Introduction to Environmental Pollution

Complete Study Notes

Score 20 / 20 on Your MCQ Quiz

15 Theoretical Questions + 5 Numerical

Questions
All modules covered · Formulas included · Exam-ready

KJ Somaiya College of Engineering, Mumbai

MODULE 1 — Air Pollutants & Health Effects

Q1 — THEORETICAL

Q1 · Primary vs. Secondary Air Pollutants

★ KEY ANSWER: Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is the classic secondary pollutant.

Primary pollutants: emitted DIRECTLY from a source into the atmosphere.
Secondary pollutants: formed by CHEMICAL REACTIONS among primary pollutants in the
atmosphere — never emitted directly.

Primary Pollutants (directly emitted)

• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) — from burning sulfur-containing fuels
• Carbon monoxide (CO) — from incomplete combustion
• Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) — from high-temperature combustion
• Particulate matter (PM₁₀, PM₂.₅) — from industrial processes, vehicles
• Hydrocarbons / VOCs — from solvents, vehicle exhausts
• Lead (Pb) — from leaded fuels, smelting

Secondary Pollutants (formed in atmosphere)

• Ozone (O₃) — formed from NOₓ + hydrocarbons + sunlight (photochemical)
• Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) — from photochemical reactions; a major component of
photochemical smog
• Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) — from SO₂ oxidation
• Nitric acid (HNO₃) — from NO₂ oxidation
• Photochemical smog — a mixture of secondary pollutants

Source Classification
Category Examples
Stationary / Point sources Power plants, factories, chimneys
Mobile sources Cars, trucks, aircraft
Area sources Residential heating, agriculture
Natural sources Volcanoes, forest fires, dust storms, pollen

Q2 — THEORETICAL

Q2 · Carbon Monoxide (CO) Health Effects

 ★ KEY ANSWER: CO forms carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO), not oxyhemoglobin (HbO₂).
CO binds to hemoglobin ~200× more readily than oxygen — blocking O₂ transport.

Chemical nature: Colorless, odorless, tasteless — called the 'Silent Killer'

Source: Incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels; transportation is #1 source
Mechanism: CO + Hemoglobin → Carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO); prevents O₂ delivery to tissues

CO Exposure Effects — Concentration Chart

CO Concentration Health Effect
> 70 ppm Flu-like symptoms (without fever)
150–200 ppm Disorientation, drowsiness, vomiting
> 300 ppm Unconsciousness, brain damage, death
400–450 ppm Cigarette smoke concentration

NAAQS limits (US): 9 ppm (8-hour average); 35 ppm (1-hour average)

Treatment: Fresh air, oxygen therapy, hyperbaric chamber
Smokers vs non-smokers: Smokers: 5–10% HbCO in blood; non-smokers: ~2% HbCO

Q14 — THEORETICAL

Q14 · Particle Deposition in the Respiratory System

★ KEY ANSWER: Inertial impaction is predominant for particles > 3 µm.

These large particles lack the agility to follow airflow around bends and impact the airway wall.

3 Regions of the Respiratory System

• Naso-pharyngeal (HAR) — Head Airways Region: nose, mouth, throat
• Tracheo-bronchial (TBR) — bronchi and larger bronchioles
• Pulmonary-Alveolar (GER) — Gas Exchange Region; surface area > 75 m²

Deposition Mechanisms by Particle Size

Mechanism Particle Size Primary Region
Inertial Impaction > 3 µm Naso-pharyngeal & Tracheo-bronchial
Gravitational Settling 3–5 µm Distal bronchial airways
Brownian Diffusion < 0.5 µm Pulmonary-Alveolar (GER)
Electrostatic Attraction Any (minor) Throughout
Interception Elongated fibers Throughout
Health Significance of PM Size
• PM₁₀ (< 10 µm): penetrates to tracheo-bronchial region
• PM₂.₅ (< 2.5 µm): reaches alveoli — most serious health impact
• 8% increase in lung cancer for each 10 µg/m³ increase in PM₂.₅
• Causes bronchitis, emphysema, impaired gas exchange

Respiratory Clearance Mechanisms

Mechanism Site Rate
Cough Trachea, bronchus Instantaneous
Ciliary action Bronchi to bronchioles 0.5 – 6 hours
Macrophages Alveoli (air sacs) ~24 hours
Lymphatics Lung tissue Months to years
MODULE 2 — Atmospheric Stability & Pollutant
Dispersion

Q3 — THEORETICAL

Q3 · Lapse Rates — The Three Types

★ KEY ANSWER: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) = 9.8 K·km⁻¹ (≈ 10 °C per 1000 m rise).
Global average Environmental Lapse Rate = 6.5 K·km⁻¹ (stable for dry air).
Moist/Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate < DALR (latent heat of condensation slows cooling).

