilising feedback

Modifying feedforward or feedback is to minimise any tendency to oscillate. In

principle the object is to decrease servo-motor output torque as speed increases by
tachogenerator feedback, which is preferable to viscous friction damping as the effect
is more linear and no extra energy input is required.

Refer to Figure 14.4 in which the relevant part of the loop is shown dotted; also shown
is a gearing (G) and load system (L). Stabilising feedback from the tachogenerator
(T1), proportional to velocity, reduces the voltage input error signal, proportional to
deviation, hence the amplifier input is reduced. No input will exist before the shafts
are aligned due to the tachogenerator feedback voltage reduction. Inertia will move
the output shaft and reverse amplifier output will provide a braking torque to bring
the motor to rest. For a ramp function (linear displacement variation, constant velocity)
velocity misalignment exists because with the input shaft stopped in position a zero
input voltage to the amplifier is required before shaft alignment. This requires an equal
and opposite input voltage to the tachometer output voltage available in the main
feedback circuit to balance. The motor and tachometer unit is often called a velodyne.

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 Kinetic Control Systems • 249

I
Stabilising feedback

– –
T2 + D + A M T1 G
+

Reset feedforward L

▲ Figure 14.4 Block diagram (three-term position)

Rate network

From the above it is obvious that a voltage proportional to deviation plus a voltage
proportional to rate of change of deviation (i.e. velocity) is required, which is P + D
action. The derivative (rate) circuit has been covered in detail for process control. It is
indicated at D and is a phase advance whose voltage requires extra amplifier gain.

For a step input, peak overshoot, settling time and rise time tolerances may be specified
as a given percentage of the step change. With a ramp function it is necessary to
specify allowable velocity misalignment (function of rate of input change) as a given
percentage of maximum input velocity (rate of ramp input).

Offset

This has been discussed in process control and is a characteristic of proportional

control at different loads. Obviously in the position system being discussed it is velocity
misalignment. This is a steady state position error due to viscous torque (proportional
to velocity) additive to load so that offset must occur. It can be eliminated by one of two
methods; the former is preferred.

Reset network

A voltage proportional to deviation plus a voltage increasing with time at a rate

proportional to deviation is required, that is, P + I action. This has been discussed
previously and the reset network (I) is shown on Figure 14.4. The capacitor stores
enough delayed charge to feed the amplifier to reduce deviation to zero against
the extra loading of frictional effect. It can assist against initial inertia and friction
loading.

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 250 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Reset feedforward

A second identical tachogenerator (T2) is driven off the input shaft and supplies a
feedforward additive voltage proportional to speed. In the steady state for a ramp
function the feedforward from T2 balances the feedback from T1. Hence there is no
velocity misalignment and the offset is removed. When the input shaft stops (T2 zero
output) the following output shaft rotation provides the usual stabilising feedback rate
action from Tl to reduce overshoot.

Position control servo-mechanism (ac)

Generally limited to small powers and although cheap have a low start torque and
relatively low performance. Essentially two categories of ac system exist, that is,
demodulator-modulator and all ac. The principles involved in the former have been
discussed in Chapter 7, and with application to electronic controllers in Chapters 11
and 12.

The input shaft is connected to the single phase ac rotor of the transmission (T) and
the output shaft to a similar rotor of the controller (C) whose excitation is amplified
(A) for supply to the main drive servo-motor (M) to bring the shafts into alignment.
Three-phase stators of transmitter and controller are directly connected. A null point
of relative rotor positions exists, variation from which gives a proportional voltage in
one phase or the other. This is not a synchro-transmission link because the output shaft
rotor is not mains excited.

The two transducers are three-phase induction motors (as synchros-magslips) and
usually the main output servo-motor is two phase (one fixed, one control).

A
M
T C

▲ Figure 14.5 Position control servo-mechanism (ac)

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 Kinetic Control Systems • 251

Stabilising feedback can be used with an ac tachogenerator. The stator is wound with
an input reference field which acts as excitation and an input field wound at right
angles. Rotor cutting of reference field induces an emf in the output field proportional
to speed and in phase and frequency with input signal.

Hydraulic position control servo-mechanism

Hydraulic position control has many applications. A typical example would be an

electro-hydraulic steering gear. The control function acts to vary plunger travel, often
by radially displaced or ‘swash plate’ piston-operated devices, and so give a variable
delivery pump. Linear or angular operation to any position control system, particularly
hydraulic, is easily arranged.

Speed Systems

The control of speed (velocity), linear or angular, in a system. Most of the principles
of speed control are applicable to position control, which has been already been
discussed, so only a brief analysis is given here.

Speed control servo-mechanisms (dc)

The essential equations relating to dc motors are:

I Ia

where T is output torque, Φ flux and Ia armature current.

V Ia Ra
N∝
Φ

where N is speed, V applied voltage and Ra armature resistance.

P V
VIa Ia2 Ra

where P is output power.

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 252 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Sh
V1
T
e =V1 – V0 A

V0

▲ Figure 14.6 Speed control servo-mechanism (dc)

Obviously speed control can be effected by varying armature voltage or field flux, the
former being shown on Figure 14.6.

A speed set voltage from the input potentiometer has an input volts signal V1. Monitored
feedback from the tachogenerator gives a voltage (V0) proportional to output shaft
speed. The error signal e = Vl – V0 is amplified and fed to the main drive motor.

A derivative (rate) and integral (reset) circuit could be added. Rate of velocity change is
acceleration. Gyros measure acceleration in many control systems.

Speed control (ac)

This has become common practice due to advances in power electronics and computer
technology. Thyristor based dc motor speed controllers were developed into ac
speed controllers based around the synchro-converter arrangement (covered under
propulsion control) but these systems were insufficiently flexible to match many of the
features of dc machines. Improvements in field effect transistor (FET) technology and the
development of the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) enabled the development
of pulse width modulation (PWM) or voltage source controllers which could match all
of the commonly desired advantages of dc motor speed controllers.

Ward-Leonard speed control

Consider the arrangement shown in Figure 14.7: Terminology and principles of

operation should be clear from the sketch. The input motor (DM) is a constant speed

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 Kinetic Control Systems • 253

Sh
DM G M

▲ Figure 14.7 Ward-Leonard speed control

induction motor with standard dc generator (G) and servo-motor (M), the latter with
a constant excitation field. Generated supply voltage to the servo-motor depends on
the error signal between desired and measured speed values, as proportional signal
voltages, which is amplified and fed to the generator control field. For small powers
a valve or transistor amplifier could be used with extension to medium powers with a
magnetic amplifier. High gain and stability from drift can be obtained utilising such ac
amplifiers suitably modulated and demodulated. For high powers it is usually necessary
to replace these amplifiers with either a rotating amplifier – auxiliary generator (exciter)
or amplidyne (metadyne, cross-field dc generator) – or modern thyristor control
amplifier.

Controlled rectifier units can also be used. The mercury arc rectifier and ignitron can
be used for large powers but are generally limited to specialist applications. Thyratron
devices, with transformer coupling to anode and grid, have been successfully used.
Thyristors are being increasingly used either directly or as field control devices.

Thyristor Speed Control

Consider the arrangement shown in Figure 14.8. The sketch has the familiar layout used
previously, field control is by thyristor. The bridge circuit consists of two rectifiers C
and D and two controlled rectifiers (thyristors) at A and B. The gate of each thyristor
is triggered by pulses from P representative of error speed input signal. Alternating
current supply is rectified for output to field by passage through B and C on one cycle
and D and A on the other cycle. This yields fullwave rectification with thyristor trigger
control on each cycle. Adequate overload protection is required in the bridge circuit.

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 254 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

A C
P
B D

▲ Figure 14.8 Thyristor speed control

Governor Systems

Many engines, turbine and reciprocating, are still fitted with trip devices to allow full
energy supply under normal conditions. If revolutions rise about 5% above normal
the energy supply is cut off until normal conditions are restored – lock out occurs at
about 15% excess which can only be unlocked by hand. Aspinall types come into this
category.

Smaller engines, such as electric generator drive, often use centrifugal governors
based on the Watt principle, the Hartnell governor is typical. Control is essentially
proportional action with sensed output (rotation speed) controlling energy input and
offset (exemplified by no load to full load speed droop) occurs.

Modern engine governors are isochronous devices but reset action is applied to
eliminate hunting. One such P + I governor has already been described in Chapter 12.

Two designs will now be considered: mechanical-hydraulic (similar in principle to

Figure 12.2) and electrical-hydraulic (utilising principles discussed previously in this
chapter).

Mechanical-hydraulic speed control servo-mechanism

Many engine units employ these servo devices incorporating inbuilt safety for oil or
water failure with IC engines. The design now considered is similar in principal to that
of Figure 12.2.

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 Kinetic Control Systems • 255

Speed
adjustment
Speed adjusting
spring

Flyweight

Plunger
Rotating sleeve

Compensating
piston
Accumulators
Power Needle and relief
piston valve

Regulating To
Bypass plug sump

Fuel max To
Fuel min Bypass sump
Buffer
piston
Gear pump
To fuel
control
SP lines

Drive From
sump

▲ Figure 14.9 Mechanical-hydraulic speed control servo-mechanism

Refer to Figure 14.9. With the engine running at constant speed under a steady load
the up-force due to centrifugal force from the flyweights is balanced by the down-force
of the speeder spring. The plunger is central with the regulating plug covering the
regulating ports in the sleeve. The plunger moves vertically but does not rotate and the
opposite applies to the sleeve. The power piston is stationary and the buffer piston is
central under these conditions.

Consider a load increase on the engine for which condition Figure 14.9 is applicable.
Speed reduces and the plunger moves down with pressure oil flow to the right of the
buffer piston, which moves left. The power piston will move up and admit more fuel to
the engine. Pressure oils also acts on the compensating piston under side which will
exceed the pressure on this piston upper side so that the plunger will be restored up.
The power piston will now stop. As engine speed returns to normal oil is leaking through

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 256 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

the needle valve, to restore equal pressures on each side of the buffer piston and
compensating piston. The buffer piston is returned to mid-position by the springs. This
gradually reduces the up-force on the compensating piston but the increasing engine
speed is also increasing this up-force due to centrifugal force. The compensating piston
is designed to be balanced gradually so that the rate of leakage at the needle valve
(unloading) equals the rate of loading due to extra centrifugal force caused by higher
engine revolutions. The engine will now run at normal speed but with increased load
and higher fuel setting. The needle valve should be screwed in sufficiently to prevent
hunting but without making the operation sluggish. Oil pressure is shown dotted with
the slightly lower pressure chain dotted.

The bypass arrangement ensures that for a large speed change the power piston only
moves as far as the bypass. Pressure oil flows directly to the power cylinder without
further increasing the D/P on the compensating piston. After sufficient governor
movement and speed return to near normal the D/P acts as usual.

In the event of a large load decrease the power piston is at fuel minimum and blocks
the needle valve connection. This gives a higher speed setting than normal and reduces
a tendency to under speed.

Electrical-hydraulic speed control servo-mechanism

Rotational speed is sensed by tachogenerator, or as shown in Figure 14.10 by ac

alternator, with frequency pulses converted in the rectifier to dc voltage proportional
to speed. Set value is applied to the controller and the two input voltages, opposite in
polarity, are compared. Error signal (if any) is amplified, converted to hydraulic signal
and operates to alter energy supply through a servo-motor. To reduce hunting, and
offset, the controller has reset (integral) action via a feedback loop. The unit is also
anticipatory, that is, load changes are fed back to the controller to amend energy input
before speed change occurs – speed control is virtually a fine trimming operation.

Mathematical Aspects

Figure 14.11 is introduced now to link illustrative block diagrams (as Figure 14.2) and
the analyses of transfer functions for open and closed control loops (Chapter 15). It
is a position control servo-mechanism with unity feedback. Torque proportional to
deviation, friction torque proportional to (angular) velocity.

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 Kinetic Control Systems • 257

Alternator Rectifier

Speed Controller
setting and Load
unit amplifier

To
energy
supply
Oil supply
Electro-
hydraulic
Servo
converter Oil drain
motor

▲ Figure 14.10 Electrical-hydraulic speed control servo-mechanism

Servo-amp
& I
θ1 θ
motor

–θ0

1
K
θ1 θ ID 2 + HD θ0

–θ0

1
θ1 θ T 21 D 2 + T2D θ0

–θ0

▲ Figure 14.11 Block diagram/transfer function

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 258 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Torque applied to load (Iα) = Kθ – Hω

d 2 θo 2 dθ
Kθ = I +H
dt 2
d dt
= θ0 (ID
(ID + HD )
2

Open-loop transfer function

θ0 K 1
= =
θ ID 2 + HD T12 D 2 + T2 D

Closed-loop transfer function

θ0 (T12 D 2 + T2 D )−1 1
= −1
= 2 2
θi {1+ (T1 D + T2 D ) } T1 D + T2 D + 1
2 2

I H
where T1 = and T2 = are time constants. See now pages 265 and 266.
K K

Test Examples

1. Explain the difference between ‘open-loop’ and ‘closed-loop’ systems of control.

Draw a circuit diagram for a system in which the Ward–Leonard arrangement with
feedback control is used to regulate the speed of a dc motor and explain the mode
of operation.
2. (a) Sketch a clearly labelled circuit diagram for a simple electrical remote position
control servo-mechanism with zero damping.
(b) With the aid of waveform sketches describe the action of the system when
subjected to a step input.
(c) Compare any advantages and disadvantages of the following methods of
damping such as a servo-mechanism:
(i) viscous friction, (ii) output velocity feedback.
3. Describe a thyristor control arrangement for the speed control of a large electrical
fan. Show how a zener diode can be used to stabilise the voltage supply to load
and include the necessary protection to safeguard the diode against overload.

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 Kinetic Control Systems • 259

4. (a) Distinguish between the following control system terms:

(i) Error
(ii) Offset
(iii) Monitored feedback
(iv) Deadband
(b) For a remote position control servo-mechanism: (1) State the effect of adding
integral action. (2) Describe velocity feedback damping. (3) Sketch waveforms
to illustrate response to step input.

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 15 CONTROL SYSTEM
ANALYSIS
This subject is generally complex and the objective of this chapter is to introduce the
basic principles so as to allow an initial appreciation which could be further developed,
if required, at a later stage. Consideration is given to the systems approach, the order of
linear systems, performance of systems, component interaction and adjustment.

The Systems Approach

System

A general definition is: a functional assembly with components linked in an organised

way and affected by being within, and changed if removed from, the boundary.

A system may exist as a sub-system within a larger system so that a hierarchy exists,
for example, the biological cell, within the heart of an animal, within a social human
system of a universe.

State

A system may be discrete, that is, exist in only one clearly defined state at a given time, or
may be continuous in change. It can be deterministic in operating to a fixed sequence,

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 Control System Analysis • 261

or probabilistic with random change or subject to external influence. A closed system

always tends to seek equilibrium and ideally has no energy transfer with surroundings
outside the boundary whereas an open system tends to approach a steady state of
balance with the surrounding environment. The black box philosophy is applicable,
internal form unknown and sealed, with the only factors of interest being the output
and input variables and their relation.

Essentially the systems approach can be detailed as:

1. Specify aims and objectives of the problem or analysis.

2. Establish system and sub-system boundaries.
3. Devise functional conceptual models of the problem leading to block diagrams
with attendant mathematical models (equations) allowing for interaction between
component units, feedback analyses, etc.
4. Scale system variables and construct circuit diagrams or firmware models.
5. After evaluation and iteration the synthesis can be established and tested for final
appraisal.

(The reader is strongly advised at this stage to consider Figure 16.1A of the next chapter
for a systems approach applied to a very basic engineering mechanism, that is, the
simple pendulum and its analogue.)

Development to transport, banking, education, manufacturing, community systems,

and such is an essential part of general systems theory and philosophy based on the
techniques outlined in principle above.

Systems considered in this context are linear, that is, equations with constant
coefficients. In practice non-linearities exist but unless complicated theory is utilised
are difficult to analyse. Many cases exist where the effect of non-linearity can be
negligible by correct design so that linear theory can be applied.

A systems approach requires a unification between similar quantities and should result
in a generalised mathematical model whose equations are applicable for simulation
and evaluation.

Analogues

It should be remembered that rate of change of a variable with respect to time can
be written d/dt in calculus notation. Thus, for example, translational velocity (rate of

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 262 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

change of translational displacement with respect to time) can be written dx/dt; an

alternative is xɯ. Similarly, for example, rotational (angular) acceleration is dw/dt, or ω̇
and as this is the second-rate derivative of rotational displacement it also equals d2θ/
dt2; or θ̈. Numerous other examples can be quoted.

Variables in common use include force, torque, voltage difference (drop), pressure
difference (drop), displacement, velocity, acceleration, current, flow rate, etc. Parameters
include stiffness, damping coefficient, mass, inertia, resistance, capacitance, inductance,
etc. (see Table 15.1).

Consider the following:

Across variable (X )
Generalised impedance ( ) =
Through variable
b ( )

Through variables are velocity, current, flow rate, etc.; across variables are force, voltage,
pressure, etc.; impedance parameters are inertia, resistance, capacity, etc. Elements in a
system can be classified as dissipative, where X ∝ Y (such as resistors); as storage, where
X ɯ ∝ Y (such as capacity); or as storage, where X ∝ Y ɯ (such as inductance).

Table 15.1 compares the translational mechanical, electrical and fluid systems. Extension
to pneumatic, thermal and rotational mechanical systems gives a similar result in every
case. B is damping coefficient, Sಿ spring stiffness, the dot above variables indicating rate
of change, for example, νɯ will be acceleration.

