i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9

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Effect of hydrogen fuel at higher flow rate under

dual fuel mode in CRDI diesel engine

V. Gnanamoorthi, V.T. Vimalananth*

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering Villupuram, Villupuram, 605103, India

highlights graphical abstract

In the CRDI diesel engine,

hydrogen is injected via timed
manifold injection.

Flame trap and flame arrestor are
used to arrest backfire in the H2
supply line.

The optimum flow rate of
hydrogen is 30 LPM.

Emissions such us UHC, CO2, CO
and smoke are reduced.

More than 36 LPM of hydrogen
flow rate leads to knocking.

article info abstract

Article history: The prime intention of this work is to provide a maximum replacement for diesel using
Received 30 August 2019 hydrogen in a common rail direct injection equipped diesel engine. The experiment was
Received in revised form conducted upto 5.2 kW brake power constant speed water-cooled engine. In the combus-
15 April 2020 tion chamber, diesel fuel was injected at a crank angle of 23⁰ bTDC, making it an ignitor for
Accepted 17 April 2020 the premixed mixture of hydrogen and air. Hydrogen is injected at 6 different proportions
Available online 15 May 2020 ranging from 6 to 36 liter per min (LPM). The air and hydrogen gas were mixed homoge-
neously using the timed manifold injection technique, which was controlled through the
Keywords: in-house PC based data acquisition (DAQ) program developed on data factory. The elec-
Hydrogen tronic control unit helps to induct the hydrogen for a period of 211⁰ CA during the suction
Fuel-ignitor stroke. Performance, emission and combustion studies were made with the different levels
Homogeneous mixture of hydrogen injection, which proves that the 30 LPM of hydrogen provide the best results.
Thermal mass flow meter Further, 30.65% improvement was achieved in brake thermal efficiency with 23.48%
Manifold injection decreased brake specific energy consumption. This also helped to reduce the harmful
Flame arrestor emissions like CO, CO2, UHC and smoke by 22.3%, 14%, 32.74% and 43.86%, respectively.
However, oxides of nitrogen emission level was increased by 7.3% compared to that of the
diesel fuel at its maximum power output setting. The duration of the combustion also
reduced due to the higher flame speed character of hydrogen. Thus, the overall results

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vimalananth6@[Link] (V.T. Vimalananth).
[Link]
0360-3199/© 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9 16875

conclude that the addition of hydrogen improved the performance factors and reduced all
the emission values of the common rail direct injection diesel engine at an optimum level
of 30 LPM.
© 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Some of the works were carried out using hydrogen fuel in

Introduction the spark-ignition (SI) engine due to its higher-octane number,
auto-ignition temperature and high flame speed [4]. The re-
In 21st century, entire human kind is facing various threats for ports state that hydrogen fuel is also tested in the compres-
their own survival. The depletion of fossil fuels, technology sion ignition (CI) engine with small engine modifications [5]
development and increasing population are demanding a and changing the engine operating parameter [6].
tremendous amount of energy, which also seems to be live The hydrogen fuel has properties such as low density,
threatening as shown in Fig. 1 [1]. high diffusivity, high flame speed, and low ignition energy
The usage of internal combustion engines are inevitable [7]. Hydrogen at ambient temperature exhibits a relatively
factor, but the emissions from them and the depletion of fossil low chemical activity, but at higher temperature or in the
fuels are pushing the researchers to discover an alternate path presence of catalyst shows enhanced combustion behavior.
for the reduction of emissions and dependence of fossil fuels. The rate of combustion of hydrogen fuel was high beyond
Therefore, many research works are being conducted with 180  C, but beyond 450  C the combustible mixture detonates.
partial replacement of fossil fuel to improve efficiency and to So, entire fuel molecules inside the combustion cylinder will
reduce the emission along with the greenhouse gases. undergo a complete combustion process, which leads to the
Hydrogen fuel can be an effective alternate to attain this goal, improvement of thermal efficiency and reduction in soot
which is a more abundant renewable source. Leading car formation and also fuel consumption [8]. Further, hydrogen
companies like Hyundai, Toyota motor corporation and fuel in CI engines, improved carbon bonding structure, which
Honda Motor Co. Ltd are working on hydrogen fuel-based decreases the combustion duration of the diesel fuel and
motor vehicles. Some of the test models of hydrogen-based thereby providing a better mixture through higher diffusivity
motor vehicles are Toyota Mirai [2], Hyundai Nexo, Honda of hydrogen to enhance the flame propagation [9]. Due to
FCX, Honda FCX Clarity and Honda Clarity [3]. Thus, hydrogen high flame propagation and wide flammability, hydrogen gas
(H2) gas fuel is one of the upcoming favorable alternative fuel fuel was used at a very lean combustion process leading to
and energy source for IC engines. the reduction of NOx emission [10]. Table 1 shows the

Fig. 1 e Primary energy demands of various countries and fuel [1].