Lapse Rate Value Condition / Notes

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate 9.8 K·km⁻¹ Unsaturated (RH < 100%); adiabatic
(DALR) expansion
Moist/Wet Adiabatic Lapse 4–7 K·km⁻¹ (varies) Saturated air; latent heat released during
Rate (MALR/WALR) condensation slows cooling
Environmental Lapse Rate 6.5 K·km⁻¹ (global avg) Actual measured temperature decrease
(ELR) with altitude

Stability Conditions Based on Lapse Rates

Condition Relationship Atmosphere Type
ELR > DALR Air parcel warms faster than UNSTABLE — parcel keeps rising
environment
ELR = DALR Air parcel same temp as NEUTRAL — no tendency to move
environment
ELR < DALR Air parcel cools faster than STABLE — parcel sinks back
environment
ELR between WALR and Stable when dry, unstable CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY
DALR when saturated

Key Physical Concepts

• Adiabatic process: no heat exchange with surroundings
• Rising air expands (lower pressure) → cools adiabatically
• Sinking air compresses (higher pressure) → warms adiabatically
• Stable air resists vertical motion → pollutants accumulate near ground
• Unstable air encourages vertical motion → good dispersion (but risk of looping plume)

Q4 — THEORETICAL
Q4 · Fumigation Plume

★ KEY ANSWER: Fumigation occurs when instability develops below an inversion and rapidly
carries trapped plume to the ground.
This produces very HIGH ground-level concentrations — one of the most dangerous plume
behaviors.

Q5 — THEORETICAL

Q5 · All Six Plume Types

Plume Type Atmospheric Dispersion Key Feature

Condition Quality
Looping Highly unstable Good overall, Turbulence causes plume to loop down to
(superadiabatic) poor surface temporarily
momentarily
Fanning Stable / inversion Very poor Extends downwind for long distances;
(night-time) vertical; OK common during radiation inversion at dawn
horizontal
Coning Neutral / slightly Moderate Classic cone shape; occurs on cloudy days
stable (overcast)
Lofting Unstable ABOVE, Excellent Plume above inversion disperses upward
stable BELOW (upward) — ideal for tall stacks
inversion
Fumigation Unstable below, Very poor — Pollutants rapidly swept to ground; high
trapped below hazardous ground-level concentrations
inversion
Trapping Inversions BOTH Worst — Plume confined between two inversions —
above AND below trapped cannot go up or down
source between layers

MEMORY TIP for exam: L-F-C-L-F-T (Loop, Fan, Cone, Loft, Fumigate, Trap)
Looping = unstable | Fanning = stable | Coning = neutral | Lofting = best | Fumigation =
dangerous | Trapping = worst

Q6 — THEORETICAL

Q6 · Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model

★ KEY ANSWER: σy = horizontal (crosswind) dispersion coefficient; σz = vertical dispersion

coefficient.
Both depend on atmospheric stability class (A–F) and downwind distance x from the source.
The Gaussian Plume Equation

C(x,y,z) = [Q / (π · σy · σz · u)] × exp(−y²/2σy²) × [exp(−(z−H)²/2σz²) + exp(−(z+H)²/2σz²)]

Where:
C = pollutant concentration (g/m³ or µg/m³)
Q = emission rate (g/s)
u = mean wind speed at plume height (m/s)
H = effective stack height = physical stack height (hs) + plume rise (Δh) [meters]
σy = horizontal (crosswind) dispersion coefficient [meters]
σz = vertical dispersion coefficient [meters]
x, y, z = downwind, crosswind, and vertical distances from source

Model Assumptions
• Gaussian (normal) distribution in both y and z directions
• Steady-state, continuous emission at constant rate Q
• Uniform horizontal wind field (constant speed)
• No chemical reactions or deposition
• Flat terrain
• No diffusion in x-direction (wind-direction)

Pasquill-Gifford Stability Classes

Class Stability Conditions
A Extremely Unstable Strong solar radiation + light winds (< 2 m/s)
B Moderately Unstable Moderate solar radiation + light winds
C Slightly Unstable Slight solar radiation
D Neutral Overcast / night with strong winds
E Slightly Stable Night with moderate wind + slight cloud
F Moderately Stable Night with light wind + clear sky

Plume Rise (Δh): Due to buoyancy (hot gases) and momentum (exit velocity). H = hs + Δh
Wind speed at stack height: Estimated using power law: u(z) = u₀ × (z/z₀)^p, where p depends on
stability class
Maximum concentration: Occurs where σz ≈ H/√2
MODULE 3 — Treaties, NAAQS Standards & Air Sampling

Q7 — THEORETICAL

Q7 · Montreal Protocol (1987)

★ KEY ANSWER: Montreal Protocol targets OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES (CFCs) —

NOT greenhouse gases.
It is widely considered the most successful international environmental agreement ever
negotiated.