X X Z=
X
Gen. X Y Z= Z=
Y Y Y

F F F
Mech. Force Velocity Damper B = Spring S ′= Mass m =
v v v

V 1 V V
Elec. Voltage Current Resistor R = Capacitor = Inductor L =
I C I I

p 1 p P
Fluid Pressure Flow Resistor R ′ = Capacitor = Inductor I ′ =
f C′ f f

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 Control System Analysis • 263

System Order

The response of any system, or a component within the system, can be described by a
mathematical equation. The order of the equation, and hence the system or component,
is fixed by the highest derivative ‘power’. In a mechanical system, for example, velocity is
the first derivative of displacement, that is, v = dxldt so that a system with such a term as
the highest derivative is classified as a first-order equation. All such first-order systems
are defined by having one form of energy storage component. Similarly acceleration
as the second derivative of displacement, that is, a = d2x/dt2 is a second order. All such
second-order systems are classified by having two forms of energy storage components
and one form of dissipative energy component. It is often convenient to write D for dldt
in calculus notation (note D–1 is a first integration).

First-order systems

Consider the mechanical translation system of Figure 15.1.

The constant applied force (F) is resisted by the spring force (S′x) and the dashpot
damping force proportional to velocity (Bv). Now v = dx/dt = Dx so that the equation is
written as:

F S ′x + BDx

and after re-arrangement this becomes

B F
Dx + x =
S′ S′

Spring
I R
SX
Dashpot F
Vi C Vo

X
Bv
Mech. Elec.

▲ Figure 15.1 First-order systems

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 264 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

B
which is a typical first-order equation, time constant τ =
S′
For the electrical resistance–capacity system shown:

τ DV
Vo + Vo Vi

(in charge terms, τDQ + Q = ViC when DQ is current) where τ = RC is a time constant.

For a heat resistance-capacity system:

E + θE θF

where τ = RC, θE and θF element and fluid temperatures.

For a fluid restrictor-capacity tank system:

τ Dp0 + p0 = pi

(in quantity terms, τDq + q = piC′ where Dq is flow rate) (‘head’, τ Dh h q&i R
‘τ = Area × R).

Such equations can be extended to economic, management, etc. systems and a general
equation arising from the above analogous cases may be written down as follows (y any
variable):

τ DY + y bf (t )

where τ is the system time constant and b is a constant. It is possible that the input may
not be a step or ramp form of constant, such as a dc voltage, but may be varying with
time, such as an ac voltage. The f(t) forcing function term is a general way of writing an
input function dependent on time, for example sinusoidally, to allow for such variations.
If the input is not so varying the right-hand side of the equation is a constant, as covered
in the analogous cases given above, when y is made up of a constant and a variable,
with a system time constant in the solution, that is, y = b(1 – e–t/τ). b is usually the gain
constant.

Transfer function

The transfer function of an element is the ratio of its output signal to its input signal.

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 Control System Analysis • 265

θo
Transfer function =
θi

Its use, together with block diagrams, simplifies analysis using s-plane in place of
differential equations. In some cases output is merely amplified or attenuated input,
for example, gearbox, while in other cases the signals may be in different physical form
with different amplitude and phase.

Consider the RC network of Figure 15.1:

Vi IR Vo
dV
Vo
I C = CDV Vo
dt
Vi Vo + Vo
RCDV

(this is the first-order equation given previously)

Vi Vo (RCD + )
Vo 1
Transfer function = =
Vi 1+τ D

This result will be characteristic of all such first-order equations.

Closed-loop transfer function

Figure 15.2 illustrates the usual arrangement. The transfer function of forward elements
is G and of feedback element F.

θi – θo
θ
+ G

▲ Figure 15.2 Closed-loop transfer function

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 266 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

1. Consider the loop of feedback to be opened and let F = 1 (direct feedback):

θo
Open-loop transfer function (G ) =
θ

for forward path elements.

2. Consider closure of the feedback loop and F = 1:

θo θ
Closed-loop transfer function = = o
θ i θ +θ o
θo θ G
= =
1+θ
+ θ o θ 1+ G

3. Consider the system as sketched:

f Fθ
F o θ =θ i −ff ; θ o Gθ o
Gθ

combining these equations gives:

θo θ i −Fθ o
⎛1+ FG ⎞⎟
θ i θ o ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ G ⎟⎟⎠

θo G
Closed-loop transfer function = =
θ i 1+ FG
f
Open-loop transfer function = = FG
θ

1. The open-loop transfer function is very useful in stability testing (see later).
2. Note that for direct feedback the closed-loop transfer function is (open-loop
transfer function) divided by (one plus open-loop transfer function). Increasing
gain G reduces offset.
3. This is a simple example. Practical cases with more involved transfer functions are
more complicated and difficult to solve.

The response output θo will depend on the form of the input signal. For elements in
series the overall transfer function is the product of the individual transfer functions,
assuming there is no interaction between the components, that is, G = G1G2. There will
be an overall gain (or attenuation) and if input is a variable with time there will be a

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 Control System Analysis • 267

θi 1 θo

1 + 2C T 1 D +T 12 D 2

▲ Figure 15.3 Transfer function block diagram

need to algebraically add phase shifts. With elements in parallel G = G1 + G2. For a given
open-loop transfer function there is only one closed-loop transfer function, hence open-
loop analysis gives closed-loop analysis automatically. This fact is very important as an
unstable closed system cannot be measured but by opening the system an analysis is
possible allowing stability compensation to be made. The open-loop transfer function,
independent of where the loop is opened, is FG.

If the system under consideration was itself a component of a control system it could
be represented as one block diagram enclosing its transfer function. Such a second-
order system is shown in Figure 15.3.

Second-order systems

Such systems have analogues as detailed previously. An in-depth review is not required
but three examples are given:

1. RCL series electrical network.

Applied volts = R
Resistor lts + Capacitor volts
i t volts
+ Inductor volts
o
1 dI
V = IR + ∫ I dt + L
C dt
dV dI I d 2I
= R + + L 2 (after f differe
d ff ntiation)
dt dt C
d dt

2. Mechanical translational damper, spring, mass assembly (see Figure 15.10). Applied
force = Damping force + Spring force + Inertia force.

F = Bv + S ′x + ma (B d p ng coefficien )
2
dx d x
F =B + S ′x + m 2 ( S ′ spri
s ng stiffness)
dt
d dt
d2 x dx F
+ 2k + ω 2n x =
dt 2 dt
d m

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 268 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

B
2k = where k is the damping factor
m
S′
ω 2n = where
h ω n is the naatural (undamped) frequency
m

F
D 2 x + 2c n Dxx
D 2
n x=
m

k
c= where c is a damping ratio
ωn

(constant changing is purely for mathematical convenience, m is the effective mass

of the spring and its load).
3. Position control servo-mechanism.

Reference should be made to Figure 14.1 in Chapter 14, showing this unit. Output drive
torque is dependent on inertia, viscous and stiffness (static and load error) torques.

K 1K 2 K 3 ( i o ) Iα + Hω

(I is the moment of inertia, H is damping coefficient)

1 H
D2 θ o Dθ o +θ o θ i
K 1K 2 K 3 K 1K 2 K 3

(Inertia torque is for motor and load, direct drive assumed, viscous torque proportional
to angular velocity: Kl, K2, K3 are respectively potentiometer bridge, motor torque-
current and amplifier scaling constants.) Simplifying constants gives:

( 2
n
2
n )θ o w n2 θ i

1
Transfer function =
T D + 2 T1D + 1
1
2 2

where T1 – 1/ωn con and is periodic time of undamped natural oscillation divided by 2π.
For sinusoidal input the transfer function is as above but with iω replacing D, that is, if
θ = Aeiωt then Dθ = iω θ; both D and i are operators.

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 Control System Analysis • 269

Note: A general second-order equation allowing for input variation with time is:

( 2
n
2
n ) y = aω 2n f ( )

where a is a constant, y the variable and f(t) the forcing function.

Higher order systems

Commonly arise but are not considered here except to note three-term control action
(P + I + D), action factors K1, K2, K3.

⎛ K dθ ⎞
K 1 ⎜⎜⎜θ + 2 ∫ θdt + 3 ⎟⎟⎟
K
V
⎝ K1 K 1 dt ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
= −K 1 ⎜⎜1+ + TD ⎟⎟⎟θ
⎜⎝ SD ⎠

S integral action time, T derivative action time, V controller output. Application to say
a position control servo-mechanism gives a transfer function of a third-order character
obtained by equating the system second-order equation in terms of θo to the above
equation in which θ = θi – θo.

System performance

Ideal response is where output is identical to input command. This cannot be obtained
because viscous friction and measure delays result in output lag. Effects such as inertia
produce oscillation about the steady state. The mathematical approach gives an
estimate of likely performance which can be improved by experimentation rigs, usually
electrical analogues. The objective is attainment of desired value fairly quickly and
accurately, with stability. Response to simple input signals has already been covered in
the text but a quick resume can now be presented.

Performance results are in two distinct parts:

1. Transient response when the system is responding and may hunt.

2. Steady state response when the transient has died away.

It is necessary to introduce mathematical solutions to equations, especially second

order, in the following sections. Such solutions can be readily verified if required but

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 270 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

the object in presenting the work is purely to introduce techniques and a general
appreciation is all that is required.

Step input response

For a first-order system

τ Dy + y = bf(t) is the general equation

τ Dθo + θo = θi in control terminology

The steady state is a constant step input θi. The transient solution is θo = – θie–t/τ. The
complete solution is θo = (1 – e–t/τ). To ‘slow down’ such a system and increase resistance,
damping or capacity but decrease stiffness.

Reference to Figure 15.4 shows an exponential curve. The time constant T is the time
to reach steady state if the initial slope was maintained. Output actually only reaches
63.2% of this value. There is no overshoot. The curve is characteristic of the LR electrical
‘growth’ response. The CR electrical circuit gives a decay characteristic.

For a second-order system:

( 2
n
2
n ) y = aω 2n f ( ) general
( 2
n
2
n )θ o =ω 2n θ i control
o

Again the steady state is a constant step input θi (after dividing through by ω n ). The
2

transient solution is obtained by setting the left-hand side to zero and three resulting

θi at t = 0

–t
θo = θi [1–e τ ]
θi

0.632 θi

t
τ

▲ Figure 15.4 Step response (first order)

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 Control System Analysis • 271

equations are possible depending on roots obtained. Reference should be made to

Figure 14.3 of Chapter 14 where curves representing the three-solution equations are
shown. Curve 2 (c < 1) is one solution for under-damped and is oscillatory. Curve 3 (c = 1)
is another solution for critical damping. Curve 4 (c >1) is the third possible solution
for over-damped (aperiodic). The oscillatory case illustrates overshoot, a settling time,
etc. For the electrical (series) system critical damping occurs when R L C , for
mechanical (translational) when B=2 S ′m .

Ramp input response

For a first-order system: The complete solution is θo = ω[t – τ(1 – e–t/τ)]. Reference to
Figure 14.3 of Chapter 14 would indicate exponential approach to an inclined line
representing steady state θo, similar to curve 3 (or 4), starting at τ on the horizontal axis
(see Figure 9.2, Chapter 9).

For a second-order system: Reference to Figure 14.3 of Chapter 14 illustrates response

for under-damped (c < 1 curve 2), critical damping (c = 1 curve 3) and over-damped (c > 1
curve 4). The inclined line of steady state θo, as appropriate to the degree of damping,
will start at 2cT1 on the horizontal axis (see also Figure 9.2 of Chapter 9).

Sinusoidal input response

This is the case with the forcing function related to time, that is, f(t) such as θi sin ωt
or θi cos ωt, for say an alternating voltage input; first- or second-order equation. The
system is subjected to varied frequency sine wave inputs and response output is noted
in magnitude and phase. Such analysis is also useful for evaluation of higher-order
systems.

The first-order solution to TDθo + θo = θ (cos ωt) results in one equation (magnitude)
and another equation (phase).

θo 1
=
θi 1+ω 2 T12
tanφ ω T1

Consider as example the RC network covered previously (Figure 15.1) with the object
of obtaining the steady state sinusoidal response. The method, with sinusoidal type

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 272 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

inputs, is to replace operator D by iω using the complex number notation which is very
useful in ac networks or polar control plots. Symbol i (sometimes j) is an operator which
rotates a vector by 90° in an anti-clockwise direction, without altering its length, its
numerical value is −1 ; i2 is 180°, numerically –1; i3 is 270°, numerically − −1 , that
is, –i; i4 is 360°, or 0°, that is, numerically 1. This is illustrated by an Argand Diagram
(Figure 15.5) which shows a vector A whose modulus, or amplitude (length), is 5, that
is, 32 + 4 2 and arguement (phase angle) is tan–1 4/3. The vertical (Y) axis is referred to
as imaginary and the horizontal (X) axis as real and the number composed of real and
imaginary parts is called a complex number. The diagram is often called the ‘s-plane’.

From the circuit of Figure 15.1:

Vi Vi
I= =
Z R i ωC

(Capacitive reactance (Xc) is i/ωC where ω = 2πf, impedance Z.) (–i indicates 270°, that is,
a current leading voltage, capacitive effect.)

(−i C )Vi
Vo =
R ( i C)

Y
iA
Imaginary

5
=
A

4
Real φ X
–A 3 A

–iA

▲ Figure 15.5 Argand diagram

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 Control System Analysis • 273

The next step is to evaluate the transfer function:

V0 −i ω C 1 iω C
= =
Vi R i ω C R iω C
1 1
= =
1+ iω CR iω τ

This is the typical first-order transfer function with D replaced by iω. This expression
gives the modulus, which is termed magnitude ratio (M) in control terms, and argument
(phase shift).

1
M=
1 +ω 2 τ 2
2

ϕ = tan−1ωτ ph f o relati
r l i e t Vi .

Transfer function second order is 1/(1 + iωτ1)(l + iωτ2).

The second-order solution is more complicated but shows the same characteristic
result of a response of different magnitude and phase to input. Solutions are best
illustrated graphically, Figure 15.6 (also Figures 9.3, 15.8). Measurement is by a cathode
ray oscilloscope or transfer function analyser. Resonant frequency is 1 2π LC electrical
(series) and 1 2π S ′ m mechanical (translational).

Frequency response analysis

Refer to Figure 15.6. The dotted line shows first-order response and the full lines are
second-order response curves for various degrees of damping. In the former case
magnitude ratio (M the ratio between output and input amplitude) decreases steadily
with input frequency and phase lag (ϕ) increases, due to the output being unable to
follow input. In the latter case results are similar with a high resonance peak at ωn for
low damping which reduces with increased damping, as does ω 2n . Lag is inherent in
control systems. A frequency response diagram of M ~ ϕ with M a logarithmic axis or
decibels (dB = 20 log10 θo/θi), both effectively the same, is used in open- and closed-
loop analysis. Response diagrams as in Figure 15.6, but with a logarithmic ω (or ωT1)
axis and a logarithmic M axis (or dB), are similarly used. Such diagrams if used in open-
loop frequency response analysis are called Nichols and Bode diagrams respectively.
On a Bode diagram, for stability, then (1) when dB are zero ϕ should be under –180°

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 274 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

1.0
c = 0.05
c = 0.3
c = 1.0

ωn

c = 0.05
–φ c = 0.3
c = 1.0

90°

180°

▲ Figure 15.6 Frequency response curves

(e.g. –135°) for a positive phase margin and (2) when ϕ is –180° dB should be negative
for a positive gain margin.

Stability response

The main aim of a frequency response test is to assess stability. One common method
is to open the feedback loop and inject a small sinusoidal constant magnitude input
signal (θ) to the forward path elements only and obtain a polar plot of this open-
loop frequency response. The input is usually made unity and the polar plot is a
Nyquist diagram obtained by measuring magnitude ratio and phase angle of output
for increasing values of frequency from zero to infinity. M and ϕ could of course be
calculated but this is obviously pointless, at least at this stage. A typical Nyquist diagram
(open-loop polar plot) is shown in Figure 15.7.

The Nyquist stability criteria is that the closed-loop system is stable if the open-loop
frequency response locus traced from ω = 0 to ω = ∞ does not enclose (pass to the
left of ) the point (–1, 0). The locus of θo for ω increasing can be seen to be stable from

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 Control System Analysis • 275

Gain 0 + i1
margin

ω=∞

θ
–1 θo θi +1
α

Unstable
Marginal
Stable
0 – i1

Locus
for ω
increasing

▲ Figure 15.7 Nyquist diagram

the diagram. The marginal state through (–1, 0) is shown, with instability beyond that.
The circle is for unity gain (M = 1). Locus curves starting at various gain values on an
extended axis to the right (where ω = o) can be plotted for fixed gain with increasing
values of ω to determine correct gain for complete stability.

(Also shown is a vector sum θi = θo + θ being the input signal to give θ = 1; this gives
indication of closed-loop response but is not part of the normal Nyquist criteria.)

If θo = 1 and ϕ = 180° for a particular frequency ω, i tip of θo locus vector is point (–1,
0) then θi to a closed-loop system is zero. This is unity feedback (positive) and slight
change of θi will cause oscillation which would grow with increased amplitude
oscillations for open-loop gain over unity. This is the basis of the Nyquist criteria.

Phase margin (α), as shown, should exceed 30° (usual range 30°–60°) and gain margin
(sometimes expressed in dB) should exceed 0.3 (usual range 0.3–0.6) to ensure stability.
The curve of Figure 15.7 is a typical fourth order.