16876 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9

[29]. The supply of hydrogen in the combustion process in-

Table 1 e The comparative properties of hydrogen gas
creases thermal efficiency and in-cylinder pressure [30]. The
and diesel fuels [10,11].
diesel engine combustion process was augmented with a very
Property Hydrogen Diesel
small quantity of hydrogen fuel along with the diesel [31]. This
Chemical formula H2 CnH1.8*n e C8eC20 better combustion was developed due to the clean and fast-
Density at 16  C and 0.0838 833e881 burning hydrogen fuel characteristics along with conven-
1.01 bar (kg/m3)
tional fuels [32]. The new technology engine might be of more
Calorific value (MJ/kg) 119.93 42.5
Auto ignition temperature, K 858 530
health concern than the earlier engine, which has lower
Quenching gap in NTP air (cm) 0.064 e smoke emission because of the high flame speed property of
Octane number 130 e the hydrogen fuel [33].
Cetane number e 40e55 Research work was also carried out on the injection of
Flammability limit (volume % 4e75 0.7e5 hydrogen flow rate in the range of 2e9.5 LPM and they found
in air)
to have better BTE, reduced emission of CO and HC up to the
Diffusivity in air (cm2/s) 0.63 e
range of 25e45% at 7.5 LPM with the injection duration of 30⁰
Specific gravity 0.091 0.83
Flame velocity (cm/s) 265e325 30 CA. But, the oxide of nitrogen (NOx) formation is compara-
Critical pressure (MPa or Atm) 1.8 or 12.8 e tively higher than the diesel [34]. Romualdas Juknelevicius
Kinematic viscosity at 110 1.9e4.1 et al. studied the experimental investigation in Audi/VW 1.9
300 K (mm2/s) TDI turbocharged diesel engine using hydrogen gas with the
flow rate of 10e30 L/min along with air. The experiments were
operated with the speed of 1900 RPM and 2500 RPM at the
comparative properties of hydrogen gas and diesel fuels steadily fixed loads of BMEP of 0.4 Mpae0.8 MPa with an in-
[10,11]. crease of 0.2 MPa. The experimental results concluded that the
Generally, hydrogen gas was extracted through various 0.8 MPa with 30 L/min produced the peak in-cylinder pressure
techniques such as electrolysis, photo-ionization, thermal of 8.5 MPa at 1900 RPM and 9.5 MPa at 2500 RPM. Thereby in-
approach, plasmolysis, bio-catalytic decomposition, radiol- crease in hydrogen energy share (HES) reduces the NOx
ysis, magnetolysis [12] and gasification [13]. Partial oxidation emissions at both speeds [35]. Koten [36] conducted the per-
of hydrocarbons, steam reformation, photocatalytic water formance and emission investigation on a four-cylinder diesel
splitting using solar energy [14] and dye-sensitized solar cells engine with the flow rate of hydrogen ranging from 0.20 LPM
(TiO2, Cu2S) [15,16] as well as hydrogen extraction from waste to 0.80 LPM with an increment of 0.20 LPM at different engine
water (NiO nanoparticles) [17]. Among them, hydrogen with load conditions. The experimental result at 0.80 LPM showed
higher purity level were obtained through water electrolysis, 3% better brake thermal efficiency than diesel fuel. Exhaust
methanol-reforming and ammonia filtration [18]. emissions such as NOx, soot emission, UHC, CO and CO2 were
Hydrogen can be stored in porous materials, liquid reduced to 3.4%, 37.15%, 39.25%, 11.87% and 10.78%,
hydrogen carriers, inter-metallic alloy and magnesium-based respectively.
hydrogen energy storage material [19], cryogenic absorption Mojtaba Ebrahimi et al. investigated RCCI combustion
hydrogen storage [20], electrochemical storage of energy, and using landfill gas along with hydrogen and diesel oil. The NOx
complex metal hydrides [21] for stationary and mobile appli- emission was reduced drastically in the presence of EGR due
cations. Researchers have also suggested the following ma- to the presence of CO2 in landfill gas [37]. Pavlos Dimitriou
terial for hydrogen storage such as LaNi5H6, et al. studied the heavy-duty CI engine under dual fuel mode
LaNi3.8AL0.75Mn0.45 alloy [19], iron-benzene-1,3,5- tricarbox- and the engine was operated at a constant speed of 1500 RPM
ylate xerogel (Fe-BTC) [20], ZrTiVNiCrFe alloy [21], MOF-5, with a supply of hydrogen fuel at the low and medium load of
Manganese oxide (Mn3O4) nanoparticles [22] and nanocavity 20 kW and 40 kW, respectively. The NOx emission and in-
of zeolite-Y [Cu(Me4R2Bzo [14]tetraeneN4)]eNaY [23]. cylinder combustion temperature were reduced by adopting
The supply of hydrogen in a dual fuel mode engine may the EGR technique. The supply of EGR quantity was up to 32%.
cause spontaneous backfiring due to its lower ignition energy The low load condition with 98% of HES soot emission showed
and higher flame velocity. So, a flame trap was fixed before the 85% and 90% reduction in NOx and carbon, respectively. The
intake manifold to restrict this backfire and to eliminate the medium load condition showed the increased NOx emission
chance of flame to reach the hydrogen storage [24]. The for 85% of HES [38]. Sarthak Nag et al. studied a single-cylinder
hydrogen injection system was used rather than a gas diesel engine and modified it to operate in dual-fuel mode.
carburetor in the testing to avoid improper mixing of BTE was decreased on low load condition and at higher load
hydrogen and air in the gas carburetor [25]. The electronic condition increased to 6.21% for 30% HES. Further, it was re-
control unit (ECU) was applied in the present work to inject the ported that at 30% HES along with 10% of EGR reduced the
system, which is used to control the combustion process, the emission by 38.4% in NOx, 27.4% in CO2, 33.4% in CO, 32.3% in
leakage of gas and to minimize low durability [26]. This ECU THC and 20% in PM [39].
based injection system was expected to control the injection Abdulhakim I. Jabbr et al. studied the numerical simulation
duration and the injection rate of hydrogen fuel in the inlet and direct injection (DI) CI engine. Carburetion and timed port
manifold [27]. The reduction in the in-cylinder cycle variation injection (TPI) were used to supply hydrogen and the rate of
during the combustion also improved the power output [28]. hydrogen was 7.5 L/min and 20 L/min, which resulted in
This timed injection system plays a vital role as a barrier for decreased soot emission by 60% due to hydrogen supply. So,
backfire when hydrogen is being used as fuel in the supply line the advancement of injection timing of the diesel increased
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9 16877