Key Provisions
• Phase-out of production and consumption of designated ozone-depleting substances (CFCs,
HCFCs)
• Multilateral fund: developed countries contribute funds to help developing countries comply
• Ban on trade in designated ozone-depleting chemicals containing CFCs
• Differentiated timelines for developed vs. developing countries

UN Environmental Timeline — Key Agreements

Agreement Year Focus
Stockholm Conference 1972 Effect of environmental degradation on human life
Vienna Convention 1985 Protection of the ozone layer
Montreal Protocol 1987/1989 Phase-out ozone-depleting substances (CFCs)
Basel Convention 1989 Trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste
UN Convention on Climate 1992 Economic development + environmental protection
Change
Kyoto Protocol 1997 Stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions
Paris Agreement 2015 Limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C
(force
2016)

Q8 — THEORETICAL

Q8 · Paris Agreement (2015 / COP21)

★ KEY ANSWER: Target = 'well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels' + efforts to limit to 1.5°C.
India ratified on 2 October 2016. Replaced Kyoto Protocol after its second commitment period
(ended Jan 2020).
India's Commitments under Paris Agreement
• Reduce emissions intensity per unit GDP by 33–35% below 2005 levels by 2030
• Produce 40% of total electricity from non-fossil fuel sources
• Create additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂ (through forest/tree cover) by 2030
• Install 175 GW of renewable power capacity by 2022 (100 GW solar, 60 GW wind)

Kyoto Protocol (1997): Annex I (industrialized) countries had binding emission reduction targets.
Mechanisms: CDM, JI, Emissions Trading
CBDR Principle: Common But Differentiated Responsibility — each country acts per its national
circumstances and capacity

Q9 — THEORETICAL

Q9 · India's Revised NAAQS (2009)

★ KEY ANSWER: PM₂.₅ (particulate matter < 2.5 µm) was added as a NEW parameter in the
2009 revision.
Other new parameters added: Ozone (O₃), Ammonia (NH₃), Benzene, Benzo(a)pyrene, Arsenic,
Nickel.

India's NAAQS — Key Pollutant Standards

Pollutant Annual Standard 24-Hour Standard
PM₂.₅ 40 µg/m³ 60 µg/m³
PM₁₀ 60 µg/m³ 100 µg/m³
SO₂ 50 µg/m³ 80 µg/m³
NO₂ 40 µg/m³ 80 µg/m³
CO 2 mg/m³ (8h avg) 4 mg/m³ (1h avg)
Ozone (O₃) — 100 µg/m³ (8-hour)
Lead (Pb) 0.5 µg/m³ 1.0 µg/m³

US NAAQS Criteria Pollutants (6 total)

• Particulate Matter (PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅)
• Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)
• Ground-level Ozone (O₃) — secondary pollutant
• Lead (Pb)

Primary standards: Protect public health including sensitive populations (elderly, children, asthmatics)
Secondary standards: Protect public welfare — animals, plants, property
Q10 — THEORETICAL

Q10 · Isokinetic Sampling

★ KEY ANSWER: If nozzle velocity > stack velocity → measured concentration is LESS than
true value.
Gas bends INTO nozzle but particle inertia carries particles PAST the nozzle — under-sampling
particles.

The Three Sampling Scenarios

Condition Nozzle vs Stack Streamlines Result
Velocity
Isokinetic (correct) Vn = Vs Straight into nozzle Measured C = True C ✓
Nozzle too fast Vn > Vs Gas bends IN, particles go Measured C < True C
past (under-estimate)
Nozzle too slow Vn < Vs Gas bends OUT, particles Measured C > True C
follow inertia IN (over-estimate)

Applies to: Particulate sampling ONLY — isokinetic conditions NOT needed for gas sampling
Why: Gas molecules follow streamlines; particles have inertia and cannot change direction as easily
MODULE 4 & 5 — Air Pollution Control Equipment

Q11 — THEORETICAL

Q11 · Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

★ KEY ANSWER: ESP charges particles using high-voltage DC discharge electrodes, then
attracts them to oppositely charged collection plates.
Efficiency > 99% for particles as small as 1 µm. Used extensively at coal-fired power plants for fly
ash collection.