Illustrative response curves are shown in Figure 15.8 (M = 1); a is typical of a first-order
system, b second order, c is combination of a and b (third order effectively). Curve
a is typical of a passive LR circuit response and is a fourth quadrant semicircle with
output lagging input and amplitude decreasing as ω increases. (A passive CR circuit

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 276 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

ω=∞ ω=0
–1 θ 0 Vec 1
tor

ω1 (rad/s or Hz)
ω3 a
e
ω2

d
c

▲ Figure 15.8 Response curves (Nyquist)

is plotted in the first quadrant with output leading input and amplitude increasing as
ω increases.) The first- and second-order systems sketched cannot be made unstable
with an increase in gain factor but the third-order system can (as can the fourth order
of Figure 15.7). In such a case feedback from a tachogenerator would induce oscillation
and increasing amplitude, that is, instability. This can be prevented by reducing the
gain, which however reduced accuracy. Other methods of stabilisation include adding a
passive phase lag network (P + I) or phase lead network (P + D) or a stabilising feedback
CR circuit with the object of increasing stability without reducing gain. Curve d moved
to curve e of Figure 15.8 illustrates the objective. It should be noted that good stability
and high accuracy are incompatible and a compromise between the two is desired for
best performance.

Contours of open-loop response (Figures 15.7 and 15.8) can be used to evaluate closed-
loop response. For any point on the open loop, vector values of output to input ratio
and the angle between them give points for the closed-loop response. These can be
plotted on another similar harmonic response diagram or on a frequency response
diagram.

The Nichol’s chart (Figure 15.9) is frequently used in frequency response and stability
analysis. Point plots of constant gain and phase (derived by calculation due to the
logarithmic scale) give contours on which open-loop response can be plotted; minimum
contours are shown on the sketch to simplify the illustration. Note that 20 log10 1 = 0
dB, 20 log10 10 = 20 dB and 20 log10 0.1 = –20 log10 10 = –20 dB for the dB plotting
so that negative dB corresponds to amplitude ratio (gain) of less than 1 (attenuation).
Magnitude ratio 0.7–0.4 (–3 to –8 dB) corresponds to gain margin 0.3–0.6 (3–8 dB)
which with a phase margin about 45° is a typical, simple design specification.

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 Control System Analysis • 277

24
a b c

0.2 rad/s
+1 dB
18
0.2 rad/s dB
0.2 rad/s –1
+2 dB

12
Open-loop gain, dB

+10° –10°
B
–2 d

+6 dB –30°
6
+30° 0.5 rad/s
+12 dB 0.5 rad/s
0.5 rad/s
0
1 rad/s –5 dB
–60°

–6
1 rad/s
1 rad/s
–12 dB
–12
–180 –150 –120 –90 –60 –30
Open-loop phase, degrees

▲ Figure 15.9 Nichols chart

On Figure 15.9 curve a (unstable) shows 15° phase lead at 11 dB, curve b (stable) 32°
phase lag at –3 dB and curve c (improved stability 63° phase lag) at –8 dB, the operating
frequency to be near 1 rad/s.

The closed-loop characteristic (direct feedback systems) can be derived on this chart
from the intercepts of the open-loop locus with the gain and phase contours. This
requires a simple calculation for values (which includes a feedback fraction).

Further analogues

In some cases approaches are used in which electrical components in parallel are
regarded as equivalent to mechanical components in series, and vice versa. Certainly
current, which has a common value through series electrical components, is analogous
to velocity, which has a common value through linked mechanical translational
components. Capacitors in parallel are equivalent to springs in series, and vice versa.

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 278 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Vi C R Vo

Fi S' B Fo
m

▲ Figure 15.10 Second-order systems

The lower diagram of Figure 15.10 illustrates a mechanical translational damper, spring,
mass system which has been described previously (the left-hand end is often fixed,
Fi = 0, Fo = F). It is typical of an anti-vibration mounting in which high frequency input
oscillations will be damped out (see analogue circuit diagram, Figure 16.2).

The upper diagram of Figure 15.10 is the equivalent electrical circuit. High impedance to
high frequency inputs results in a filter system in which only low frequency components
are applied to R. The ratio of Vo to Vi can be found at a given frequency.

Factory system boundary

Feedback
feedbacks
Internal
making and assembly

Main assembly
Purchase

Sub-units
Stores

Stores

Stores
Test

Sales
Management
control
Inspection

▲ Figure 15.11 Manufacturing system

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 Control System Analysis • 279

Figure 15.11 illustrates the systems approach to a factory management system which
should be self explanatory. Management includes finance, development, etc.; sub-
systems and techniques include critical path analysis, O.R., quality control, O&M,
queuing theory, etc.

Component interaction

By this heading is meant the internal interference within a controller of the interference
effect between connected controllers.

Internal interaction

The three-term equation for a controller has been considered and the equation in
transfer function terms is:
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜1+ 1 + TD ⎟⎟θ
1 ⎜⎝ SD ⎟⎠

This assumes each control action can be generated separately which may not be possible,
and resulting interaction can occur which will affect output signal. Let consideration be
applied to a three-term pneumatic controller – see Figure 10.7 of Chapter 10. As stated
the position of integral and derivative adjustment can affect output in various ways.
Consider the derivative adjustment placed at X in Figure 10.8. The control output signal
can be shown to be:

⎡⎛ 2T ⎞ 1 ⎤
V K 1 ⎢⎜⎜1+ ⎟⎟⎟ + + TD ⎥ θ
⎢⎣⎜⎝ S ⎠ SD ⎥⎦

Integral or derivative adjustment affects controller gain (K1). In this case K1 is altered
by the interaction factor (1 + 2TIS). Analysis of each controller design is required to
establish the exact output signal. Similar remarks apply for electronic controllers. Bode
diagrams can be utilised to obtain characteristic plots of controller response which
exhibit gain and phase variation.

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 280 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

External interaction

Consider two first-order controllers in series with no interaction between stages. The
overall transfer function becomes:

θo 1
=
θi (1+ 1 )(1+
)( 2 )

which is a non-oscillatory type of second-order function. For a sinusoidal input the

gain (attenuation) of individual elements are multiplied and phase angles added
algebraically, utilising as usual iω for D.

The control units must be non-interacting otherwise the transfer function of one
controller will be modified by the loading of a following controller. This is usually
avoided by inserting buffer amplifiers (or stages) of unit gain, without phase shift,
between the controllers in series.

Block diagram reduction

A single (overall) transfer function can be obtained from a complete system consisting
of individual (non-interacting) units each with its own transfer function. Block diagram
algebra is used with two basic rules applied to each block pair in successive reduction:
(1) parallel blocks are summed (2) series blocks are multiplied. A system and solution
are detailed in Figure 15.12.

G1 F1

θi + – θo
+ G2 + G3 + G4 G5
–

F2

θi G3G4G5(G1+G2) θo
1+G4G5(F1+G3F2(G1+G2))

▲ Figure 15.12 Block diagram reduction

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 Control System Analysis • 281

Component Adjustment

The adjustment of controllers, especially P + I + D, in a plant is usually done empirically

by generally well-established experience criteria.

Adjusting controllers to plant

For initial commissioning the controller must be set up exactly to the manufacturer’s
instructions and all maintenance must follow similarly from maker’s advice. Integral
resistance is usually set at maximum and derivative resistance at minimum. Proportional
band can now be set for minimum stabilisation time. Derivative resistance can now
be increased to reduce this time a little, integral resistance now being adjusted to the
same as derivative resistance. There is a definite relation between T and S settings; even
with independent settings T can never exceed S.

We now consider setting and adjustment in more detail. This is a skilled operation
requiring time and knowledge of plant characteristics so that the following, for a P + I + D
controller, is obviously a condensed simplification.

The object is to critically damp the signal to rest in the minimum time without overshoot
and oscillation. Instability may occur for too narrow a proportional band, too short
integral action time or too long derivative action time. Stability with underdamping
gives oscillation with too long a stabilisation time; overdamping gives no oscillation
but too long stabilisation time usually due to a too wide proportional band, too large
integral action time or too short derivative action time.

For proportional action band only, it is best to start at say 200% bandwidth and
move the dial away from and then back to the set value, noting the settling time.
This is repeated at step reductions of bandwidth until the oscillations do not reduce
to zero (too much reduction would cause instability with increasing oscillations). A
slight increase in bandwidth now gives the correct value for minimum offset and
stabilisation time.

For P + I the proportional band would be set as for P action above with integral action
time at maximum. The integral action time is then reduced (using big steps initially)
until hunting oscillation starts. A slight increase in integral action time now gives the
correct value and stability.

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 282 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

For P + D the proportional band is narrowed as above until hunting is occurring and
it is held at that value. The derivative action time, which had been set at minimum, is
increased to remove hunting. The proportional band is again narrowed slightly and
hunting removed by adding to the derivative action time. This process is continued
until hunting cannot be removed by the derivative action time. The proportional band
is now widened slightly for correct setting.

P + I + D controllers may be adjusted in practice as for a P + D controller, noting the

derivative action time, adding the same integral action time then adjusting for minimum
offset. Interaction is always rather a problem except in a well-designed controller, well
matched to plant characteristics.

Empirical setting method (P + I + D)

I and D terms are reduced to zero and proportional band is narrowed until continuous
cycling occurs. This may require a small step input on the desired value setting to start
the oscillation. Although, continuous oscillation at constant amplitude is taking place
the periodic time is measured. With this proportional band (W) and periodic time (T0) it
is possible to empirically set the controller thus:

% Bandwidth for P W
% Bandwidth for( ) = 2.2W
T
S for(P + I ) = 0 minutes
1⋅ 2
% Bandwidth for( + + ) =1⋅ 67W
T
S for( + + ) = 0 minute t s
2
T
T for( ) = 0 minutes
8

Signals are then trimmed for optimum performance. The above is satisfactory for a
continuous process but not for auto-start with no overshoot.

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 Control System Analysis • 283

Test Examples

1. Sketch the harmonic response (Nyquist) diagram for frequency response tests on:
(a) a stable system,
(b) a critically stable system,
(c) an unstable system.
2. A thermocouple at 10°C is placed in a fluid at a temperature of 60°C and the reading
after 4 s is 40°C. Assuming exponential delay response evaluate the time constant
of this instrument. If the thermocouple were then used to measure a temperature
rising steadily at 2°C/s what would be the steady-state error of the reading? (4.37 s,
8.74°C)
3. A step change of 2.5% is applied to the input of a P + I controller and the output
gives a sudden step change of 5% and after 2 min the total output change is 12.5%.
Determine proportional bandwidth and integral action time. A ramp change of 1%
linearly is applied to the input of a P + D controller and the output gives a sudden step
change of 5% and after this the output changes linearly at 3% per minute. Determine
proportional bandwidth and derivative action time (50%, 80 s, 33%, 100 s).
4. Detail a ‘trial and error’ (or ‘hunt’) method of setting a three-term controller. Show
on a diagram the effect of (1). too long (2) too short and (3) correct setting of
integral action time for a P + I controller.

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 16 LOGIC AND
COMPUTING
This chapter will be concerned with analogue computers, switching logic circuits,
digital computers, data processing and computer control. Each section is obviously a
specialist area of study and only an introduction is attempted in this chapter.

Analogue Computers

Many of the principles involved have already been covered in the immediately
preceding chapters. The information is now summarised here.

Analogue

That which has correspondence or resemblance (analogous) to something else which

may be otherwise entirely different in form. Analogies between resistance-damping,
inductance-mass, capacitor-spring, etc. have been considered. This is extremely useful
for simulation. Similar relationships exist for pneumatic, thermal and fluid systems.

Analogue computer

These are essentially devices to represent continuous measures of physical quantities

in numerical form and have been used for analysis purposes. They provide concurrent,

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 Logic and Computing • 285

fast, inherently graphical and reasonably accurate simulation and investigation of

mathematical models of dynamic systems. In most cases electrical analogues are used
with voltage signals representing system variables.

Basic elements

These have been considered previously in Chapters 10 and 11 utilising both pneumatic
and electrical transducer analogues of variables. Elements include the operational
amplifier, feedback, averaging, ratio, summer, scalar multiplier, inverter, proportional-
derivative-integral devices, flow, power, root extraction components, etc. incorporated
as required to form a simple analogue computer.

Control engineering

The application of basic elements to form control devices in process and kinetic
systems is a direct application of small analogue computation. These aspects have
been described in previous chapters.

System analysis

The analogue computer solves mathematical equations for system analysis making
it a valuable engineering tool. Variables can be varied readily and simulated results
quickly obtained. Outputs may be conveniently recorded on pen chart devices, two
axes plotters (X ~ Y), cathode ray oscilloscopes and ultraviolet recorders. Obviously
the mathematical analysis is usually complex but the selection of a simple analysis of
a basic equation should effectively illustrate the principles which can be applied to
complex systems.

Simple pendulum analogue simulation

The procedure is an example of the systems approach to engineering problems. The

procedure can be analysed from objectives as follows:

a. Sketch the conceptual (physical) model (see Figure 16.1).

b. Evaluate the mathematic model equations, in this case:

dω
m = −mg sinθ − mB ′ω
dt

dθ
1. =ω
dt

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 286 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

t
hence θ ∫ 0
d + θ0 that is θ θ0 at t = 0

dω
2. = −g θ B ′ω
dt

t t
hence ω = −g ∫ − ′ ∫ ω dt +ω 0
0 0

–θo
Equation 1
input –
INT +
θ mg –ω θ
θ
Sin θ
ω Air resistance
per unit mass
B' ∝ ω INV
mg
Conceptual model g –ωo

+ –
Equation 2 INT +
input + ω

B'

Block diagram

–V3 V3

1 V1 V1
1

~ ~
1
1
1
V4
–V4
1 1
P1 1 R1
V2
V2 1
P2 1 R2

Analogue programme Circuit diagram

▲ Figure 16.1 Analogue systems approach

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 Logic and Computing • 287

c. Draw a block diagram, starting with integrators, adding scalars, etc. as required.
d. Scale variables, draw analogue programme, draw circuit diagram (see Figure 16.1).
e. Analyse by test for interaction, evaluation, synthesis; refine-iteration.

On the block diagram the multipliers, summers, integrators, inverter will be noted.
It should be remembered that there is a sign change on the operational amplifier.
Interconnection of components is termed patching.

On the scaled analogue programme (patching) diagram, sometimes called flow

diagram, the unity ratio of amplifier resistance is indicated by a 1. Voltages V1 V2, V3 and
V4 are analogues proportional to θ, ω, θ0 and ω0 respectively. Potentiometers are shown
as P. Adjustment of potentiometer tap ratio k and amplifier gain K gives required ratio
scaling for gain (F and G in feedback terms).

On the circuit diagram all factors should be clear from preceding diagrams. Resistances
R1, and R2 are proportional to g and B′.

Dx = −ax + f (t )
x ∫ aax f (t )dt

This is readily patched with two potentiometers (one input, one feedback) and an
inverter integrator with suitable scaling for constants in a similar way to that shown in
this pendulum example.

For a typical second-order diagram:

( 2
′ g )θ = 0 Pendulum
( 2
n
2
n ) x = aω 2
n f ( ) general

The approach is similar utilising, for example, three operational amplifiers in series
(Figure 16.2). This example is an analogue for an anti-vibration mounting involving
linear damper, spring, mass. The model diagram has been considered previously (see
Figure 15.10) and the equation, linear simple harmonic second order, was derived in
Chapter 15 and is repeated in a different form (pendulum and general case).

Net force (mass times acceleration) acting in the opposite direction to displacement
and velocity is given by:

d2 x
m = −S ′x − Bv
dt 2

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 288 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

6V

Output
Input

0V
dx d 2x dx –Hx x
–E –F 2 G
dt dt dt

▲ Figure 16.2 SHM analogue circuit diagram (linear vibration damper)

where S′ is spring stiffness and B is damping coefficient,

d2 x dx
= −Cx − D
dt 2 dt
dx d2 x
x E −F 2
dt dt

Refer to Figure 16.2. The components used will decide values of constants. Scale
factors have to be analysed relating voltage to variables – time constants allow real
time scale variations. Output must equal input, so both are connected. An input
force is necessary to provide essential acceleration and for this analogue is usually
by square wave pulses from a signal generator. Output characteristics are analysed
on an oscilloscope. Analogue variations (damping/mass and spring force/mass) are
arranged at potentiometer and feedback resistor respectively. The circuit can be
regarded from input to output as integration, or differentiation in the other direction.
The last amplifier is a scale factor (which can also be arranged to have adjustable
feedback).

It is now convenient to move from analogue (frequency domain) to digital (time

domain) as used in logic circuits.

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 Logic and Computing • 289

Logic Circuits

Logic is a systematic approach to problem solving and decision making. Figure 16.3
illustrates a simple logic flowchart analysis for marketing a new product (yes decisions
full lines, no decisions dotted lines, that is, binary algorithm).

New
product?

Potential Proven Other

demand? demand? similar?

Same
Economic? Cheaper?
cost?

Market
share?

Start
planning?

▲ Figure 16.3 Logic flow chart (algorithm)

Boolean algebra

Is the algebra of logic. Has tended to the development of set theory, Venn diagrams,
sentence logic and the logic of switching circuits. It is not possible to consider these
aspects in any detail because notation and laws require involved consideration.
However, Table 16.1 indicates the obvious relationship and the logic of switching
circuits can be developed somewhat to illustrate principles. Only two input variables
(A and B) are considered for simplicity but extension is easily arranged.

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 290 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Table 16.1

Set theory Sentence logic Switching circuits

a∩b a∧b A.B

Intersection of a and b a and b ‘and’
a∪ b a∨b A+B
Union of a and b Either a or b or both ‘or’
a′ ~a
–
A
Complement of a Not of a ‘not’

The laws of Boolean Algebra and the use of Truth Tables greatly facilitate the
simplification of electrical logic circuit design.