the NOx emission under no EGR mode, but 15% of EGR supply
reduced the NOx emission by 88% [40]. Materials and methodology
There was no restriction on the fuel phase in diesel engine
due to its flexibility in engine operation mode and some of the Safety equipment for hydrogen storage
operational modes in IC engine are normal dual fuel diesel
(NDFD), reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI), To ensure the safety precaution for the hydrogen supply line,
homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) and pre- flame trap and flame arrestor were installed. The flame trap
mixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) engines. Among equipment filled with water was used to resist the explosion
them, commonly used operation mode CI engine was the dual within the arrangement and it helped to neglect the backfire
fuel mode [41], which was due to the feasibility of operation in the supply line. Flame trap equipment could operate up to
either by liquid fuel or gaseous fuel with or without modifi- 0e10 bar pressure range. Flame arrestor model FR-50 has four
cation of the engine [42]. So, conventional diesel combustion functions such as a flame arresting element (FA), non-return
faces barriers like mixture preparation and impingement of valve (NV), pressure trip (PV) and thermal trip (TV), which
fuel spray on the cylinder wall, which can be overcome by were used in the present experimental setup. The flame
CRDI/PPCI combustion mode in CI engine. In CRDI combustion arrestor is also used to shut off or control the gas flow and to
strategy, fuel was directly supplied into the combustion restrict the flame, which prevents the undesirable combustion
chamber at an elevated injection pressure ranging from 150 to process. The maximum operating pressure of flame arrestor
1600 bars. Hence, the Engine speed did not depend on higher was up to 5 bars during the backfire condition. In addition, the
injection pressure and independent of fuel metering param- non-reverse control valve was also added in the experimental
eters like injection quantity, injection timing and injection setup to restrict the backflow of hydrogen gases from the
pressure. Further, ECU controlled the cycle to cycle injection engine cylinder.
timing, fuel metering quantities, the accuracy of fuel meter-
ing, minimized cylinder to cylinder injection timing variation
Experimental setup
and cycle to cycle variability in injection quantity. The fuel
Fig. 2 shows the newly designed experimental setup used in
metering interacted with other subsystems to improve per-
this study. The experimental work was carried out using a
formance, fuel economy and minimized exhaust emissions
single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled CI engine with CRDI
like CO, CO2, NOx, UHC and smoke [43]. PCCI combustion
setup and timed injection system, which was mounted to get
mode with early direct injection or port fuel injection
dual fuel mode. The engine specifications are given in Table 2.
frequently suffered due to improper fuel vaporization and
The cubic capacity of the engine used in this study is 0.661 L
impingement of fuel spray on the cylinder wall, which resul-
with a compression ratio of 17.5:1. According to the engine
ted in higher emission of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydro-
load, the supply of diesel rate was changed with the help of
carbon (HC) [44]. However, the late direct injection mode can
the mechanical governor to maintain the engine at a constant
neglect the fuel spray impingement, which leads to improved
speed of 1500 RPM. Diesel fuel was injected directly into cyl-
combustion phasing [45]. Niu et al. reported the port fuel in-
inder at 70 Mpa pressure and injection timing at 23⁰ CA bTDC
jection in the SI engine with DI of hydrogen [46]. Here, the
and was controlled by ECU setup. Cylinder pressure data were
hydrogen was injected along with intake air at different pro-
obtained with a PC-based digital, NI instrument data acqui-
portions of 3.9%, 5.3%, 7.2%, 8.9%, and 10.5% and lean mix-
sition system. An electro-optical TDC position sensor was
tures with varying excess air ratios. The hydrogen addition
used to generate a signal to determine the position of the
increased the thermal efficiency, combustion pressure and
crankshaft. For the precise measurement, the engine load was
NOx emission for the various excess air ratio. However,
controlled by an eddy current dynamometer. Lab view per-
decreased mean effective pressure, burn duration, HC, CO2
formance and combustion analysis were done using “Engi-
and CO emission were observed due to hydrogen enrichment
nesoft” software for real-time engine performance and
[46,47].
combustion evaluation.
From the above reviews, it was observed that most of their
Hydrogen was stored up to 160 bars in the high-pressure
research works have given importance to study the perfor-
tank and the pressure was reduced to 2 bars by a GCE multi-
mance and emissions of the conventional diesel engine with
stage pressure regulator. The hydrogen gas from the multi-
lower hydrogen-fuel. The performance, emission and com-
stage pressure regulator was sent through the flame trap,
bustion characteristics of a higher rate of hydrogen fuel using
which acts as a safety precaution equipment to cut off the
a CRDI diesel engine was not yet investigated. The novelty of
flame under the backfire condition. The pressure gauge was
this work is to develop two stages of safety precaution
provided to measure the outlet pressure of hydrogen flow
equipment namely flame trap and flashback arrestor, which
from the flame trap and the flow quantity was controlled by a
was mounted on the hydrogen supply line to arrest misfire.
fine control valve, which was placed before the thermal mass
The hydrogen injection has been designed to upgrade the
flow meter (TFM). TFM was used for the precise measurement
intake charge of the engine and replace the high carbon fuel
and the hydrogen flow rate was measured in standard liter per
by hydrogen as a fuel with air. The experimental investigation
minute (LPM). The hydrogen from TFM was again passed to
results ensured the optimal composition for a higher rate of
another safety precaution device flame arrestor. The
hydrogen injection along with suction air in the CRDI diesel
hydrogen flow from the flame arrestor was sent through the
engine. Further, the CRDI engine performance, combustion
DYMCO make solenoid injector, which was mounted on the
and exhaust emission were measured and reported.
intake manifold. Table 3 shows the details of the hydrogen
16878 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9

Fig. 2 e The newly designed experimental setup for the present study.

Table 2 e Specification of engine used in the present Table 3 e Details of hydrogen injector used in the present
work. study.
Manufacturer Kirloskar oil engines Ltd Properties Specifications
Product CRDI Engine test
Make/Model DYMCO Corp/GISM-i1000
(Computerized)
Approval pressure 1.2 bar ±0.05 bar (@ DC 0 V)
Bore diameter 87.5 mm
Operating voltage range DC 6 Ve18 V
Stroke length 110 mm
Maximum peak current 2.0 A (@DC12 V)
Number of cylinder 1
Output-quantity (cc/stroke, @1.2 bar) 100 cc
Number of strokes 4
Opening-time 3.0
Cubic capacity 661 cc
Closing-time 1.0
Engine speed 1500 rpm
Operating working pressure 0.2 bare4.2 bar
Fuel injection timing 23 by spill (bTDC)
Maximum working pressure 4.5 bar [450 KPa]
ECU Model Nira i7r
Pump Make Kirloskar, Type Monoblock
Injector Type Solenoid driven
Crank angle sensor Make Kubler Germany
as 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 kg. After the investigation, the
Resolution 1 Deg
Speed 5500 RPM with TDC pulse. analytical readings were taken for neat diesel mode. Before
Data acquisition device Make NI Instrument USA operating the engine with diesel and hydrogen mode, the
Model NI USB-6210, 16-bit, 250 kS/s. hydrogen supply line was checked by passing compressed air
Load sensor Make VPG Sensotronics to confirm that there was no leakage of hydrogen gas in the
Load cell type strain gauge supply line. For dual fuel operation, the CRDI engine was
Range 0e50 kg
initially operated at zero load with the hydrogen circuit
Method of cooling Water Cooled
engaged. Hydrogen was supplied through a solenoid injector
Rated power 5.2 kW (7.5 H P @ 1500 rpm)
on the intake manifold along with the intake air. The interval
of hydrogen injection was calibrated by an in-house PC based
data acquisition (DAQ) program developed in the ECU. The
injector. The interval of hydrogen injection was controlled by quantity of hydrogen injection was varied from 6 to 36 LPM
the in-house PC based data acquisition program developed on with the increment of 6 LPM on the intake manifold along with
the ECU. Table 4 indicates the list of instruments used for this the fresh air during suction stroke. Hydrogen gas was supplied
experimental investigation and their operating parameters. In via intake manifold along with air and the diesel act as an
the present work, hydrogen fuel was injected into the intake ignitor in the combustion chamber. The resulted perfor-
manifold along with air via timed manifold injection mance, combustion and emission characteristics obtained
approach, where the diesel fuel acted as an ignitor for the from dual fuel mode (diesel/hydrogen mode) are compared
subsequent dual-fuel combustion process. with the neat diesel mode and reported.