Switching circuit logic

Devices using electromagnetic relays in control systems have been used over a long
period of time for such functions as sequential starting, protection interlocks, counting
circuits, etc. A simple application of electrical circuits is shown in Figure 16.4.

The truth table is given (Table 16.2) where ‘true’ is referred to as state 1, that is, relay
closed, closed circuit, current flows, voltage across load; ‘false’ is referred to as state
0, that is, relay open, open circuit, no current flows, no voltage across the load. In
electronics, power supply connections are often +6 V, –6 V, 0 V. Voltage used depends
on devices and circuitry requirements.

(2)
(1)
A

A B
B

▲ Figure 16.4 Switching circuit logic

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 Logic and Computing • 291

Table 16.2 Truth table

A B A ·B A+B A B = A+B = A+B A + B = A.B

0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
INPUTS AND OR NAND NOR

Note:

1. A series circuit is the AND function for output, that is, output signal is the same
sense as inputs only when all inputs are the same.
2. A parallel circuit is the OR function for output, that is, output signal is the same sense
as input change for any one or all input changes. Inclusive disjunction (gate) means
either or all for the OR function and exclusive means either not all (symbol ⊕).
3. The single relay, or switch, is the NOT function, that is, contact closed gives output
(closed circuit, state 1, A) and contact open gives no output (open circuit, state 0,
Ā). Similarly the unity ratio operational amplifier (inverter) is a NOT function.
4. In electronics the provision of a unity ratio operational amplifier (inverter) in series
with an AND circuit gives a NAND circuit (NOT–AND) with output opposite in sense
to input only when all inputs are the same. Similarly the inverter in series with an OR
circuit gives a NOR circuit (NOT–OR) with output opposite in sense to input change
for any one or all (inclusive) input changes. Compare output states in Table 16.2.
Logic symbols vary, two conventions are shown in Figure 16.5 and other forms are

A A
C C A C
& 1
B B
C = A.B C = A+B C=A
AND OR NOT
A A
C C A C
&
B B

▲ Figure 16.5 Logic symbols

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 292 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

shown in the text to illustrate the variations, such as small circles at output change
AND to NAND and OR to NOR.

Solid state logic

Such logic circuits (gates) are being increasingly used in place of relays and thermionic
valves. The convention for relays of 0 (off ) and 1 (on) has to be modified because input
and output have non-clearly defined states less simple than on–off. 1 may represent
higher (or more positive) voltage and 0 lower (or less positive) voltage. This is positive
logic which is usually used with npn transistors because collector potential (and
output) becomes more positive when the transistor is cut off. The reverse applies with
pnp transistors and negative logic is used; this convention is adapted in this chapter, that
is, negative true logic, logical 1 negative with respect to logical 0 from a voltage level
aspect. Digital logic functions can be achieved by the use of diodes and transistors, the
former simpler and the latter more effective.

Refer to Figure 16.6. With A and B at say –6 V (state 1) no current flows through R and
output is –6 V, that is, output state 1 for coincidence of state 1s at input. With any input
at say 0 V (state 0), that is, any diode conducting, output voltage is small, near 0 V (state
0). A diode, to earth across output, is sometimes fitted to ensure output 0 V. Reversing
polarity of both input and output signal requirements gives an OR circuit, that is, A
or B or both at 0 V (state 0), with any diode conducting, means output is 0 V (state 0).
Resistors are sometimes fitted at inputs (see Figure 16.11).

–6 V

R Output

0V

+6 V

▲ Figure 16.6 Diode gate (AND)

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 Logic and Computing • 293

OR gate (diode) negative true logic

Refer to Figure 16.7. Output volts are zero until one or both diodes conduct, when –6 V
is applied to either or both inputs, the output is then –6 V, that is, output state 1 for any
combination of state 1 inputs.

Again reversing polarity reverses role (becomes AND) and resistors are sometimes
fitted at inputs (with or without diodes – see Figure 16.8). Diodes ensure that inputs
cannot affect each other.

NOT gate

Refer to Figure 16.8. This is the inverter amplifier, single input, with output for no input
and if any input no output. Input say –6 V (state 1) gives output 0 V (state 0), that is,

–6 V

A R

Output

0V

+6 V

▲ Figure 16.7 Diode gate (OR)

C
B pnp transistor Output
E
Input R
Common

▲ Figure 16.8 Not element arranged as static switch

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 294 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

antiphase, or input 0 V output –6 V. For the configuration shown (pnp transistor) when
there is 0 V input signal the base is slightly positive with respect to the emitter (reverse
bias) and no current flows. The transistor is then essentially a high resistance impedance-
resistance between emitter and collector with an output voltage approximately equal
to the negative supply voltage. When an input signal of sufficient negative magnitude
is applied the base swings to negative with respect to the emitter and current flows to
the collector. If such current is arranged to cause saturation of the transistor then the
resistance across emitter and collector is negligible so that the volt drop is negligible
and output volts are almost zero. Thus the bi-stable amplifier with common emitter
connection (as distinct from an alternative common base connection sometimes
utilised) acts as a switch circuit with on-off limits. The emitter could be regarded as
earthed. This device is often used in annunciator systems (see Figure 16.19). Supplies
may be ±6 V.

Refer to the time delay switch in Figure 16.9 where operation is similar to the above.
With no input volts, output volts approximately equal negative supply volts. When
the input signal is applied and causes the base to become negative then output the
becomes zero as the transistor activates and the capacitor (CAP) charges. When the
input signal is removed the capacitor discharges through the transistor emitter circuit
as the rectifier (A) blocks any outlet (anode is negative) through the input circuit. So
there is a time delay before the output reappears; the delay depends on the resistor
and the capacitor values (i.e. RC time constant). A variable resistor between P and Q
allows shorter time delays and a capacitor between X and Y allows longer time delays,
both resistor and capacitor being adjustable. Supplies may be ±6 V for power source,
and the common line may be earthed.

C
B pnp transistor Output
CAP E
Input X R
Common
Y
A P
+
Q

▲ Figure 16.9 Static switch with time delay

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 Logic and Computing • 295

OR O

B
–
6V

A C
B
Inputs Output
E
B

0V
6V
+

▲ Figure 16.10 (Inclusive) NOR gate

NOR gate (inclusive)

See Figure 16.10: The gate has one output and two or more inputs. Output changes
if one or more, input states change and the output change is anti-phase potential to
input change. This is a negative sign output OR gate. If –6 V is applied to A or B or both,
the pnp transistor base is negative so that a large collector current flows and output
volts are almost zero (small resistance across emitter–collector) if appropriate circuit
values are designed in. With 0 V applied to inputs the output is –6 V (transistor biased
to cut off at near +6 V). A symbol sketch is shown at the top of the diagram. Notation
on such sketches often varies. An alternative often used is a semi-circle, base to inputs,
with small circle (sometimes blacked in) or bar line on circumference leading to output
to indicate inversion (Figure 16.5).

NAND gate

This is shown in Figure 16.11 with symbol sketch above (see Figure 16.10).

Single output changes only if all inputs change. With inputs at 0 V output volts are
–6 V and transistor is biased at cut off. If all inputs are –6 V then bias is removed and the
output is 0 V. Output and input are anti-phase. This is a negative sign output AND gate.

Note:

1. Circuit simplification will be apparent if only one (or two) gates are used for all
duties. NAND or NOR gates are so used.

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 296 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

& O

B
–
6V

A C
B
Inputs Output
E
B

0V
6V
+

▲ Figure 16.11 NAND gate

2. Reversing polarity of gates reverses the role of the device.

3. NAND gates can act as inverter NOT gates when only one input is applied. If a
NAND gate output is fed to another single input NAND gate in series final output is
in phase, that is, AND gate. Combinations of NAND gates can also provide OR, NOR,
HOLD circuits.
4. Remarks similar to (3) apply in general for NOR gates.

HOLD (memory) circuit

A time delay circuit has been considered previously (Figure 16.9). The remaining logic
circuit commonly used is hold, or memory, which can now be considered. Feedback
holds in the circuit even after input signal is removed. A reset signal then restores the
state of the system. Consider Figure 16.12.

Feedback

Start

–6 V OR OR
Output

Reset
–6 V

Stop

▲ Figure 16.12 Hold circuit

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 Logic and Computing • 297

Closing the start button momentarily allows –6 V input and the first NOR gate conducts
with output 0 V. The second NOR gate gives output –6 V and this signal is fed back to
the first NOR gate. This circuit output is maintained when the start button is released,
that is, held or remembered from the initial signal instruction. Closure of the reset
(say stop) button changes the 0 V line input from reset to –6 V. The second NOR gate,
previously with two inputs at 0 V, now has one input at –6 V and conducts, so output is
0 V. Final output becomes 0 V and feedback at 0 V means both inputs to the first NOR
gate are 0 V and its –6 V output maintains the non-energised state when the stop
button is released.

An alternative example is given in Figure 16.13.

Electronic transistor gates are similar to relays. Functions can also be achieved using
diodes powered by the input signals. However transistor gates, as amplifiers, have the
decided advantage of utilising a separate circuit of supply for output power which
increases the scope greatly.

Note: In logic circuitry entire circuits are packaged and it is not necessary to know the
exact circuit configuration of a particular device (chip) because it is encapsulated. Signal
tracing is impossible and it is only necessary to understand the relation between overall
input and output signals and repair is by replacement (the black box philosophy).

NAND and NOR are obviously combinations of the three given actions and various ‘tree’
type circuits can be quickly built up for otherwise complicated functions.

For example, the logic illustrative circuit shown as a combination in Figure 16.13. The
circuit may be interpreted as follows: ‘if the off signal is not interrupted at the button

1 1
3 3
2 2
AND OR NOT

Off

A B C

H
On
D E F

▲ Figure 16.13 Logic units

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 298 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

and the on signal or the feedback (or interlock) signal G is energised there will be an
output at H. Pressing the on button gives inputs at A and D, hence an AND function
and output at H (the two NOT functions at B and C cancel, that is, like two negatives
make a positive; similarly E and F). Release of the on button still allows output to be
maintained through the feedback, that is, the alternative input of the two element (OR)
circuit. Pressing the off button cuts off one of the signals in the AND circuit and cuts off
output H. Strictly the combined sketch is NOT (A), NOR (D), NAND (CF) but redundant
items (BCEF) simplify to OR (D) and AND (CF) and the shading section on D would then
be crossed.

Flip-flop circuit

Multi-vibrator circuits have been discussed in Chapter 7. The univibrator circuit as

sketched in symbolic form in Figure 16.14 is used in computers. With inputs X and Y
at state 1, say –6 V, the feedbacks at state 0 (0 V) and state 1 (–6 V). For the lower gate
feedback (0) and input Y (1) through NAND gives state 1 (–6 V). For the upper gate
feedback (1) and input X (1) through NAND gives state 0 (0 V). Connecting inputs to
state 0 will give stable reversing. A positive pulse to one input reverses output potentials
again. For counting both inputs are connected so that two positive input pulses are
necessary for each positive output at the outer transistor, that is, each successive binary
changes at half the speed of the one driving it.

Logic sequence engine system

Figure 16.15 is a practical illustration of applied logic. All inputs, points 1–7, can be
regarded as –6 V through input resistors. With all essential start criteria 2–6 satisfied,
the transducers will have closed these input relays and operation of the start button 1

–6 V
X
(1) 0V A
&
–6 V (0)

0V –6 V
& A
Y –6 V (1)
(1)

▲ Figure 16.14 Flip-flop circuit

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 Logic and Computing • 299

Manual
start Air
1
I I
2 Fuel

Lub 3

& & OR
Air 4
A B
5
Position

Fuel 6

Water
7

Manual
stop

▲ Figure 16.15 Logic sequence engine system

gives all 0 V inputs (earth) to gate A whose inverted output is –6 V. Gate B inputs are –6
V from A and –6 V from the inverted feedback NOR gate (whose inputs are all 0 V). Gate
B output at 0 V supplies the air start signal pulse and via double inverters I (single input
NOR or NAND gates) gives a delayed fuel supply pulse (delay by capacitors in circuit) at
0 V. All inputs to NOR gate at 0 V. If any feedback input to NOR gate becomes –6 V (due
to stop button operation or fault on circuits 2, 5, 6) its output becomes 0 V to gate B.
Gate B will stop conducting and its output signal will become –6 V so shutting off fuel
by signal change. A time delay, not shown, can easily be arranged to shut off only the
air start signal after use. Many versions of the above circuit can obviously be built with
various logic gates.

Fluidic logic

Devices use fluid flow in sensing, logic computation and actuation. A commonly utilised
principle is the Coanda effect, that is, the tendency of a jet stream to attach itself to the
pipe surface (wall). A complete range of devices can be built up and are widely used in
industry. It is not possible to cover all designs but to illustrate principles two types are
chosen. The bi-stable multi-vibrator (flip-flop) has been considered electronically and
fluidic principles are illustrated in Figure 16.16.

Referring to the top sketch the fluid can be regarded as attached to the wall of tube A
at output. Input signal at B separates attachment and diverts flow to tube B output. This

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 300 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Input A

Output B
Supply
fluid
Output A

Input B
Vent

Input A Output B

Input B
Output A

▲ Figure 16.16 Fluidic logic devices

condition will hold (memory) if input B signal is removed and can be reset by an input
A signal to the initial state.

The lower sketch illustrates an exclusive OR device, that is, input A or B will give output
A or B but not both. If inputs are zeros output is zero and if inputs are applied together
the jets impinge, flow goes to vent, output to zero.

If output change for this momentum type device is greater than input (control) change
it is amplification. A turbulence amplifier utilises a cross-control jet to change from
laminar flow.

Digital Computer

It is first necessary to consider simple computer-counting in binary terms.

Scales of notation

The denary scale (base 10) is in general use but any number base can be used in a scale.
Consider the following:

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 Logic and Computing • 301

1 1 1
Scale 10 …103 102 101 1 …
10 102 103
1 1 1
Scale 3 … 33 32 31 1 …
3 32 33
1 1 1
Scale n … n3 n2 n1 1 …
n n2 n3

51 denary in the scale 3.

51 = 1 × 33 + 2 × 32 + 2 x 31 + 0 × 1 = 1220 (base 3)

248 denary in the scale 5.

248 = 1 × 53+ 4 × 52 + 4 × 51 + 3 × 1 = 1443 (base 5)

1475 denary in the scale 12.

1475 = ten × 122 + 2 × 12 + eleven × 1 = t2e (base 12)

(t and e to be new digits representing ten and eleven in the denary scale)

19 denary in the scale 2.

=11 2 4 + × 23 + 22 + 1× 21 + 1× 1
= 10011(base 2)

The latter, base 2, is the binary scale.

Binary scale

The reader should first verify for practice:

101011 base 2 = 43 base10

39 base10 =100111 base 2

This scale has the advantage of expressing any number in terms of two symbols, 0 and
1. If 0 is taken to represent current off and 1 to represent current on (or two voltage
states) then it is possible to use many electrical currents to perform calculations. This is
the basis of the digital computer counting in digits, pulses or bits.

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 302 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Addition and subtraction

htu 26 25 24 23 22 21 1

43 1 0 1 0 1 1
+ 39 + 1 0 0 1 1 1

1 Carry figures 1 1 1 1 1

82 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

Addition is as illustrated above. If the digit sum in any column totals 2, carry 1 to the
next column and leave 0; if 3, carry 1 leave 1; if 4, carry 1 two columns and leave 0; etc.

Subtraction is as illustrated below. When subtracting 1 from 0 borrow (10) that is, 2
from next column, change 0 to 1 working to the left until a 1 is reached, change this to
a 0, and continue the subtraction.

htu 26 25 24 23 22 21 1

Borrow figures 1 (10) (10) 1 1 (10)

88 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
– 63 – 1 1 1 1 1 1

25 1 1 0 0 1

Multiplication and division

Procedure exactly as denary using final addition or subtraction techniques above.

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
× 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0

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 Logic and Computing • 303

Component units

A brief introduction to constituent elements of the digital computer can first be

considered. Refer Figure 16.17.

Input unit

Functions to accept input data coded information in the form of either punched or
magnetic tape or converted analogue signals and transmit the electronic signals in
digital form to the arithmetic unit. The connecting link between units is called a bus.
Programs are typed in on a keyboard and displayed on a video display unit (VDU).

Arithmetic unit

Processes input to desired arithmetic functions such as addition, averaging, etc.

Assembly of bi-stable devices for binary operation including binary counter (flip-flops
in series, extending range), shift register (flip-flops driven by clock), accumulator and
buffer store, etc.: all pulse-operated combinational and memory devices. Grouped with
memory and control units to form the central processing unit (CPU) which if a single chip
would be the microprocessor in a microcomputer.

Memory unit

Store information with two basic stable state elements. Storage can be paper or
magnetic tape spools, magnetic drum or magnetic core stores. Magnetic cores are of
two state ferrite core rings, grouped into lines (words or bytes) with up to 36 digits (bits)

Programme
Control Type
Digital
clock Tape
Tape
Display
Input Arithmetic Output
Reference
sets Alarm

A
D Logging
C
Memory
Scanner
Control
Pulse
DAC

▲ Figure 16.17 Digital computer

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 304 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

per word. A store with 12 bit (cores) per word and 212 words (4096) has almost 50 k cores
and is known as a 4 k memory store. This would be classified as small with 64 k as quite
large. Random access memory (RAM) contains instructions. ROM is read only memory.

Control unit

Essentially the brain element of the computer. This is sometimes referred to as

programme unit. The programme input is decoded, addressed and so internal transfer
involving memory and arithmetic functions is carried out. Programmes involved in
the central processor may be specific language for a particular type of machine or
generalised high-level language code such as Algol, Cobol, Fortran or C+ which is then
processed to machine code. Input and output units are also controlled. Assemblers and
compilers translate between languages.

Output unit

Receives computed outputs as electrical signals, transmits directly to control functions

of plant, operates digital logging units, displays alarm devices and presents output for
typewriter or as tape. Outputs may require reconversion digital to analogue for control
action to analogue computers, plant controllers, etc.

Peripheral units

In this case refers to units outside the digital computer itself, that is, outside the input-
output boundaries shown as dotted chain in Figure 16.17.

For general purpose computers requiring high speeds and used mainly for data
processing in business, systems inputs and programme inputs would be tape and
outputs would be tape and type. The programme input and digital pulse timing clock
are obviously essential peripheral equipment to any digital computer.

Engineering computers require reference sets, scanners and analogue-digital

converters. Outputs would be type logging on paper tape, display, alarm and control
functions.

Reference sets

Amplified transducer inputs from scanners are compared to manually set high-low
level limits by potentiometers arranged as multi-position rotary switches before
analogue inputs to the converter. Alternatively comparison is arranged digitally by
direct programme control on desired values or manual set by pins inserted on a matrix
patch board.

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 Logic and Computing • 305

Display

Vi R ∫Vidt
A Vo
Comparator
VREF Gate Counter

Oscillator

▲ Figure 16.18 Digital instrument

Scanner

Measurements are sequentially selected by transistor circuits. The transistors are

operated by an input signal from the scan control device regulated by pulses from a
pulse unit digital clock. Scan speeds can reach 400 points per second if required.

Analogue to digital converter

Analogue display is illustrated by a car speedometer, that is, continuous, and digital
display by the distance device, that is, discrete steps. One design of converter has a
reference voltage potentially divided by resistance binary steps 20, 21 22, etc. which
are compared to the input voltage signal in sequence, until parity, when output from
tapped resistances is then digital. A similar principle can be applied by a balance bridge
comparing input and output resistances. There are many types of converters available
and a typical digital instrument is shown in Figure 16.18. The comparator provides an
output when the reference voltage is greater than the integrated input voltage. This
output opens a gate circuit allowing the oscillator pulses (proportional to input voltage)
to the counter. The range is variable, with an RC time constant.

In large computers it is necessary to have maximum utilisation of computer time. Batch

processing utilises storage until a suitable time for handling the programme. Real-time
operation requires instant response to priority input when required. Time sharing to
consumers is generally necessary in present digital systems.

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 306 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Data Processing

In engineering, digital data processing equipment provides an integrated system of

monitoring plant process and includes alarm scanning, centralised display and data
recording.

Data logger

This is essentially centralised instrumentation only. As such has now only a secondary
function of measuring and logging with display. Useful for continuous monitoring and
documentation of records of, for example, large refrigeration storage plants. Generally
refined and superseded by an integrated system to include alarm scanning which
provides malfunction protection in complex machinery installations.

Annunciator systems

Are central surveillance-collection points. An off normal condition results typically in

the following sequence:

Condition Green Lamp Red Lamp Klaxon

Normal On Off Off
Fault Off Flashing On
Receive Off Steady Off
Normal On Off Off

Figure 16.18 shows a diagrammatic circuit for a single-point annunciator system.

State (1) is –6 V and State (0) is 0 V, NOR gates are used (except J–NOT). Consider
Figure 16.19.

Under normal conditions the alarm contact is closed, D output (1) which operates the
green light N, G output (0) and J output (O) so klaxon L and red light M are off.

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 Logic and Computing • 307

–6 V

Alarm G L
receipt
A B

K H J

C F M

Alarm D E
contact

–6 V

▲ Figure 16.19 Annunciator system

At fault, alarm contact opens, D output (0) and N off, E output (1) which feeds back to
hold D. Input to F is (0) and signal generator K also enters pulses into F so that M flashes.
Outputs from D and B are both (0) so output from G is (1) and operates L.

When the alarm receipt button is operated a (1) signal is fed into A and B, output is (1)
which feeds back to hold A; also overides flash input to H so M exhibits constant red
light and switches L off via G.

When the alarm contact returns to normal and closes, both inputs to C are (0) and its (1)
output resets the hold circuit DE, then AB, so M is extinguished and N lights up.

Integrated system

Includes data logging as one function. Essentially a digital computer but of a fairly simple
design, peripherals are as already described. The programme is designed and fixed so
that programme input, control, arithmetic and memory units as shown in Figure 16.20
are simplified and combined into one central processor. A very brief outline description
will now be given and reference to Figures 16.16 and 16.19 should be made.

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 308 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

Analogue section Digital section

Limit
Settings Digital
setting
relays comparator
board
Digital
clock
Alarm
printer
Analogue input
signals

Analogue to Logging
Amplifier digital converter printer

To
Programme
all
unit
Scanner units
Input
selection
relays Inputs
from
transducers

▲ Figure 16.20 Schematic diagram of electronic alarm scanning and data logging system

Primary inputs

Analogue signals from transducers represent variables such as pressure, level, flow, etc.
Each transducer has a plug-in printed circuit module for measurement range, limits,
etc. and is switched in by the scan control unit.

Signal selection

A scanner unit. Sub-units may be used at local points in the installation for say 40 points
which reduces cable runs to the central control room and relieves space requirement
of the processor.

Signal processor

Provides amplification, analogue to digital conversion, limit sets analogue or digital,

scaling, linearising, etc. with outputs to digital (or analogue with d-a conversion)
display, routine logging and alarm circuits.

Output devices

Visual and audible alarms are required. A logging typewriter records alarm conditions
and events, until cleared. The typewriter can log by routine all points on demand or
at time intervals. Display requires careful consideration with a minimum of gauges
restricted to essential observation. Mimic diagrams of plant circuits with indicator lights
to indicate key points in the plant are used often. A central control room needs careful

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 Logic and Computing • 309

design for comfort, correct instrumentation and alarm indication plus good effective
lighting. Construction of components is modular with plug-in circuit cards for fault
rectification. Process plant subject to such surveillance provides accurate and regular
records and machinery protection with reduced watchkeeping staff.

Computer Control

This is a full digital computer programmed so as to maintain output variables at the

design condition by providing outputs to controllers. At present most controllers
work on analogue inputs so the digital computer requires an output digital-analogue
converter. Direct digital control is however coming into use where the computer
output acts directly as control action on the final correcting element. Simple
computers generally include controllers. Data processing is now well established, it
follows that computer control is very relevant. In marine practice a computer can be so
programmed as to provide, for example, complete preparation of machinery plants for
sea together with computer control on passage. Built-in emergency action is provided.
Such a large computer could of course cope adequately with cargo handling in tankers
and navigational route placing with suitable addition to store and provision of correct
programming. Until recently (and in principle) the analogue computer is faster on a
complex run but the digital computer is accurate, repeatable and suited to short runs.

Recent developments have led to increased automated mass production of miniaturised

and highly sophisticated functional complexes of circuits at decreasing costs and
volumes (size). Mini computers of large potential computing power are now used
with time sharing links to central large mainframe computers. Microprocessors, with
a memory chip (storage, programme) and input/output devices linked to the central
processing unit chip, are increasingly used virtually as microcomputers dedicated to
one particular control system and function. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and
microcontrollers are now standard components of control systems.

Computer simulation

Overall system performance, including interaction between components and loops,

at the initial design stage is becoming increasingly important. Analysis and simulation
of the dynamic (transient) performance, as well as steady state behaviour, is required.
Mathematical models, based initially on linear analysis for frequency response and by
computer simulation for non-linear systems, are applied in design studies.

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 310 • Instrumentation and Control Systems

The upper sketch of Figure 16.21 illustrates a boiler water-level control loop. Boiler (B),
steam (S) and feed (F) flow transmitter signals are to the P computing relay (X) with
output, joined by level transmitter signal (L), arranged to the P + I computing relay (Y).
The output signal from Y operates the feedwater control valve and positioner (V).

A computer simulation can be set up and a suitable patch diagram is shown in the
lower sketch of Figure 16.21.

S
X

L B
V

S
Y
G B
L
F
G
X

▲ Figure 16.21 Boiler water level control and simulation

Test Examples

1. Describe, with sketches, an electrical panel for use in monitoring the alarm
conditions of a set of diesel generators.
2. With references to data logging systems, explain the meaning of the following
terms:
(a) sensing device,
(b) scanner,
(c) transducer,

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 Logic and Computing • 311

(d) scaling unit.

Sketch the components interconnected in the logger.
3. Write down in logic symbols, for input and output, the following functions, each
with two inputs A and B:
(a) OR gate,
(b) NOR gate,
(c) AND gate,
(d) NAND gate.
Sketch, in logic symbol form, each gate.
Draw a circuit diagram for the OR and AND gates and briefly describe the
modifications to give NOR and NAND functions respectively.
4. For a data logger system:
(a) What is meant by time division multiplexing?
(b) Explain the use of a comparator.
(c) What is the difference between analogue and digital signals?
(d) Discuss the reasons for A to D conversion.

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 SPECIMEN EXAMINATION
QUESTIONS
Note: Questions on instrumentation and control systems are set within a wide range of
subject titles such as Engineering Knowledge (General, Motor, Steam), Instrumentation,
Electrotechnology, Power Plant, etc. The specimen questions following are based on
expected 30 min answers, which is the most common practice. In some examinations
however only short answer questions are set, for example, Class Three (DTp – SCOTVEC) –
10 min, and in others a combination of sections involving 30 min and short answer
questions is used, for example, some BTEC and SCOTVEC.

Class Three (DTp – SCOTVEC)

1. Sketch a thermometer suitable for remote reading – indication.

2. Sketch a valve for automatically controlling fluid flow in a pipeline.
3. Describe, with a simple sketch, any level indicating device.
4. An engine alarm sounds intermittently. How would you determine if it is a genuine
or nuisance alarm?
5. List any five essential instrument readings, indicating the running condition of
machinery, for display on a centralised instrument panel.
6. Describe briefly any two types of pressure measuring device.
7. Sketch a moving coil type of electrical measuring instrument.
8. Briefly describe any method of speed control for an electric motor.
9. Describe, with a simple sketch, how a flapper-nozzle device controls pneumatic
pressure in an air line.
10. Describe how remote smoke/fire indication can be located at a central observation
station.
11. List four essential parameters of machinery in operation requiring alarm indicators.
12. Describe, with a sketch, any one type of flame or fire or smoke detector.
13. Explain the principle of operation of a pneumatic diaphragm actuator.
14. Describe a device that would automatically activate an alarm if oil feed supply fails.
15. Sketch a pneumatic booster relay and explain briefly how it works.

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 313

16. With reference to automatic control technology, define and clarify the following:
(a) desired value,
(b) deviation,
(c) correcting unit.

Class Two ( DTp – SCOTVEC)

1. Describe with sketches two methods for increasing the strength of a signal in a
control system.
2. Describe instruments used for measuring the temperature in the following spaces:
(a) refrigerated hold,
(b) engine room,
(c) boiler uptake.
3. Describe with sketches, two methods for remotely determining the quantity of
liquid in a tank. Compare the accuracy of these methods and explain how the
degree of accuracy can be maintained. State one possible source of error for each
of the methods described.
4. Sketch and describe three methods of sensing temperature change. Describe how
the signals are converted and fed into an automatic control system.
5. Sketch a compressed air system for use with pneumatic controls. Write notes on
each component shown.
6. Explain how a temperature sensitive element installed in a refrigerated stores
locker can be used for starting and stopping a domestic refrigeration compressor.
7. Describe, with sketches, how the inlet temperature of lubricating oil to main engine
or gearing may be automatically monitored and controlled.
8. Describe a bridge/engine room telegraph interconnecting gear. Explain how the
system may operate a ‘wrong way’ alarm.
9. State why a pneumatic control system requires clean dry air. Explain how the
following air pollutants are dealt with:
(a) water,
(b) oil,
(c) dust and dirt.
10. Draw a line diagram of an arrangement whereby the pressure of oil delivered to
a main lubricating oil system by a constant speed, positive displacement pump

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 314 • Specimen Examination Questions

is pneumatically controlled within set limits. Trace the sequence of events upon
deviation in oil pressure.
11. Sketch a compressed air system for pneumatic controls labelling all the principal
items.
Describe with sketches an automatic drain on the air compressor. State what
routine maintenance and tests are needed to keep the system fully operational.
12. Sketch a pneumatically operated valve for regulating coolant flow.
Explain how the pneumatic system controls valve movement. State how valve
position is indicated at the control station.
13. Figure A illustrates how a transistor amplifies a signal from a thermocouple to
operate a relay. Describe the principles underlying this amplification and explain
why it is necessary.

npn
To
operating
From relay
thermocouple

+ – – +

▲ Figure A

14. The following terms may be used to describe a boiler feed water controller:
(a) detecting element,
(b) servo-motor,
(c) desired value,
(d) difference element.
Relate the terms to practical components and describe their operation in the
controller.
15. Sketch a simplified circuit diagram of an npn transistor illustrating its use as an
amplifier. Give a reasoned account of its operation in terms of the electron theory.
16. Sketch and describe a master controller, operated by variation of pressure in the
boiler, for regulating the air and fuel supply to the furnace by a pneumatic control
system.
Explain how ‘hunting’ of the system is prevented.

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 315

17. The left-hand side of a small bar of crystalline silicon contains a small proportion of
the element phosphorus as an impurity and the right-hand side contains a small
proportion of aluminium. Silicon has four valence electrons, phosphorus five and
aluminium three.
Sketch the bar, and indicate the n-type region and the p-type region. Draw a
battery connected between the opposite ends of the bar and show the polarity of
its terminals which will bias the p–n junction in the forward direction.
Explain why no current will flow through the bar when this polarity is reversed.
18. With reference to medium- or slow-speed engines, describe transducers suitable
for producing electrical or pneumatic signals to indicate:
(a) lubricating oil pressure,
(b) jacket cooling water temperature.
Explain how each of these transducers can be tested.
19. Figure B illustrates a three-phase fullwave bridge rectifier circuit. Using this diagram
explain how an ac voltage is converted to a dc voltage. Draw the graph of output
voltage against time for one cycle. State where such a circuit could be used in
marine engineering.

Three-phase
ac supply

Output
dc

▲ Figure B

20. With reference to automatic combustion control, explain with sketches how
(a) and why pressure differentials across air registers are measured,
(b) air–fuel ratios are adjusted,
(c) the boiler can continue to operate upon failure of the fuel flow regulating valve.
21. Sketch in detail a section through a hydraulic governor as fitted to medium
speed unidirectional engines. Explain how it operates under frequent and wide
fluctuations of load.

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 316 • Specimen Examination Questions

22. Describe with sketches an automatic supervisory and alarm arrangement for the
control of bilge water accumulation under periodically unattended conditions.
Explain how the control system is prevented from giving a false alarm due to ship’s
motion.
23. Explain the term ‘semi-conductor’ and describe what is meant by ‘p’ and ‘n’ type
materials.
With the aid of a simple sketch discuss the conditions at the junction between a
p-type and an n-type semiconductor.
24. Draw a line diagram of a pneumatic system for control of ballast, labelling the
principal components.
Describe how a ballast valve is remotely operated.
State why driers, filters and automatic compressors are preferable to ‘bleed off ’
from main or auxiliary air receivers.
25. Figure C shows a simplified circuit of an automatic voltage regulator. Explain how
the arrangement maintains a constant voltage output.

ac generator

Exciter

Operating
coil
Carbon
pile

▲ Figure C

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 317

26. Describe, with sketches, integrated alarm and control systems for monitoring the
following:
(a) air pressure,
(b) tank contents,
(c) oil temperature.
27. Describe with sketches two different methods for the remote measurement of fluid
flow through a pipe. Compare the accuracy of the methods. Give one cause of error
in each method.
28. Draw a line diagram of a system to operate widely distributed valves from one point.
Describe how any one valve is remotely manipulated.
Suggest, with reasons, a shipboard system which lends itself to such control.
29. Describe how a crankcase oil mist detector operates.
Sketch a mist detector system showing the run of the sampling pipes.
State how sampling is controlled.
30. Draw a line diagram of an automatic sootblower system. Describe the sequential
operation of the blowers. Give reasons for the order of operation followed.
State what safety devices are incorporated in the system and why they are fitted.
31. A bridge circuit containing zener diodes may be used in a static automatic voltage
regulator to monitor the voltage output of an alternator. State:
(a) details of operation of zener diodes,
(b) how the error signal is derived in the bridge circuit.
32. (a) In practice ‘two-step’ control devices have a small ‘dead zone’; illustrate this by
means of a control variable–time diagram.
(b) Explain what is meant by ‘two-step’ control and give three examples of where
such a control system may be used in an engine room.

Class One (DTp – SCOTVEC)

1. Describe how the supervisory equipment for the control of machinery in a

periodically unattended engine room is itself monitored for defects on individual
channels and as a complete unit.
2. Explain the problems in controlling the upper and lower limits of temperature of
lubricating oil supplied to the main machinery. Describe with sketches how this
supply temperature can be automatically monitored and controlled.