Methodology Analytical calculation

Initially, the CRDI engine was operated with diesel fuel to The parameters such as Brake power (BP), HES, BTE and BSEC
obtain a stabilized operating condition at a constant speed of are calculated using the following equations in accordance
1500 RPM. The engine was operated at six different loads such with the previous reports [24,48,49].
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Table 4 e List of instruments used for the present experimental investigation and their operating parameters.
Sl. No Instrument, Make and Model Purpose Operating parameter
1 Dynamometer, Type eddy current, Measurement of output power water-cooled dynamometer
Model AX-409
2 Pressure transducer, PCB Measurement of cylinder pressure Range 0 to 5000 psi
Piezotronics and S111A22 Resolution 0.1 psi
Sensitivity ±1 mV/psi
Linearity 0.1< ± % FSO
Acceleration sensitivity <0.002 psi/g
Operating temperature 196  C to 800  C
3 5 gas analyser, AVL India Pvt Ltd Measurement of HC, CO, CO2, O2 Power requirements 11e22 V DC
and AVL 444 Di Gas and NOx emissions Operating temperature 5  Ce45  C
Relative humidity 95% non-condensing
4 Smoke meter, AVL India Private Measurement of smoke emission Accuracy & repeatability ±1% full scale
Limited and AVL 437C Resolution 0.1%
Measuring range 0e100%
Power supply 230 V & 55 Hz
Smoke temperature 250  C
(Maximum at the entrance)
Ambient temperature 0e50  C
5 Multi-stage pressure regulator, GCE For regulating the pressure from Gas Hydrogen
Pvt Ltd and S2þ Multistage heavy the hydrogen cylinder Max inlet pressure 230 bars
duty double stage Outlet pressure 0e10 bar
cylinder regulators Nominal flowrate 30 m3/h (500 LPM)
Inlet connection G5/800 M* LH
Outlet connection G 3/800 LH
6 Flashback arrestor, Innovative To avoid backfire of hydrogen Safety functions 4 functions#
engineering products and FBA FR- (# NRV, FA, TV, PV)
50 fuel Maximum operation pressure 5 bar* (* ACE/1.5 bar)
Connection thread G 3/800 LH
7 Thermal mass flow meter, Sierra Measurement of hydrogen flow Range 0-300 SLPM
Instruments, Inc. and Smart-Trak 2 rate Output signal 0-5 VDC/4e20 mA
Digital mass flow Supply 24 VDC
Operating temperature 20-40  C

T* 2pN h q  q mþ1 i
o
Brake PowerðBPÞ ¼ ðkWÞ (1) Mass fraction burned ðXb Þ ¼ 1  exp  a (7)
60  1000 Dq
Where Ɵ is the crank angle, Ɵo is the start of combustion, D
BP*3600
BTEðhth Þdiesel ¼  100ð%Þ (2) q is the total combustion duration and a and m are adjustable
mD LHVD
parameters. Varying a and m changes the shape of the curve
significantly. Table 5. Summary of the impact on the perfor-
BP*3600
BTEðhth Þdual ¼  100ð%Þ (3) mance, combustion and emissions behavior of hydrogen/
mH2 LHVH2 þ mD LHVD
diesel dual-fuel engines compared to the diesel-only opera-
tion as derived from the literature survey.
mD LHVD
ðBSECÞdiesel ¼ ðkJ = kW  hrÞ (4)
BP

mH2 LHVH2 Result and discussion

Hydrogen energy shareðHESÞ ¼ ð%Þ (5)
mH2 LHVH2 þ mD LHVD
Performance
mH2 LHVH2 þmD LHVD
BrakespecificenergyconsumptionðBSECÞdual ¼
BP Hydrogen energy share (%)
ðkJ=kWhrÞ Fig. 3 shows the plot of HES against brake power. From Fig. 3, it
(6) was noticed that the HES increased with increasing hydrogen
quantity. However, an increase in brake power leads to a
where T-torque (Nm), N e engine speed (rpm), BP e Brake
decrease in HES, especially 36 LPM results maximum HES
power (kW), HES e Hydrogen energy share (%), BTE (th)diesel e
value of 82.76% at the initial brake power of 0.87 kW. A further
Brake thermal efficiency for diesel (%), BTE (th)dual e Brake
reduction in the HES value of 25.41% was obtained for the flow
thermal efficiency for dual fuel mode (%), mH2 is the mass of
rate of hydrogen at 36 LPM with the brake power of 5.03 kW.
hydrogen (kg/hr), LHVH2 mD is the mass of diesel (kg/hr), LHVD
There will be a rich mixture prevailing inside the diesel engine
is the lower calorific value of diesel (kJ/kg), LHVH2 is the lower
combustion cylinder under low load condition and so, the
calorific value of hydrogen (kJ/kg),
energy share by hydrogen was higher at lower brake power.
16880 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9

Table 5 e Summary of the impact on the performance, combustion and emissions behavior of hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel
engines compared to the diesel-only operation as derived from the literature survey. Note: Green colour indicates positive
combustion, Red colour indicates negative combustion.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9 16881

The increase in HES was due to an increase in the calorific knock and pre-ignition were observed at or above 36 LPM of
value of hydrogen, which was three times more than the hydrogen flow rate. Hence, 30 LPM hydrogen flow rate was
diesel [50]. For 30 LPM hydrogen flow, HES decreased from optimum for the engine without modification for smooth
71.63% to 25.40% at 0.87 kWe5.03 kW brake power. The SFC of operation. Verma et al. also reported that knocking occurs at
pilot fuel (diesel) was varied for all H2 enrichment cases at all full load condition when hydrogen was substituted for diesel
engine load, which gave an inference that despite the same beyond 25.4% compared to neat diesel [31,51]. Therefore, the
hydrogen energy input, each of the H2 enrichment cases authors recommended to ensure mechanical durability and
employed the H2 energy potential to different extents at a load safety precaution measures of the engine, while operating CI
condition [48]. From Fig. 3, it was also observed that the engine engines with hydrogen at full load [27,34,52].
16882 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9

Fig. 3 e Variation of hydrogen energy share with respect to

brake power for various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold Fig. 5 e Variation of heat release rate with brake power for
injection. various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold injection.