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 318 • Specimen Examination Questions

3. State two advantages and two limitations in the use of electrical signals and also in
the use of pneumatic signals as transmitting media in data transmission systems.
Explain with the aid of diagrams the principle of operation of a force balance
transmitter employing either electrical or pneumatic signals as the transmitting
medium.
4. Describe, with sketches, how electrical signals are converted to pneumatic signals
in control systems.
Suggest a shipboard application featuring this conversion and state the defects to
which the arrangement is susceptible.
5. Sketch and describe a system for indicating remotely the propeller shaft speed.
Explain how, for the system selected, inaccuracies occur and are kept to a
minimum
6. Sketch and describe a method of measuring the pressure differential for fluid flow
systems.
State what are the effects of altering the orifice plate size or the position of the
tapping points.
7. Describe the construction and principle of operation of a Bourdon pressure gauge.
State the factors upon which its operation depends. Outline a sequence of tests
and adjustments applied to such a gauge known to be inaccurate and in particular
mention at least three of the following:
(a) leakage,
(b) hysteresis,
(c) non-linearity,
(d) magnification,
(e) zero error.
8. State what the purpose of each of the following items in a machinery control
system:
(a) portable mercury manometer,
(b) portable inclined-tube manometer,
(c) portable temperature potentiometer,
(d) compressor and vacuum pump.
Describe in detail any two of these items.
9. With reference to a gyro-controlled hydraulic steering gear, explain its action using
control engineering terms making specific reference to:
(a) desired value,

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 319

(b) feedback,
(c) actuator.
State the part played by the cylinder relief valves in the automatic control system.
10. Sketch and describe a fuel meter used with high viscosity fuel. Explain how it
operates.
Explain the value of the readings obtained and how they are used.
11. Sketch and describe how coolant flow may be measured on a linear scale.
Explain the principle of operation of the instrument concerned. Explain why the
values recorded may vary from those expected from calculations.
12. State why the temperature of lubricating oil supplied to an engine needs close
control.
Sketch and describe an arrangement and explain the principle of operation
of instrumentation and control equipment for automatically maintaining the
temperature of lubricating oil supplied to an engine at its desired value.
13. Sketch and describe in detail the construction and operation of one of the
following:
(a) an electric torsionmeter,
(b) a preferential trip,
(c) an electric telegraph.
14. Define the term ‘cascade control’ as applied to control engineering. Describe, with
sketches, cascade control as applied to an engine coolant system. Show on the
sketches how pressure and temperature varies at the cardinal points in the system.
Give one advantage and one disadvantage of this control arrangement.
15. Figure D shows a circuit of a common-emitter amplifier. The transistor has a high
current gain so that its base current is small. If the current through the emitter
resistor is 0.4 mA determine the battery voltage. Assume that when the transistor

50 kΩ
50 kΩ

50 kΩ
20 kΩ
+

▲ Figure D

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 320 • Specimen Examination Questions

is conducting, the voltage between the base and emitter is 0.2 V (90.2 V – this is
abnormally high, with a 2 kΩ resistor in the emitter circuit the supply voltage is 11
V which is a much more acceptable value).
16. With reference to boiler combustion control explain:
(a) the operation of the master controller following variation in steam pressure,
(b) the importance of pressure drop across the air registers,
(c) how the air: fuel ratio is adjusted,
(d) how the boiler operation can continue upon failure of the fuel flow regulating
valve.
17. The common-emitter output characteristics for a transistor are as follows:

Collector voltage (V) Collector current (mA)

Ib = 30 μA Ib = 60 μA Ib = 90 μA

3.0 1.0 2.1 3.2

7.0 1.29 2.55 3.9
10.0 1.5 2.9 4.4

Draw the graph of collector current against collector voltage and construct load
lines to show the operation from a 6.5 V battery with load resistors of 1000 and
1500 Ω, respectively. If a suitable value of base bias current is 60 μA for an input for
an input signal of ± 30 μA, determine the current amplification for each load (33.3,
31.6).
18. Figure E shows the equivalent T-circuit of a transistor used in a common-base
circuit. The resistances presented to the alternating components of the current
by the emitter (re), the base (rb) and the collector (rc) are 30 Ω, 0.6 kΩ, and 1 MΩ,
respectively. If the current amplification factor (α) is 0⋅98 and the load resistance

∝ Ie r c
E re Ie rc Ic
C

Rs
rb R
Veb Vcb

S Ib

▲ Figure E

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 321

(R) is 9 kΩ, calculate the current, voltage and power gain and the input resistance
(0.97, 186, 180; 48 Ω).
19. Describe with sketches how the pressure of a fluid is controlled by a pneumatic
controller incorporating proportional and integral (reset) action.
Give reasons for instability in the controller action. State how this instability is
overcome.
20. Give a detailed diagrammatic sketch of a mechanical-hydraulic governor. Explain
how this governor operates. State what advantages it possesses over inertia
governors.
21. Draw in detail a diaphragm operated control valve. Analyse the action of the inter-
connecting elements, that is, the parts affecting control.
Explain how the load change is communicated to the actuator. State where such a
valve may be used in an engine room.
22. Explain why the simple float control feed regulator is inadequate for the present
generation of main boilers.
Describe with sketches, or block diagrams, a feed control system in which it is
possible to programme a set point for various loads.
23. Give the advantages and disadvantages of data-logging systems used in connection
with ship’s machinery.
Explain the value of recorded data and how it is interpreted and usefully
employed.
24. With reference to automatic voltage regulators discuss the function of the following
basic elements:
(a) error detecting element,
(b) correcting element,
(c) stabilising element.
25. A pressure controller is fitted in a fuel line where ultimate state error is minimal and
fast response is necessary. Sketch and describe such a controller making reference
to components giving the desired characteristics.
26. Figure F shows a simplified circuit of a transistor employed as a switch in a relay
operation. Describe how this is accomplished.
27. For the purposes of remote recording give two advantages and two disadvantages
of:
(a) electrical signals,
(b) pneumatic signals.

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 322 • Specimen Examination Questions

Output
On–off
device

▲ Figure F

Explain which system is best suited for sensing and remote indication of:
(i) lubricating oil pump discharge pressure,
(ii) engine bearing temperature,
(iii) fuel tank liquid level.
State what precautions are necessary when sensors are located in hazardous areas.
28. Sketch and describe a three-element feed water control giving reasons for its
location. Explain how unity relationship is maintained between the identified
variables. Explain why three-element control is superior to two-element control.
29. Draw a line diagram of a boiler combustion control system labelling the principal
items. Explain how the system functions and in particular how feed water supply,
fuel supply and air/fuel ratio are regulated to match steam pressure and flow
variation. Explain how these controls can be tested for alarm conditions without
upsetting the balance of the system.
30. Sketch and describe a hydraulic servo system associated with a controllable pitch
propeller. State how loss of fluid pressure occurs and warning is given of impending
failure. Explain what happens upon loss of oil pressure and why. State what routine
maintenance is necessary to ensure trouble free operation of the propeller.
31. Explain how centralised control is achieved for either the direct reversing slow
speed diesel engine or a main boiler and turbine installation. A block diagram
could be used to show the principle functions and inbuilt safety features.
32. (a) With reference to primary sensing devices used in conjunction with a data
logging system:
(i) describe the operation of TWO devices that are suitable for temperature
measurement;

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 323

(ii) describe, with the aid of a sketch, a device that is suitable for pressure
measurement;
(iii) describe, utilising a sketch, a device that is suitable for tank level
measurement.
(b) Show, by means of a simple block diagram, the principle of data logging, and
state why an Analogue/Digital convertor may be incorporated.

ONC – OND (BTEC and SCOTVEC)

1. Draw a labelled diagram of a flow measuring device to give a remote reading on an

instrument panel.
Explain how the device operates to measure and indicate a change of flow.
2. (a) For any expansion type of thermometer, give four factors involved in obtaining
a high speed of response.
(b) List three methods of temperature measurement and sketch and describe one
method in detail, giving advantages and disadvantages.
3. Describe, with a sketch, the static characteristics of a junction diode.
Sketch the forward and reverse characteristics and write short notes on:
(i) the forward resistance,
(ii) the leakage current,
(iii) zener action.
With the aid of waveform diagrams, illustrate the action of a capacitor connected in
parallel with the output of a halfwave rectifier.
4. (a) List four different methods of measuring liquid level.
(b) Sketch and describe a remote reading liquid level indicator suitable for a high
pressure boiler.
5. (a) Draw a fully labelled sketch illustrating the principle of operation of a differential
pressure [Link] its operation for a change in the measured
differential pressure.
(b) State how zero and range adjustments are made on D/P transmitters and name
two different marine applications for such a transmitter.
6. Describe, with the aid of a suitable circuit diagram, a method of obtaining the
output characteristics of a junction transistor. Sketch the characteristics and

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 324 • Specimen Examination Questions

from them show how it is possible to draw the transfer characteristic and hence
determine the current amplification factor of the transistor.
7. (a) Draw diagrams of instruments capable of measuring: (i) carbon dioxide content
in a gas sample, (ii) oxygen content in a gas sample.
(b) Describe in each case, for these two instruments, the principle of operation and
indicate typical readings expected in a sample of gas from a boiler uptake.
8. (a) State three essential requirements for any instrument suitable for use in a
modern marine power plant.
(b) Explain, with reference to instrument display, the terms ‘analogue’ and ‘digital’.
(c) Give two advantages of the oscilloscope over moving iron instruments for the
measurement of ac quantities.
9. (a) Draw the circuit diagram, indicating clearly the correct polarity of the electrical
supplies, for a pnp junction transistor connected in common-emitter mode.
(b) Draw the circuit diagram, indicating clearly the direction of current through the
load, for four silicon diodes connected in a bridge configuration to produce
fullwave rectification of current in a resistive load.
10. Sketch and describe a pneumatic diaphragm operated control valve, and clearly
label and describe each part.
Explain what is meant by ‘Fail Open’ and ‘Fail Closed’.
11. Describe fully how you would carry out a calibration test on a Bourdon pressure
gauge.
Sketch a typical calibration curve and comment on possible errors and methods of
correction.
12 Describe, with the aid of a clearly labelled diagram, the operation of a direct acting
pneumatic relay.
State, within a measuring system, where such a device is usually used and give the
reason for its use.
13. Explain, with the aid of sketches:
(a) an electrical method,
(b) a non-electrical method, of measuring fluid flow, listing advantages and
disadvantages of each method.
14. What is meant by the term ‘system response’? Give three examples of system
response.
How is the ‘time constant’ or ‘system lag’ measured?
Why is it beneficial in a control system to reduce the time constant of that system?

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 325

15. Explain carefully, with the aid of a clearly labelled diagram, the principles
of operation of either (i) a motion balance transmitter, or (ii) a force balance
transmitter.
Give two examples where either (i) or (ii) may be found in marine practice.
16. Using U-tube manometer diagrams, explain how the following are measured:
(a) absolute pressure,
(b) gauge pressure,
(c) differential pressure.
Explain briefly how one such measurement may be transmitted to a remote
recording station.
17. Explain, with the aid of sketches, the principle of operation of a nozzle-flapper
system. Show graphically the relation between flapper clearance and output
pressure. What reasons are there for fitting a feedback bellows in the system?
18. Sketch and describe a strain gauge. What is the principle of operation and for what
purpose can the strain gauge be utilised?
19. Describe what is meant by ramp, step and sinusoidal response when applied to a
system. Illustrate each with a simple sketch.
20. Sketch a purge or ‘bubbler’ system which could be used to measure the level of
fluid in a tank.
What other information regarding the fluid would be necessary in order to infer a
mass measurement from a level measurement? How could such an instrument be
developed to measure the draught of a ship?
21. (a) Draw a circuit diagram to show how junction diodes may be used to give
fullwave rectification from a single-phase ac supply.
(b) A npn transistor is to be connected in common emitter mode for use in voltage
amplification. Draw a simple circuit diagram to illustrate the configuration.
22. Give an example of level measurements which utilise the following physical
principles:
(a) hydrostatic head,
(b) float movement,
(c) displacement.
Illustrate your answers with suitable diagrams and descriptive data.
23. Change of fluid level in a tank can be detected and measured by the change of
capacitance of a capacitance probe. Sketch such a system and describe its operation
in detail, from change in level to change in indication of measured level.

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 326 • Specimen Examination Questions

24. Make a clearly labelled circuit diagram of a ‘bridge’ thermometer which has ambient
temperature compensation, and also has provision for ‘zero or standardising’ selection.
Explain the operating sequence followed to make the zero/standardising test before
using the thermometer. Describe how the ambient temperature compensation
functions.

HNC (BTEC and SCOTVEC)

1. Describe, with the aid of a suitable diagram, the constructional details and
operational working principle of one of the following devices:
(a) oil mist detector,
(b) torsionmeter,
(c) oxygen analyser.
2. Draw a diagram of a system for fully automatic main engine jacket temperature
control, incorporating steam preheating of the coolant, utilising split range control.
Comment on the type of control action to be used and the ‘fail safe’ arrangement
adopted.
3. (a) Construct a ‘truth table’ for a two input NOR logic gate.
(b) Sketch the circuit symbols for a pnp and npn transistor and clearly label the
leads.
(c) Draw a block diagram for part of a marine data logger and describe in detail the
function of one particular block unit.
4. Automatic control valves are available with the following features:
(a) linear or equal percentage characteristic,
(b) power to open or power to close,
(c) single or double seated.
Discuss the factors that determine the choice of each of the above features.
5. Make a diagrammatic sketch of a three-term controller suitable for use in a feed
water control system. The sketch should include measure and regulating units.
Briefly explain why it is necessary to incorporate: (i) a negative feedback
arrangement, (ii) a relay (amplifier).
6. (a) State three advantages which solid state devices have compared to thermionic
valves.
Why is silicon preferred to germanium for use in solid state rectifiers?

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 327

(b) State the function of the gate in a transistor. Sketch waveforms of ac supply
voltage, load voltage and gate pulse for a thyristor when the trigger angle is 90°.
7. Make a diagrammatic sketch of a steam flow plant incorporating a flowmeter
utilising an orifice plate and a differential pressure transmitter.
Explain the operating principle of the transmitter.
Sketch the output signal graph with and without square root extraction.
8. Explain the meaning of the following terms used in control terminology:
(a) offset,
(b) fail safe,
(c) proportional band,
(d) derivative action time,
(e) cascade control.
9. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, a controller utilising proportional plus integral
action.
Describe how such a controller is ‘tuned’ within a system.
10. A boiler pressure is to be maintained at 5 bar by a pneumatic proportional controller.
The pressure element has a range from 3 bar to 6 bar and the proportional band is
set at 20%.
(a) Calculate maximum and minimum pressures corresponding to no load and to
full load (5.3 bar, 4.7 bar).
(b) If the controller output pressure range is from 1.2 bar to 2.0 bar, draw a graph of
boiler pressure and controller output pressure, and from the graph determine
the boiler pressure at a controller output pressure of 1·44 bar. (5·16 bar).
11. (a) Sketch typical forward and reverse characteristics for a zener diode and briefly
explain the action of this device when a reverse voltage is applied to it.
(b) State one application of the zener diode in marine equipment.
(c) A 10V, 500 mW zener diode used as a voltage stabiliser is supplied at 40 V
through a series resistor of 500 Ω. If the load voltage is stable for diode currents
greater than 5 mA, draw the circuit diagram and calculate: (i) the maximum and
minimum load current for stable operations (55 mA, 10 mA); (ii) the minimum
power rating of the series resistor (1800 mW).
12. Describe, with the aid of sketches, the construction and operational features of one
of the following devices:
(a) a buoyancy tube liquid level transmitter,
(b) a pneumatic differential pressure transmitter,
(c) a vapour pressure thermometer utilised for remote indication.

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 328 • Specimen Examination Questions

13. With the aid of simple diagrams illustrate the response of a proportional controller,
when the system is subject to a load change if:
(i) the proportional band is too narrow, (ii) the proportional band is too wide, (iii)
the proportional band is at the optimum setting. Briefly describe why a relay
valve is used with such a controller and state what secondary function relay
valves usually perform.
14. An electric torsionmeter, shown in Figure G is fitted to the output shaft of a marine
engine.
(a) With the aid of this diagram explain in detail the principle of operation.
(b) Explain how the instrument would be used to determine the output power using
the appropriate formula. Detail carefully how shaft constants are obtained.
Shaft
Flange face
axis Primary circuit
attached to
cores (full lines)

Shaft unit
air gaps
altered by
torque

Flange face Slip rings

Mains
attached to on shaft
iron piece thus
Secondary
Interupters circuit
(dotted
lines)
Motor X X
Galvanometer

Indicator unit
air gaps
altered by
micro screw

▲ Figure G

15. Sketch a thyristor speed control system for a dc motor. Discuss briefly how the
system will respond to an increase in the speed set point potentiometer and
explain the motor protection features included in the system.
16. A reverse-acting two-term pneumatic controller is subject to an input which varies
as shown in Figure H.

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 329

100
90
80
70
Controller input (kn/m )
2

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (min)

▲ Figure H

(a) Construct a diagram showing the variation in controller output due to:
(i) proportional action,
(ii) integral action,
(iii) combined (total output).
(b) State whether the diagram constructed indicates that the load on the plant has
been restored to the original value after the disturbance and give a brief reason
for your answer. Proportional band 80%, integral action time 120 s, controller
output before disturbance 70 kN/m2 (K = 1.25 then use a tabular method; at
3 min, for example, using V = K1 (θ + K2/K1 ∫θ dt) the total change in controller
⎛ 1 ⎞
output is − 37. 5, h i , − 37.5 = −1.25⎜⎜20 + ×20⎟⎟⎟ . Controller output is not
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
restored to its original value so neither is the load).