Brake thermal efficiency (%) for the improvement of BTE when compared to diesel fuel [54].
The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) for various amounts of So, this assured the reduction of combustion duration by high
hydrogen were measured (Fig. 4) and the results show that energy content and enhanced engine thermal efficiency
BTE was increased with hydrogen supply mode than the neat particularly at partial and full engine loads [50].
diesel on 5.03 kW brake power. The higher BTE obtained for 30
LPM was 27.7% at 5.03 kW brake power, whereas the neat Brake specific energy consumption (kJ/kW-hr)
diesel value was 24.4%. Almost 13.52% raise in BTE was ob- Brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) was calculated
tained at 30 LPM H2 mixture than the neat diesel. From Fig. 4, it based on Eq. (6) and Fig. 4 shows the comparison between
was noted that the optimum BTE for 30 LPM rates of hydrogen BSEC and brake power. From Fig. 4, it is observed that there
flow was observed at 5.03 kW brake power. Deb et al. also was a persistent trend of reduction of BSEC with an increase in
reported a similar trend of linear BTE to increase up to 42% of engine brake power for a given hydrogen enrichment strategy.
hydrogen energy content at 5.2 kW in a CI engine with dual It was also noticed that there was a decisive trend of decrease
fuel operation [10]. The ratio of specific heat (g) was higher for of BSEC with the rise in the brake power for a given hydrogen
hydrogen compared with fossil fuels, which influenced to in- enrichment in the air. For 30 LPM and 36 LPM flow rate of
crease the BTE at all hydrogen flow rates [53]. This may be due hydrogen, 10235.47 kJ/kW-hr and 12128.95 kJ/kW-hr of BSEC
to the increase of the degree of homogeneity as in the case of were obtained at 5.03 kW brake power, which was lower than
hydrogen fuel, which results in better air-fuel mixture distri- the neat diesel value of 14665.79 kJ/kW-hr. There was a
bution in the combustion chamber. In addition, higher calo- decrease in BSEC by 30.21% and 17.30% for 30 LPM and 36 LPM
rific value and flame velocity of hydrogen gas were the reason flow rate of hydrogen when compared with neat diesel fuel at
full brake power. Among all the flow quantities of hydrogen,
hydrogen with 30 LPM had an overall better performance,
which may be due to enhance its evaporation and interaction
with the available air in the combustion chamber to penetrate
deep into combustion up to the cylinder wall and it was good
agreement with the previous report of 18 LPH hydrogen flow
rate at all engine loads [55].
In general, while the engine is operated with hydrogen, the
BSEC decreases owing to proper mixing [49]. The higher
calorific value and flame velocities were assured for the
enhanced combustion, which influenced the effective burning
of fuel and simultaneously improved the engine power [54].
This trend was observed in all cases except 36 LPM flow of
hydrogen, which may be due to decreased cetane number,
increased ignition delay, and increased size of premixed
combustion and these reasons increased the engine noise due
to lower cetane number of hydrogen fuel [56]. In short, up to 30
LPM hydrogen flow rates show the better mixing of hydrogen
with air and resulted in the efficient burning process of the
Fig. 4 e Variation of BTE and BSEC with respect to brake
fuel mixture.
power for various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold
injection.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9 16883

Combustion

Heat release rate (J/deg)

Fig. 5 shows the heat release rate (HRR) vs crank angle at a
maximum load for diesel engine along with air enrichment
hydrogen as fuel. In the case of neat diesel, there are three-
phase combustion namely late combustion phase, premixed
combustion and diffusion combustion phase. As the flame
speed of H2 is higher than diesel, it was noticed that above 30
LPM hydrogen supply at the premixed combustion phase
tends to be destructive and then it was changed into diffusion
combustion phase [56]. In this experimental study, the H2
supply above 30 LPM created the detonation tendency. From
Fig. 5, it was noted that the 30 LPM hydrogen ignition occurred
at about 10⁰ bTDC and the rate of burning reached its peak at
about 6⁰ bTDC, which indicates how fast the premixed fuel
Fig. 6 e Variation of cylinder pressure with brake power for
portion burns in the cylinder. It took just about 4⁰ CA to reach
various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold injection.
the peak HRR of 65.27 J/deg for 30 LPM of hydrogen supply. The
maximum HRR was 28.66% at 30 LPM hydrogen supply with
air, which was higher than the neat diesel mode. Hence,
hydrogen percentage plays an important role in the approxi-
mate portion of fuel burned soon after the ignition of the total boost the laminar flame speed of H2, the in-cylinder pressure
amount of fuel in the combustion chamber in the dual fuel value was raised to reach the maximum during the rapid
mode and this portion was changed according to the hydrogen combustion of H2 [57]. The cylinder pressure rise rate can be
quantity. Karagoz et al. also reported that the sharp increase controlled by high flame propagation speed in the combustion
of peak HRR occurred during the combustion process of of the hydrogen-air mixture. In the current experiment, short
hydrogen-diesel mixture [6]. Further, the hydrogen premixed quenching distance and wider flammability range were
portion of the fuel was burned at a very high rate producing making a significant difference in the cylinder pressure when
high temperature and high pressure in the combustion the engine operated at a different hydrogen flow rate. This
chamber [57], which is due to hydrogen flame velocity and it was because when the hydrogen was under dual fuel mode
was five times higher than the diesel. The sharp HRR peak was operation, the injection quantity of diesel fuel was less and
also due to the effectively premixing of hydrogen and air the ignition delay was longer than the conventional diesel
during the compression stroke. Therefore, the ignitor fuel at combustion [50].
10⁰ CA bTDC was ignited on the premixed hydrogen-air The high flame speed and lower ignition energy of
mixture to generate higher HRR near to bTDC. From the hydrogen move the peak cylinder pressure closer to the TDC
result, it was concluded that the better utilization of energy and more amount of power was developed in the hydrogen
will be helpful to increase the output power of the engine. The mode. Moreover, the initial flame development was indicated
combustion started at 10⁰ CA bTDC by the ignitor fuel for all by a faster burning rate that caused the duration of combus-
hydrogen flow quantities except 36 LPM flow rate of hydrogen. tion to decrease with the increase of the hydrogen flow rate up
The supply of excess of hydrogen rate as in the case of 36 LPM to 30 LPM. From Fig. 6, it was noticed that the overall rate of
tends to reduce the heat release rate due to insufficient pressure was increased and this was mainly due to the higher
availability of oxygen. energy release rate of hydrogen as its concentration was
increased. But in general, the cylinder pressure for dual fuel
operation tends to be slightly lower than that of the diesel
Cylinder pressure (bar) operation [53] and this trend was not observed for the present
Fig. 6 shows the cylinder pressure (bar) vs crank angle (deg) at investigation of hydrogen dual fuel mode operation. Further, if
the maximum load for diesel engine along with air enriched the hydrogen flow rate was higher than the 30 LPM, it was
hydrogen fuel. The maximum cylindrical pressure value unable to get auto ignition under the dual fuel mode (Fig. 6). As
observed for neat diesel is 52.86 bar at 9⁰ CA aTDC. For the a result, there is a possibility of misfire and unsteady opera-
hydrogen flow rate of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36 LPM, the devel- tion of the engine due to too longer ignition delay. Further, the
oped cylinder pressures were 64.33 bar at 9⁰ CA aTDC, supply of 36 LPM of hydrogen rate tends to reduce heat release
62.57 bar at 7⁰ CA aTDC, 66.39 bar at 6⁰ CA aTDC, 66.83 bar at 6⁰ rate and cylinder pressure because of the excess replacement
CA aTDC, 68.14 bar at 5⁰ CA aTDC and 39.17 bar at 15⁰ CA aTDC, of intake air. So, the maximum HES quantity at 30 LPM during
respectively. It was observed that the cylinder pressure was combustion caused to develop maximum cylinder pressure
raised by 28.9% for 30 LPM hydrogen flow rate when compared [59].
with neat diesel. Further, it was also observed that the cylin-
der pressure decreased by 25.9% for 36 LPM hydrogen flow rate Mass fraction burned (%)
when compared with neat diesel. Yilmaz et al. also reported a The mass fraction burned (MFB) profile as a function of crank
similar trend of decrease in cylinder pressure for diesel engine angle (CA) in each cycle was shown in Fig. 7 and the gross heat
operated with 40 LPM of hydrogen flow rate [58]. Owing to release curve or chemical energy curve had a characteristic S-
16884 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9

Fig. 7 e Variation of mass fraction burned with brake Fig. 8 e Variation of oxide of nitrogen (NOx) emission with
power for various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold brake power for various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold
injection. injection.

shape [43]. Wiebe function was often used to represent the LPM when compared with neat diesel as shown in Fig. 8. A
MFB versus CA curve and the cumulative heat release values further rise in the flow quantity of hydrogen was noticed in
divided by the total energy content of trapped charge is called Fig. 8, which declined the combustion process and influenced
mass fraction burned. The short mass burned fraction was the reduction of NOx emission at full brake power. The self-
noticed due to the effective mixing of hydrogen and air. The ignition temperature of hydrogen (H2) was higher than the
short mass fraction might be due to higher flame speed and diesel [28]. Up to 1.5 kW, an insufficient temperature was ob-
low ignition energy, which result in increased work output tained in the combustion chamber, which favor lesser NOx
and combustion up to the lean region. At the same time, the formation at lower brake power condition. Major causes for
higher diffusivity of hydrogen and homogeneity of the NOx formations were higher combustion temperature and
hydrogen-air mixture could diffuse the flame up to the wall, high oxygen concentrations [48]. Higher NOx emission on the
which may cause to reduce the quenching region and dura- supply of hydrogen was due to rise in combustion tempera-
tion of combustion and in turn enhance the engine power. The ture by the higher calorific value of hydrogen. At full brake
time taken by a gas mixture during the combustion process to power condition, 36 LPM emits NOx of 716.5 PPM and 30 LPM
convert into chemical energy is known as mass fraction emits NOx of 822 PPM. In mid brake power, 30 LPM emits 1250
burned (MFB) [42], which is important in the design parame- PPM NOx emission, which was compared with 36 LPM that
ters of the engine and for the better combustion process. From emits 1327 PPM NOx emission. Therefore, it was concluded
Fig. 7, it was observed that the hydrogen mode represents the that the optimum flow rate of H2 is 6 LPM. Chintala et al. also
faster combustion when compared with diesel fuel, which is reported similar trends of increases in NO emission for 18% of
due to the properties of hydrogen like higher flame speed, hydrogen energy at 100% load condition [60].
premixed charge at the homogenous state and reduced igni- The nitrogen monoxide (NO) was formed by three chemical
tion delay [59]. mechanisms such us Fennimore or prompt mechanism, N2O
Fig. 7 also indicates clearly that the use of hydrogen in dual intermediate mechanism and thermal or Zeldovich mecha-
fuel mode reduced the combustion duration and better MFB nism [31]. Among them, the NOx formation can be explained
was attained than the diesel mode. From the results, it was through the prompt mechanism, as it is particularly impor-
observed that 5% of MFB was attained at the crank angle 8 tant because the rich combustion process takes place under
bTDC for 30 LPM hydrogen but neat diesel, it was observed at hydrogen fuel mode. In hydrogen combustion prompt mech-
the crank angle 5 bTDC. However, the combustion time anism, NO appeared in the laminar premixed flame region for
required for diesel mode was higher than the hydrogen mode equivalent ratio or less than 1.2. The following chain se-
until it reached up to 50% of MFB, but the peak cylinder quences explain the conversion of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to
pressure was 5 aTDC and only 62% of mass diesel was NO [32].
properly utilized. The above results conclude that up to 85% of
MFB was utilized for 30 LPM hydrogen flow rate at the same HCN þ O⇔NCO þ H (8)
peak cylinder pressure of 5 aTDC.
NCO þ H⇔NH þ CO (9)
Emission
NH þ H⇔N þ H2 (10)
Oxide of nitrogen (PPM)
The oxide of nitrogen (NOx) emission was higher in mid and N þ OH⇔NO þ H (11)
full brake power during optimum hydrogen flow rate of 30
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9 16885

Fig. 10 e Variation of carbon monoxide (CO) emission with

Fig. 9 e Variation of unburned hydrocarbon emission with brake power for various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold
brake power for various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold injection.
injection.