17. Figure I shows the arrangement of a spray-type of attemperator in which the outlet
steam temperature is controlled by varying the amount of feed water injected (1 kg
feed is required to attemperate 10 kg of steam).
Assuming that the system has been adjusted so that the measured variable (outlet
steam temperature) is at the desired value when the load is 40 kg of steam per
minute determine:
(i) the offset if the load changes to 20 kg/min (–16°C),
(ii) the limits of load that can be accommodated, assuming that the offset shall not
be more than ±30°C (2.5–77.5 kg/min).

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 330 • Specimen Examination Questions

Proportional controller
input and output range 20–100 kN/m2
proportional band 100%
Desired valve
P 400°C

Direct acting valve

Direct acting
20–100 kN/m2
temperature
0–10 kg Feed/min
transmitter
360–440°C
20–100 kN/m2

500°C
Steam
inlet load range Steam
0–100 kg Steam/min outlet

▲ Figure I

18. (a) Sketch, and state, the type of logic gate which obeys the following:
‘If all inputs are one the output is zero; for all other combinations the output
is one.’ (NAND).
(b) Figure J (left-hand sketch) shows the circuit of an electrical logic gate. By
inspection or otherwise, state what type of gate the circuit represents and
write down the equation for the output at Z (OR, A + B + C).
(c) Construct a truth table for the logic circuit shown in Figure J (right-hand sketch)
and give the outputs at Z from each logic unit (e.g. ABC conditions 011, outputs
01100).
19. (a) Draw a fully labelled diagram of a pneumatic temperature transmitter operated
by a liquid or gas filled sensor.
(b) Describe the operation of the transmitter in response to a temperature increase,
making particular reference to the need for, and operation of, negative
feedback.

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 331

A Z1 Z2
A & &
B B

C Z Z5
&

Z3 Z4
1 1
C

▲ Figure J

20. (a) Define, and illustrate with simple diagrams, the following:
(i) distance–velocity lag, (ii) transfer lag, (iii) potential correction.
(b) Define, and state the mathematical representation of the following modes of
control: (i) proportional, (ii) integral.
21. (a) Draw a system for the automatic control of main turbine engine gland steam
pressure. The system is to use two control valves, one make up and one rejection
operating on an equal split range with 4 kN/m2 underlap in the signal.
(b) State or show on the system drawing:
(i) the control valve actions and fail safes, (ii) the operating signal range for
each valve, (iii) the reason for underlap in the signal.
(c) Describe clearly the actions throughout the control loop as the gland steam
pressure rises.
22. An oil–water separator is fitted with two Teflon-coated capacitance probes, each
with separate measuring bridge and output:
(i) an oil depth probe vertically, to operate the oil discharge valve, (ii) an interface
probe horizontally, to operate an alarm and oil bilge pump trip.
(a) Sketch the arrangement and explain clearly in terms of capacitance change the
operation of each probe as oil level varies.
(b) If the separator is completely empty all alarm conditions will operate when
starting up. Explain the reason for this.
23. In a calibration check on a P + D controller the ramp input is increased linearly at
1% per minute. This produces an immediate 4% step change in output, after which
the output changes linearly at 2% per minute.
(a) Sketch input and output characteristics and determine: (i) derivative action time
(2 min), (ii) proportional band. (50%).

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 332 • Specimen Examination Questions

A step change of 6% is applied to the input of a P + I controller and the output

undergoes a sudden step change of 4% and after a time interval of 2 min the
total output change is 10%.
(b) Sketch input and output characteristics for this calibration test and determine:
(i) proportional band, (150%), (ii) integral action time (1.333 min).
(c) Define the terms distance–velocity lag and exponential lag.
24. Figure K shows a boiler arranged for manual control of the drum steam pressure.
(a) Complete the diagram by adding the necessary components and connections
to convert to an automatic closed-loop combustion control system.
(b) Describe the operation of the automatic system.

FD fan

Air control damper

Steam
pressure
indicator

Air flow
indicator

Fuel flow
indicator
Fuel
control
valve

▲ Figure K

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 333

HND (BTEC and SCOTVEC)

1. With the aid of a sketch describe a type of controller which incorporates

proportional, integral and derivative actions. Explain clearly how each action is
generated and comment briefly on possible interaction that may occur.
2. Sketch circuit diagrams of resistance–capacitance networks which will provide an
output signal that approximates to:
(a) proportional plus derivative of input signal,
(b) proportional plus integral of input signal.
Show, in each case, how these networks could be incorporated into a closed-loop
control system so as to improve the operating performance of the system.
3. For a closed-loop position control system:
(a) make a sketch to illustrate how the components are connected,
(b) describe the sequence of events following movement of the input shaft,
(c) explain the term ‘overshoot’ in relation to such a system,
(d) describe how damping feedback could be incorporated.
4. (a) Define the terms proportional and integral action.
(b) Sketch the open-loop characteristic response for proportional and integral
action when a step input change is applied in each case.
(c) Calculate the integral action time if a step input change of 0.04 bar applied to a
pneumatic controller set with a 100% proportional bandwidth gives a response
change of 0.2 bar in 3 s (0.75 s).
5. (a) Explain, by means of a block diagram or otherwise, the fundamental principle
of a dc chopper amplifier.
(b) Sketch a circuit/block diagram to show how a chopper amplifier is used in an
instrument servo-mechanism which records dc potentials by means of a self-
balancing potentiometer. Briefly describe the operating principles utilised.
6. (a) Explain by means of a two transistor analogy, or otherwise, how a gate input
pulse will cause a transistor to conduct.
(b) A thyristor stack is used to regulate the heating power to a cargo hold in order
to provide automatic temperature control. Draw a block diagram to show the
basic components for such a control system.
(c) Using switches and a lamp as an example, explain with the aid of simple
diagrams what is meant by the following logic terms:
(i) the AND function, (ii) the OR function.

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 334 • Specimen Examination Questions

7. With the aid of a diagram describe the construction and operating principle of a
valve positioner.
Give three reasons why such a device may be utilised in a control system.
Explain how a positioner may be adjusted to alter the valve stroke from 1.2–1.8 bar
to 1.3–2.0 bar and state why gain should be as high as possible.
8. Explain the principles of viscosity measurement and detail the type of
instrumentation used.
Sketch an oil viscosity control system and describe the operating principle.
Give reasons for which control actions you would incorporate in the controller.
9. Describe with a block diagram the operational construction of a data logger
suitable for marine use.
Clearly indicate the functions of alarm annunciation recording of input signal
information, and analogue to digital conversion.
10. (a) Describe the effect of:
(i) positive feedback, (ii) negative feedback, on a closed-loop speed control
system.
(b) For voltage at input e1 output e0 and error actuating input e to a negative
feedback electronic amplifier of forward gain G and negative feedback fraction
F, derive the following:

e0 G
=
e1 1+ FG
e 1
=
e1 + FG

If the ‘open loop’ gain is infinite, determine F if the overall gain is 25 (0·04).
11. (a) Draw a block diagram of a remote position control servo-mechanism suitable
for controlling the angular position of the ship’s rudder. Clearly label the
inputs and outputs for each block and use them to explain what is meant by
proportional control.
(b) Explain with the aid of diagrams why damping needs to be introduced into
the system, when a step change of input is applied, and state one method of
introducing damping into such a system.
12. (a) Explain the meaning of the following terms, using suitable diagrams where
appropriate:
(i) distance–velocity lag,
(ii) transfer lag,

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 335

(iii) time constant,

(iv) thermal capacity.
(b) A thermometer bulb is housed in a pocket. Show by means of a response curve
an estimation of the effect of the pocket and state what factors influence the
design of the pocket to minimise this effect.
13. (a) Briefly describe why it is desirable to employ a multi-element system in the
control of boiler water level.
(b) Make a diagrammatic sketch of a three-element boiler water level control
system, naming all the parts and giving a brief description of its operation.
(c) Sketch a diagram showing the variations in boiler water level and feed pump
load that might be expected if a water tube boiler is subject to a step increase
in load, with:
(i) single-element control, (ii) three-element control.
14. (a) Figure L shows the block diagram of a low power remote position control servo
system with velocity feedback damping. State the function of each component
in the system.
(b) Explain briefly how the system will respond to a step input and sketch the
corresponding response curve for: (i) switch S open, (ii) switch S closed.

Input
potentiometer
+15 V

θi
Op- Servo Power
amp amplifier supply
50%
–15 V
gain
setting

–15 V
Tacho Motor
gen
θo
S
50% +15 V
FB
Output
setting
potentiometer

▲ Figure L

15. The air pressure control system shown in Figure M has been adjusted such that at a
load of 6 kg/min the equilibrium value of the controlled condition is at the desired
value of 30 bar. Determine:

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 336 • Specimen Examination Questions

Pressure transmitter
(direct acting)
range 0–40 bar
output 20–100 kN/m2

Pneumatic (p)
controller
Air input and output Desired
receiver range 20–100 kN/m2 value

Regulating unit (air to open)

Load range 0–10 kg/min
input 20–100 kN/m2

▲ Figure M

(i) the proportional control factor (μ) of the system if the proportional band of the
controller is 50% (0.5),
(ii) the offset if the load changes to 8 kg/min (–4 bar),
(iii) the proportional band setting required such that for a load change from 6 to
2 kg/min the offset is limited to 2 bar (12.5%),
(iv) the smallest load that the system can deal with if the proportional band of the
controller is set to 100% (3.5 kg/min),
(v) the proportional band of the controller such that the system can deal with any
load within the range 0–10 kg/min (41.7%).
16. (a) Sketch the forward characteristic for a thyristor and indicate clearly:
(i) the hold current level,
(ii) the effect of increasing the gate trigger pulse upon the forward break-over
voltage.
(b) State three advantages of a thyristor compared to other types of controlled
rectifier.
(c) Figure N shows the circuit of an ac controller:
(i) explain briefly how the power in the load is controlled,
(ii) sketch the waveforms of load voltage and gate pulse for half maximum
load power.
17. (a) Define the following terms: (i) integral action, (ii) derivative action.
(b) With the aid of suitable diagrams derive expressions for:
(i) integral action in terms of controller gain and integral action time,
(ii) derivative action in terms of controller gain and derivative action time.

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 337

R1

18 kΩ

RV4
UJT 100 kΩ
50 Hz D1 D2
ac
mains D3 D4 SCR ZD

R3 C1
47 Ω 0–1 μF
Load

▲ Figure N

18. Figure O shows the arrangement of a damper position control system for a boiler
employing damper control of the final steam temperature, and the variation
in steam temperature, during a transient condition. Draw an accurate diagram
showing the damper position during the same transient period. The damper may be
assumed to be in the 60% open position immediately before the transient condition

Damper
Pneumatic actuator (air-to-close)
range: 20–100 kN/m2
Damper position: 100% open-shut

Pneumatic controller
Gas flow Desired
P + I Proportional band = 125%
value
Integral action time = 30s
480°C

Superheater
Temperature transmitter
Range: 460–500°C
Output: 20–100 kN/m2

500
Superheat steam temp (°C)

490

480

470

460
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (min)

▲ Figure O

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 338 • Specimen Examination Questions

commences. (System proportional control factor μ = multiple of proportionality

characteristics, coefficients, that is, 2 = 2 × 0.8 × 1.25 then use a tabular method;
at 2 min, for example, using Φ= – μ(θ +I/S ∫ θ dt) the damper is 20% open, that
is, –40 = –2 (10 + 1/0.5 × 5). Damper is closed between 2.5 and 5 min).
19. (a) Draw a detailed diagram of an instrument suitable for converting electrical
control signals into pneumatic signals.
(b) Explain clearly the operation throughout the instrument in response to an
increased input signal.
(c) Discuss briefly the relative advantages of electro-pneumatic control.
20. (a) Draw the circuit for a two input diode-transistor logic OR gate suitable for
operating an alarm system. Construct the truth table and describe the operation
of the gate.
(b) Construct a logic flow diagram for a soot-blowing system which incorporates:
(i) a warming through period,
(ii) retractable blowers which blow in each direction,
(iii) provision to bypass selected blowers,
(iv) suitable operation checks.
Show the details for one blower only and draw a block diagram for the others.
21. (a) Sketch a fully labelled diagram of a two-element superheated steam
temperature control system which uses a three-term controller and two control
valves, a steam to attemperator and an attemperator bypass valve.
(b) Explain the reason for using two-element control in this system and describe
the actions throughout the loop following a load increase.
(c) State the reasons for using integral and derivative terms in the controller.
22. Show in block diagram form the basic requirement for a bridge control system for
a main diesel engine. The control programme unit may be shown as a block.
Briefly describe the sequence of events throughout the system following movement
of the bridge telegraph from stop to full ahead. What emergency arrangements
must be incorporated in the system and fitted on the bridge?
23. Figure P shows the main components of a jacket cooling water system for a marine
diesel engine, outlet temperature is controlled condition.
(a) Assuming that it has been decided to modify the system to provide a split level,
two element, cascade closed-loop pneumatic control system, complete the
diagram naming clearly all the additional components required.

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 Specimen Examination Questions • 339

Header
tank
Steam CW
control control
valve valve

Cooler

Main Heater
engine

Jacket
water
pump

▲ Figure P

(b) Describe the operation of the modified system giving typical operating ranges
and stating clearly the modes of action employed, for example, direct acting
proportional.
(c) Describe the effects on the system of:
(i) an increase in sea water temperature,
(ii) a decrease in engine load.
24. (a) Figure Q shows the elements of an instrument servo–self balancing
potentiometer – used to record the temperature of a thermocouple by means
of a self balancing potentiometer. Discuss briefly how the instrument will
respond to an increase in the thermocouple temperature.
(b) Give two reasons why transistors may be preferred to an electro-mechanical
chopper for the input stage.
(c) Sketch the circuit for a simple transistor chopper and briefly describe its
operation.

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 340 • Specimen Examination Questions

ac supply

Potentiometer

+
Transistor +
Unknown dc or ac
dc amp Stable
error mechanical ac dc
voltage chopper +90°
error –
– Two-phase
(Thermocouple) motor
emf

Pen
recorder

▲ Figure Q

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 INDEX
ac electric servo-motor 125 arithmetic unit 303
ac position control 126 atomic theory 92
ac speed control 252 attenuation 132
across variable 262 auto-combustion/attemperator control 231
action automatic controller 132
control types 141 auto-steering (block diagram) 242
derivative control 151 auxiliary boiler control 233
integral control 148 averaging 203
proportional control 143
P+D 150, 153, 154, 166 bandwidth 146
P+I 148, 149, 151, 165 barometer
time 149 aneroid 24
two-step control 141 mercury 23
actual controller types 194 bi-metallic thermometer 10
actuated torque valve 123 binary arithmetic 301
adjustment of controllers 281 black box 189
adjustment of instruments 76 blind controller 208
air-fuel ratio control 209 block diagrams 242, 246, 249, 257, 267, 280
air-steam rate control 217 blocking oscillator 115
air supplies 171 Bode diagrams 273, 279
alarm circuit, fire 67 boiler oil purification system 225
algorithm 289 Boolean algebra 289
alternator control 236 Bourdon gauge, pressure 25
amplification 141, 161 bridge control
amplifiers 102, 173 IC engine 226
analogies 146, 162 turbine 226
analogue 7, 284 bridge rectifier 98
analogue circuits 92 BS terminology 131
analogue computer 284 BTEC & SCOTVEC specimen examination
analogue-digital converter 305 questions 312, 313, 317
analogue simulation 285, 288 buffer amplifier 178
analogue tachometer 58 Butterworth heating control 239
analogues 261, 277
analysis calibration of instruments 76
carbon dioxide 71 capacitance transducer 84
control system 260 capacitive level sensor 38
dissolved oxygen 72, 73 carrier wave 99
feedback 111 cascade control system 133, 156
frequency response 273 cathode ray oscilloscope 116
oxygen 70 cell, differential pressure 27
stability 274 cell, photo 63
water 72 cell, photo-transistor 63
AND gate 292 characteristics
aneroid barometer 24 control valve 121
annunciator systems 306 pn junction 95
Argand diagram 272 resistance-temperature 13

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 342 • Index

thyristor 96, 100 control system

zener diode 96 analysis 260
chopper circuit 110 cascade 156
circuit configurations, transistor 104 kinetic 245
circuit, fire alarm-detection 68 process 138
circuits control technique 160, 188
integrated 192 control theory 131
logic 290 control, three element 216, 234
circulating water control loop 215, 222 control, three term 154, 170, 186
classification of amplifiers 103 control, transistor stabilisation 191
closed loop system 133 control, two element 222, 234
closed loop transfer function 265 control, two term 170, 234
CO2 analyser-recorder 71 control unit 304
collector characteristics (CE) 106 control valve
combustion/attemperator control 231 diaphragm 120
command signal 133 piston 123
common base transistor 105 rotating cylinder 124
common collector transistor 105 torque 123
common emitter transistor 106 wax element 124
comparator 179 controllable pitch propeller 241
comparing element 134 controlled condition 134
comparison, telemetering systems 4 controller action, P 164
complex numbers 272 controller action, P+D 150, 166, 184
component adjustment 281 controller action, P+I 149, 165, 195
component interaction 279 controller types 194
compound controller p+i+d 186 controllers, electronic 181, 197
computer, analogue 284 one term 182, 183
computer control 309 three term 186
computer, digital 300 two term 185
computer simulation 309 controllers, master 281
computers 8, 284, 300 controllers, pneumatic
computing and logic 284 one term 164
condenser water control 215 three term 154
conduction electrons 93 two step 160
conduction holes 93 two term 165, 166
configurations (transistor) 105 controllers, setting adjustment 281
control action graphs 155 controllers, slave 156, 219
control action types 141 controllers, stack type 164
control, cascade 133, 156 controlling elements 120
control circuits converted command signal 133
general 231 converted controlled condition 134
motor (IC engine) 221 converted deviation 134
steam 213 conversion, decimal-binary 300
control factors 144, 149, 152 converter, analogue-digital 305
control level, example 157 converter, pneumatic-electronic 84
control loops 5 coolant control, IC engine 221
control position servo 246 correcting elements 121, 135
control speed servo 251, 252 correcting units 120, 134
control, split range 157, 214 current transmission (4–20mA) 90

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 Index • 343

damping 248 digital instrument 305

data logging 306 digital logic 289
data processing 306 digital tachometer 50, 59
dc amplifier 110 diode gate, AND, OR 292
dc electric servo-motor 125 diode, light emitting 117
dc position control 246 diode, semi-conductor 95
dc speed control 251 diode, zener 100
dead time 135 dionic water purity meter 72
decimal-binary conversion 300 direct digital control 309
demodulation circuit 99 direct level measure 36
derivative action 151, 168, 183 displacement-pneumatic transducer 80
derivative action factor 152 dissolved oxygen meter 73
derivative action time 152 distance-velocity lag 135
desired value 135 divisor 190, 203
detecting element, response 139 DTp-SCOTVEC specimen examination
detecting element (sensor) 135 questions 312, 313, 317
detector-alarm circuit, fire 68 Driver amplifier 109
detector Drum level controller 234
CO2 71
flame 68 economy 2
flow 46 electrical flowmeter 50
gas explosion (meter) 68 electrical square root extractor 55
heat (fire) 67 electrical telegraph 88
level (capacitive) 38 electrical thermometry 11
level (resistive) 39 electrical transmitters 81
oil in water 64 electroflo level transducer 39
oil mist 65 electro-hydraulic speed control 256
oxygen 72 electro-magnetic flowmeter 50
pH 66 electro-magnetic radiation spectrum 119
piezoelectric 28 electro-pneumatic controller 196
pressure 31 electro-pneumatic transducer 80
relative humidity 72 electron conduction 93
smoke density 64 electronic control principles 173
speed (tachogenerator) 58 electronic control techniques 173
strain gauge 32 electronic controller types 197
temperature 9 electronic controllers 181, 197
torque 60 one term 182, 183
viscosity 61 three term 186
deviation 135 two term 185
diac 101 electronic devices 92
diaphragm control valve 120 electronic force-balance 84
difference amplifier 176 electronic thermocouple 17
differential capacitor transducer 84 electronic two step control 182
differential equations 263, 267 element 4, 47, 121, 136
differential inductor transducer 82 empirical controller settings 282
differential pressure cell 27 engine logic system 298
digital 8 equivalent t-circuit 107
digital circuits 92 error 136
digital computer 300 evaporator flow control 225

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 344 • Index

examination questions, specimen 312, 313, gas filled thermometer 10

317, 323, 326, 333 gates, logic 299
example, level control 157 gauge, pressure 25
exhaust range pressure control 213 gauge, strain 32
explosion meter detector 68 generalised impedance 262
extraction, square root 47 gland steam control 214
extrinsic semi-conductors 93 governor
electro-hydraulic 256
feedback mechanical-hydraulic 195
amplifier 11 systems 254
analysis 111 graphs, control action 155
negative 112, 162, 165 graycode 211
positive 113 GTO 101
pneumatic 163
stabilisation 248 hall effect 74
feedforward 250 harmonic oscillator 114
feed regulators, level 234 harmonic response 276
fibre optics 119 heat (fire) detector 67
field effect transistor (FET) 111 heavy fuel oil separation 242
filled system thermometers 10 higher order systems 269
filter circuit 99 higher BTEC & SCOTVEC specimen
final controlling elements 120 examination questions 312
fire detection-alarm circuit 67 historical 1
fire (heat) detector 67 hold (memory) circuit 296
first order equation 263 human control loop 147
first order system 263 hydraulic-mechanical governor 195
flame detector (sensor) 68 hydraulic position system 251
flapper and nozzle 79, 161, 206 hydraulic pumps 126
flash evaporator control 225 hydraulic ram servo 126
flip-flop oscillator 298 hydraulic rotary vane servo 127
flow measurement 46 hydraulic servo 126
flowmeter hydraulic variable delivery pump 126
electrical 50
electro-magnetic 50 IC engine control circuits 221
mechanical 48 IC engine oil purification 225
ultrasonic and nucleonic 57 IC engine remote control 229
flow sensors 52 Igema gauge 40
fluidic logic 299 impedance, generalised 262
force-balance system (electronic) 80 incline tube manometer 22
frequency response analysis 273 inductance balance 83
friction damping 248 inductance ratio 83
fuel-air ratio control 209 inductance transducer 82
fuel oil control valve 121 inferential-differential pressure 51
further analogues 277 inferential measures 38
inferential rotational 48
gain 140 infra-red flame detector 68
gain amplifiers 112 inherent regulation 142
gain margin 275 input element 136
gas analysis 69 input ramp signal 36, 247, 271
gas explosion meter detector 68 input step signal 247, 270

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 Index • 345

input unit 303 logic switching 290

instrument calibration, testing, logic symbols 291
adjustment 76 loops, control 5
instrument, digital 305
integral action control 148 magnetic amplifier 102
integral action factor 149 magnitude ratio 273
integral action time 149 manoeuvring relays 228
integral control action 148 manometer
integral control factor 149 inclined tube 22
integrated circuits 192 mercury 22
integrated system 307 water 21
integrators 47 manufacturing system 278
interaction 171, 279 mass air flow 75
interface, oil-water 240 master controller 157, 223
intrinsic semi-conductors 93 mathematical models 285, 309
inverter 174 mathematical aspects 256
inverting amplifier 174 measurement of
electricity 58
jacket water control, single element 221 flow 46
jacket water control, two element 222 gas 68
JFET 110 level 36
junction transistor amplifier 104 oil in water 64
oil mist 65
kenotometer 22 ph 66
kinetic control systems 245 pressure 20
smoke density 64
lag 142, 274 speed 58
level control, cascade 133, 156, 223 temperature 9
level control example 157 torque-power 60
level control, oil-water separator 240 viscosity 61
level control regulator 234 measuring element 136
level indicator, remote 40, 41, 42 measuring unit 136
level measurement 36 mechanical controller 194
level sensor mechanical flowmeter 48
capacitive 38 mechanical governor 195
resistive 39 mechanical-hydraulic speed control 195, 254
ultrasonic and nucleonic 57 mechanical square root extractor 54
level simulation-control 310 mechanical thermometry 9
light emitting diode (LED) 117 memory circuit 296
linear mode amplifiers 108 memory unit 303
liquid in glass thermometer 9 mercury barometer 23
liquid level control 144, 151, 153 mercury in steel thermometer 10
linear vibration damper 288 mercury manometer 22
load 136 meter
logic and computing 284 carbon dioxide 71
logic circuits 289 dissolved oxygen 72, 73
logic engine control 298 explosive gas 68
logic flow chart 289 quantity 46
logic, fluidic 299 rate of flow 46
logic, solid state 292 water purity 72

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 346 • Index

microcomputers and microprocessors 8, oscilloscope, cathode ray 116

309 output unit 304
microprocessors 309 overall coolant systems 223
mimic diagrams 308 overlap 142
misalignment, velocity 248, 249 overshoot 138, 248
models 285 oxygen analyser 70
modulation 99 oxygen (dissolved) meter 72
monitoring element 4, 137
monitoring feedback 137 parallel-series cooling system 223
MOSFET 110 parameters, transistor 107
motor element 121, 137 pen recorder 87
motor, position 88, 246, 250 peripheral units 304
motor servo ac 126 pH sensor 66
motor servo dc 125 phase advance network 186
multiplier 182 phase lag 135, 139, 140, 169, 275
multivibrator 116 phase margin 275
photo-electric cells 62
NAND gate 295 photo-electric pyrometer 18
negative feedback 112, 162, 165 photo-transistor 64, 118
Nichols chart diagram 277 piezoelectric sensor 28
non-inverting amplifier 175 piston control valve 123
non-linear mode amplifier 103 piston water temperature control 211
NOR gate 295 p type material 93
NOT gate 293 pn junction 95
np junction 94 pneumatic control
npn junction 95 principles 160
n type material 93 p 164
nucleonic flow sensor 57 p+d 166
nucleonic level sensor 57 p+i 165
null balance potentiometer 87 p+i+d 170
Nyquist diagram 275 techniques 160, 162, 165, 168
Nyquist stability criteria 274 pneumatic controller types 202
one term 164
offset 137, 146, 249 three term 170
oil mist detector 65 two term 165, 166
oil purification system 225 P 164
oil-water detector (sensor) 64 P+D 166
oil-water interface 37, 64, 240 P+I 165
oil-water interface control 240 P+I+D 170
oil-water separator 240 pneumatic-current transducer 84
open loop system 5, 151, 266 pneumatic-electronic transducer 84
open loop transfer function 266 pneumatic force-balance transducer 80
operational amplifier 173 pneumatic piston servo-positioner 128
optical encoder 74, 211 pneumatic position-balance transducer 79
optical pyrometer 17 pneumatic relay 161
opto-coupler 118 pneumatic remote control system 230
OR gate 293 pneumatic square root extractor 55
order of system 263 pneumatic stack controller 164
orifice sensor 52 pneumatic standardising relay 207
oscillators 113 pneumatic transmitters 79

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 Index • 347

pneumatic two-step technique 160 quantity meters 46

pneumercator 42 questions, specimen examination 312, 313,
pnp junction 95 317, 323, 326, 333
transistor 104
position-balance radar tank gauging 43
ac motor system 89 radiation pyrometry 18
dc motor system 88 radiation spectrum 119
indicator (telegraph) 88 radio communication 118
transducer (pneumatic) 79 ram, hydraulic servo 126
position control 211 ramp input response 271
position motor rate 185
ac 89 rate, air-fuel 209
dc 88 rate, air-steam 217
positioner 121, 129 rate of flow meter 46
positive feedback 113 rate network 249
potentiometer circuit 87 receiver integrator 86
potentiometric pen recorder 87 receivers 86
power amplifier 109 recorder, pen 87
power measurement 60 recorder, XY 88
pressure control 214 rectifiers 95
pressure-current transducer 85 reference sets 304
pressure elements 38 refrigeration control loops 236
pressure gauge relative humidity detector 72
Bourdon 25 relaxation oscillator 115
Schaffer 26 relay, manoeuvring 228
pressure measurement 20 relay, pneumatic 161
pressure sensor 31 remote control, IC engine 229
primary elements 51 remote transmission systems 5, 78
probe, level 37 remote water level indicator 41
process 138 reset 183
process control system 138 reset network 249
process control theory 131 reset feedforward 250
processor 308 resistance level sensor 39
programmable logic controller 8, 309 resistance thermometer 11
propeller pitch control 241 resistance-temperature characteristics 13
proportional action 143, 148, 163, 183 resistance transducer 81
proportional action factor 143 response analysis 273
proportional band 144 response curves 140, 247, 270, 274
proportional control action 143, 147, 153, 182 response detecting elements 139
proportional control factor 143 response, Nyquist 274
P+D action 150, 153, 154, 166 response, sinusoidal input 271
P+I action 148, 149, 151, 165 response stability criteria 274
P+I+D action 170 response, step input 270
pulse width modulation 252 ring main cooling system 223
pump, variable delivery 126 ring torductor 61
purge level system 42 root extractors 47, 54
purification control system 225 rotameter 50
push-pull power amplifier 109 rotary cylinder valve 124
push-pull blocking oscillator 115 rotary vane hydraulic servo 127
pyrometer 17 rotating electrical amplifiers 102

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 348 • Index

rotormeter 48 servo, ram hydraulic 126

rototherm 10 servo, rotary vane hydraulic 127
servo speed control ac 252
safety requirements 2 servo speed control dc 251
scalar multiplier 182 set value 138
scanner 305 setting controllers 282
Schaffer pressure gauge 26 settling time 138
Schmitt trigger 181 SHM analogue circuit diagram 288
SCOTVEC & BTEC specimen examination signal, command 133
questions 312 signal processing 138, 308
second order equations 263, 267 signal selection 308
second order systems 267, 278 silicon controlled rectifier 100
secondary elements 53 simple pendulum analogue simulation 285
self balancing bridges 12 simple pendulum computer 287
self balancing potentiometers 87 simulation, computer 309
semi-conductor diode 96 single element control 221, 235
semi-conductors 92 single term control 163, 182
sensors sinusoidal response 271
CO2 71 slave controller 156, 219
detecting element 4 small signal amplifier 108
flame 68 smoke density detector 64
flow 46 smoothing circuit 99
flow (ultrasonic, nucleonic) 57 solid state devices 95
gas explosion (meter) 68 sootblower control 215
heat (fire) 67 specimen examination questions Class One
level (capacitive) 38 (DTp-SCOTVEC) 317
level (resistive) 39 specimen examination questions Class Three
level (ultrasonic, nucleonic) 57 (DTp-SCOTVEC) 312
oil in water 64 specimen examination questions Class Two
oil mist 65 (DTp-SCOTVEC) 313
pH 66 specimen examination questions HNC (BTEC
piezoelectric 28 & SCOTVEC) 326
pressure 31 specimen examination questions HND (BTEC
relative humidity 72 & SCOTVEC) 333
smoke density 64 specimen examination questions ONC-OND
speed (tachogenerator) 58 (BTEC & SCOTVEC) 323
strain gauge 32 spectrum, electromagnetic 118
temperature 9 speed control 251
torque 60 speed control, elec-hydraulic 256
viscosity 61 speed control, mech-hydraulic 254
separation, heavy fuel oil 242 speed control, thyristor 253
series-parallel cooling loop 224 speed control, Ward-Leonard 252
servo-governor 254 speed measurement (tachogenerator) 58
servo-governor, electro-hydraulic 256 split range control 157, 214
servo-governor, mechanical-hydraulic 254 spring-mass-damper analogue
servo mechanism 245 simulation 288
servo motor, ac and dc 125 square root extraction 47
servo position control ac 250 square root extractor, electrical 55
servo position control dc 246 square root extractor, mechanical 54
servo, pneumatic piston 128 square root extractor, pneumatic 55

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 Index • 349

stabilising feedback 248 through variable 262

stability response criteria 274 thyristor 100
stack controller 164 thyristor speed control 253
steam-air flow rate control 217 time constant 138, 140
steam temperature control 216 time delay 192
steering control 242 time, derivative action 152
step input response 270 time, integral action 149
strain gauge 32 time lags 140
subsidence ratio 146 torductor 60
subtractor 176 torque actuated valve 123
summer 183, 186, 190 torque measurement 60
supplies, air 171 transducers
switching circuit logic 290 electromagnetic 80
synchro system 89 flow sensor 56
system 6, 260 force-balance 80
system analysis 260, 285 position-balance 79
system equations 263, 267 pressure-current 85
System first order 263 variable capacitance 84
System manufacturing 278 variable inductance 82
System order 263 variable resistance 81
System performance 269 variable voltage-current 85
System response 247 transfer characteristics (transistor) 105
System, second order 263, 267 transfer function 264
System state 260 transfer function block diagram 267
Systems approach 260, 261 transfer lag 139
Systems comparison, telemetering 4 transformer rectifier (centre tap) 98
transient response 269
tachogenerator 58 transistor
tachometer 58 amplifier (small signal) 108
tachometer, digital 50, 59 amplifier, voltage 107
T-circuit, transistor 107 characteristics 107
Technique, control 160, 188 configuration 105
telegraph 88 field effect 111
telemetering 4, 78 junction 104
telemetering systems, comparison 4 oscillator 108
temperature measurement 9 parameters 107
temperature control loops 215, 217, 221 photocell 63
terminology, BSI 3, 131 stabilisation control 191
testing, instruments 76 t-circuit 107
thermal conductivity, CO2 recorder 71 unijunction 107
thermistor 12 voltage amplifier 107
thermocouple 15 transmitters 4, 79, 81
thermocouple, electronic 17 triac 101
thermometer, bi-metallic 10 trigger pulse 101
thermometer, filled system 10 truth tables 291
thermometer, liquid in glass 9 turn down ratio 122
thermometer, resistance 11 two element control 222, 234
thermometry 9 two step control action 141, 161, 182
three element control 216, 234 two term control 148, 170
three term control 154 types of control action 141

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 350 • Index

types of controller 194 variable delivery pump 126

typical control circuits 213 variable inductance transducer 82
general 231 variable resistance transducer 81
IC engine 221 velocity misalignment 248
steam 213 venturi sensor 47, 52
virtual earth 174
unbonded strain gauge 34 viscometer 61
unijunction transistor 107 viscosity control 234
ultrasonic flow sensor 57 viscosity controller 210
ultrasonic level sensor 42 viscosity sensor 62
units, correcting 120, 135 voltage amplifier, transistor 107
units, measuring 136 voltage-current transducer 85
univibrator 116, 298 voltage stabilisation 96, 191
unmanned machinery spaces (UMS) 2
ttilisation 2 Ward-Leonard speed control 252
U tube manometer 21 waste heat flash evaporator control 225
water analysis 72
value, desired 135 water level indicator, remote 39, 41
value, set 135 water manometer 22
valve water purity meter 72
diaphragm actuated 120 water temperature control 215
piston actuated 123 wax element control valve 124
pneumatic actuated 122 well type manometer 22
positioner actuated 122 Wheatstone bridge circuit 11, 34, 81
relay actuated 161
rotating cylinder actuated 124 x plot 285
torque actuated 123 XY recorder 88
wax element actuated 124
vane servo 127 y plot 285
vapour pressure thermometer 10
variable capacitance transducer 84 zener diode 100

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