In the atmosphere, nitric oxide ultimately changes into enhanced the combustion temperature and hydrocarbon
NO2, which causes acid rain and photochemical smog. The radicals [40]. The resulted hydrocarbon radicals mixed with
main activity in the above sequence was weakly bonded hydrogen to form the recombination of lighter hydrocarbon
nitride (NeH), which causes to form NOx during the combus- compounds and thus leads to higher reaction and oxidation
tion at a temperature range of 800e850 K. The hydrogen and also resulted in higher combustion temperature, which in
peroxide was decomposed at the temperature range of turn caused a reduction in the concentration of hydrocarbon
1050e1100 K. Further, more NOx produced may be due to the emission [48]. According to the experimental results (Fig. 9), all
high flame temperature that was higher than the 1900 K. So, hydrogen flow quantity shows lower UHC emission than the
the domination of NOx was explained based on the prompt diesel mode. Hence, an increase in the concentration of
mechanism [36]. hydrogen caused a reduction in UHC emission in the exhaust.
The UHC emission was 107 PPM for a hydrogen flow quantity
Unburned hydrocarbon (PPM) of 36 LPM with air at 5.03 kW brake power and diesel-fuelled
Fig. 9 shows the comparison between unburned hydrocarbon mode had UHC emission of 157 PPM. Yilmaz et al. have also
(UHC) and brake power to optimize the hydrogen flow quan- reported the same trend of hydrocarbon emission for the CRDI
tity. The source of UHC in the DI diesel engine was mainly due diesel engine operated with 40 LPM of hydrogen flow rate [61].
to under mixing or over mixing of air and fuel and large fuel
droplet size at the end of injection. In hydrogen mode, UHC Carbon monoxide (%)
was related to the lean flame out region (LFOR) [38]. Obviously, Fig. 10 shows a comparison between carbon monoxide (CO)
HC emission always depends upon operating variables and and brake power to optimize the hydrogen flow quantity. In
the engine design, which are playing a vital role in the for- Fig. 10, the higher brake power shows 3.59% of CO emission for
mation and oxidation of hydrocarbon molecules. The 36 LPM of hydrogen flow quantity and 2.4% of CO emission for
hydrogen lean mixture was eventually engaged in the com- 30 LPM of hydrogen flow quantity. The neat diesel has a lower
bustion process, which supported the stabilized combustion CO emission value of 3.09% than the 36 LPM of hydrogen flow
process. This stabilized process caused the reduction of flame quantity. Khatri et al. also showed the same decreased trend
quench in the combustion layer. The rapid pyrolysis or of CO emission at all engine loads during the dual fuel mode
oxidation process in the presence of H2 leads to effective [55]. According to the present experimental result, the supply
combustion and resulted in the reduction of UHC emission. In of hydrogen with air tends to reduce the CO emission when
general, at higher engine load may cause the fuels to deposit compared with the neat diesel at lower brake power. The
on the wall and produced higher concentrations in spray core, highest CO emission was found to be 0.18% for 6 LPM of
which resulted in increased UHC. However, hydrogen in hydrogen flow quantity with air, 0.03% for 36 LPM of hydrogen
gaseous form decreased the wall wetting and enough oxygen flow quantity with air and 0.17% for a diesel-fuelled engine at
in the mixture under increasing temperature could enhance a lower brake power. From the experimental result except for
the oxidation reaction rate and thus, UHC emission was 36 LPM, all hydrogen flow quantities with air have lower CO
reduced [61]. emission than the neat diesel-fuelled engine, which was due
At high load, most of the HC emission originated from fuel to the reduction in the level of the carbon content of fuel by
molecules with respect to carbon and hydrogen ratio. This hydrogen enrichment [62].
carbon and hydrogen ratio was decreased due to the loss of Initially, the formation of carbon monoxide took place due
hydrogen from the structural bond of the fuel, which caused to the breakdown of the fuel molecules and the second step is
the decomposition of the original fuel molecules and thus, the final oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide [54].
16886 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9

Fig. 12 e Variation of smoke emission with brake power for

Fig. 11 e Variation of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission with various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold injection.
brake power for various flow rates of hydrogen in manifold
injection.
Smoke (% of opacity)
Smoke emission increase with an increase in engine load due
However, CO was slowly oxidized until some hydrogen- to an overall richer F/A ratio, reduced oxygen concentration
containing components present in the combustible mixture. and longer duration of the diffusion combustion phase. Some
So, the large quantities of H2O or H2 could promote an of the heaviest polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are
extraordinary effect on the oxidation rate, which was because present in the diesel fuel, which produces concentrated high
the CO oxidation step involves hydroxyl radical, which is smoke in the engine cylinder. If hydrogen is added, nitro de-
much faster than the steps involving in O2. rivatives of PAH were formed and result in high NOx concen-
tration that leads to a reduction in the smoke emission [49].
Carbon dioxide (%) The soluble organic fraction (SOF) was reduced at higher load
Fig. 11 shows the plot of carbon dioxide (CO2) against brake and higher temperature formation also reduced the smoke
power to optimize the hydrogen flow quantity. The experi- emission due to the addition of H2 in diesel [48]. The formation
mental results conclude that the enrichment of hydrogen with of smoke starts with nucleation, which was followed by sub-
air as supplementary fuel leads to the reduction of CO2 sequent agglomeration of the nuclei particles through het-
emission, which is the case of replacement of hydrogen erogeneous and homogeneous nucleation mechanism. The
instead of oxygen or fresh air intake. 36 LPM of hydrogen flow hydrogen supply in the homogeneous mixture causes very
quantity emitted 8.2% of CO2 emission and 8.6% of CO2 less nucleation followed by subsequent agglomeration of the
emission was emitted by 30 LPM of hydrogen flow quantity, nuclei particles through the homogenous mechanism in the
which was lower than the diesel-fuelled engine (10% of CO2 engine cylinder could reduce the overall smoke emission [63].
emission) at 5.03 kW brake power. A similar result was also The parent fuel molecular structure is determining the fuel
reported in which 36 LPM of hydrogen flow quantity with air smoke propensity and ring compounds formation through the
emitted 0.3% of CO2 emission and 0.4% of CO2 emission by 30 growth via acetylene results smoke formation chemistry. The
LPM of hydrogen flow quantity, which was lower than the hydrogen contributes less soot formation due to the vast
diesel-fuelled engine (2.5% of CO2 emission) at lower brake diffusion flame region and also soot formation was reduced
power. with the increase in the lean mixture, which was responsible
According to the experimental results, the supply of for lower radiation heat loss via low soot formations. Gener-
hydrogen with diesel tends to reduce the CO2 emission when ally, in a diesel engine as the brake power increases, the
compared with neat diesel that has a higher CO2 emission amount of fuel supply increases that caused enhanced smoke
level at all brake power. This was because the faster com- emission [56]. In diesel fuel, the H/C ratio is lower and the
bustion required more oxygen, which was unable to obtain addition of hydrogen increases H/C ratio that results in lighter
sufficient oxygen in the diesel fuel mode within the time hydrocarbon structure formation through chemical bonding,
available and resulted in incomplete combustion. So, all which was also responsible for the reduced smoke emission
hydrogen flow quantities with air had lower CO2 emissions [62]. At 30 LPM and 36 LPM of hydrogen flow quantity with air
than the neat diesel-fuelled engine. Verma et al. were also emits 49.4% and 69.2% of opacity of smoke emission at
observed similar trends of result for CO2 emission when 20% 5.03 kW brake power, which was lower than the diesel-fuelled
of hydrogen was used as a supplement in a biogas diesel en- engine (96.6% of opacity of smoke) (Fig. 12). Similarly, 30 LPM
gine at higher load value where HC fuel was replaced by and 36 LPM of hydrogen flow quantity with air emits 21.1% and
hydrogen [51] and this resulted in a reduction in the level of 17.7% of opacity of smoke emission at lower brake power,
the carbon content of the fuel, by hydrogen enrichment, as which was higher than the diesel-fuelled engine (27.7% of
well as, the reduction in oxygen concentration on intake air opacity of smoke emission). The smoke obtained was lesser
[62]. for hydrogen at all brake power conditions, which is attributed
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 1 6 8 7 4 e1 6 8 8 9 16887

due to the absence of carbon in hydrogen. The increase in and smoke emissions of 32.6%, 22.33%, 14% and 48.9%
hydrogen flow quantity tends to decrease the smoke % of respectively for 30 LPM of hydrogen supply at 5.03 kW
opacity and the same trend was reported by the Romualdas brake power than the pure diesel.
Juknelevicius group [35]. From the experimental results, all
As a conclusive result, hydrogen supply increased the NOx
hydrogen flow quantities with air emits low smoke emission emission to about 7.3% for 30 LPM at peak brake power. The
except 6 LPM than the neat diesel-fuelled engine, which was reason for the increase in NOx was due to the higher
due to a reduced level of carbon content in the combustion calorific value of the hydrogen, which resulted in effective
chamber by hydrogen enrichment. The reduction in smoke combustion in the combustion chamber. But at lower brake
may be due to more hydrogen injected in the manifold with power, NOx emission was reduced to about 10.4% for 30
reduced air content. From the results, it was concluded that LPM than the diesel fuel. The self-ignition temperature of
the smoke emission was reduced with the rise of hydrogen hydrogen was higher than the diesel and cylinder com-
flow quantity [54], but after reaching optimum flow rate of 36 bustion temperature was lower up at a brake power 2 kW,
LPM, the smoke started increasing due to the deterioration of which resulted in lower NOx formation.
combustion processes and instability in combustion during
high flow rates of hydrogen. In short, it was concluded that for better efficiency along
with the smooth running of the engine, the supply of 30 LPM of
hydrogen is essential and optimum results were attained at
Conclusion the mixture of 30 LPM under all brake power. However, it is
also concluded that there was an increase in NOx emissions,
The experimental results of the dual-fuelled newly designed which needs to be reduced shortly.
engine process explain the effect on performance, combus-
tion and exhaust emission characteristics during the
hydrogen supply with air in the CRDI CI engine. Future work

By using hydrogen and diesel in dual fuel mode, the Many obstacles were faced throughout this experimental
hydrogen injection quantity and timing were effectively investigation and root causes were identified for the problem
controlled in the combustion phase. The excessive addi- through investigation. Future research can be done on un-
tion of hydrogen injection in manifold retards the com- derstanding the chemical kinetics and flow analysis of
bustion phase and 20e40% of hydrogen energy share had a hydrogen fuel and designing of the engine according to it.
limited effect on emission and combustion. In dual fuel Further study can be carried out using hydrogen and biofuel
mode, the pilot fuel injection pressure in the combustion blend in the CRDI engine to reduce the NOx emission. The
chamber caused a slight increase in brake thermal effi- research can be extended by carrying out the experiment
ciency. The supply of hydrogen mode leads to improve- using hydrogen as single fuel and the same can be used to
ment in thermal efficiency than the neat diesel because of invent a dedicated hydrogen engine.
the higher calorific value and better burning properties of
hydrogen when compared with the diesel engine under all
load conditions. Experimental results conclude that the
Acknowledgments
decrease in brake specific energy consumptions of 23.48%
and an increase in brake thermal efficiency of 30.65% are
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks and grati-
obtained at 30 LPM hydrogen supply than the pure diesel.
tude to Mr. Vinayak Rangdal from Spink Controls, Thane, for
providing thermal mass flow meter for our research work.
The homogeneous mixture formation of hydrogen in the
cylinder caused the higher flame speed. The heat release rate
and the peak pressure are increased, when the amount of
Appendix A. Supplementary data
hydrogen replaces the diesel fuel quantity, which was due to
the hydrogen combustion properties such us high calorific
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
value, higher flame speed and easily homogenization of air-
[Link]
fuel mixture.

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