Working Principle (Step by Step)

• Dirty gas flows between discharge electrode wires and collection plates
• Discharge electrodes are charged with HIGH-VOLTAGE DC (up to 100,000 V), creating a 'corona'
discharge
• Corona produces negative ions that charge particles in the gas stream
• Negatively charged particles are attracted to the grounded (positive) collection plates
• Particles accumulate on plates to ~6 mm thickness
• Plates are mechanically 'rapped' (shaken) to dislodge particle layer into hoppers below

ESP Design Equation — Deutsch-Anderson

η = 1 − exp(−w · A / Q)

Where:
η = collection efficiency (fraction, 0 to 1)
w = effective migration (drift) velocity (m/s or ft/s)
A = total collection plate area (m² or ft²)
Q = volumetric gas flow rate (m³/s or ft³/s) ← NOTE: must convert ACFM ÷ 60

Larger A or smaller Q → higher efficiency

ESP Key Facts

• Collects particles as small as 1 µm with > 99% efficiency
• Very low pressure drop — energy efficient in operation
• High capital cost but low operating cost
• Can handle high temperatures and large gas flow rates
• Used at power stations for fly ash from fossil fuel combustion

Q12 — THEORETICAL
Q12 · Cyclone Separators

★ KEY ANSWER: Cyclones achieve ~90% efficiency for particles LARGER than about 20 µm.
They are insufficient as standalone devices and are typically used as PRE-CLEANERS before
ESPs or baghouses.

Working Principle
• Dirty airstream enters TANGENTIALLY at the top of a cylindrical chamber
• Gas spins in a VORTEX — creates centrifugal force
• Heavier particles move outward (centrifugal force > drag) → hit the wall → lose momentum →
slide down to hopper
• Cleaned gas spirals upward through inner vortex and exits at the top

Cyclone Performance Factors

• Efficiency INCREASES with: larger particle size, higher particle density, higher inlet gas velocity,
smaller cyclone diameter, longer cyclone body
• Efficiency DECREASES with: smaller particles, lower gas velocity
Cut diameter (d₅₀): Particle size collected at exactly 50% efficiency — used to characterize cyclone
performance

Lapple Cut Diameter Formula

d_c = √(9 · μ · B) / √(π · Ne · Vi · ρp)

Where:
μ = gas viscosity (Pa·s or lb/ft·s)
B = cyclone inlet width (m or ft)
Ne = effective number of turns (typically 5)
Vi = inlet gas velocity (m/s or ft/s)
ρp = particle density (kg/m³ or lb/ft³)

Unit conversions: 1 cP = 6.72×10⁻⁴ lb/(ft·s); 1 g/cm³ = 62.4 lb/ft³

Pressure Drop in Cyclones

• Significant pressure drop — key energy cost in operation
• Empirical equations (Stairmand 1949) used to estimate ΔP
• Higher inlet velocity → better efficiency but greater pressure drop

Q13 — THEORETICAL

Q13 · Control of Gaseous Pollutants

 ★ KEY ANSWER: Activated carbon is an ADSORBENT (surface phenomenon), not an
absorbent.
Used for VOC control, solvent recovery, and odour control. Efficiency > 95%.

Three Main Control Methods for Gaseous Pollutants

Method Mechanism Common Applications
Absorption Gas transfers into a liquid SO₂ removal (FGD), HF, ammonia, water-
(Scrubbing) phase (chemical or physical soluble solvents
dissolution)
Adsorption Gas molecules attach to VOC recovery, odour control, benzene
surface of a solid (surface removal — activated carbon is most common
phenomenon) adsorbent
Incineration / Combustible pollutants are H₂S, organic vapours, solvents, coffee
Combustion burned — direct flame, roasters, enamel ovens
thermal, or catalytic

Activated Carbon — Key Properties

• Produced from heated charcoal — extremely porous structure
• Extremely high surface-area-to-volume ratio → excellent for gaseous pollutant trapping
• Effective for VOCs, chlorinated solvents, benzene, odour compounds
• Can be regenerated by heating (desorption) — recovers the captured solvent
• Efficiency exceeding 95% in a properly designed unit

Wet Scrubbers for Particulates

Scrubber Type Efficiency Minimum Particle Notes
Size
Spray-tower ~90% > 8 µm Simple design; water recirculated
Orifice/Wet- ~90% > 2 µm Lower water recirculation rates;
impingement droplet atomization
Venturi scrubber > 98% > 0.5 µm Most efficient; high water velocity in
throat
MODULE 5 — Settling Chambers & Pre-Cleaners

Gravitational Settling Chambers

Gravitational settling chambers are the simplest and oldest particulate control devices. They are
precleaners — used upstream of more efficient equipment. They work by slowing the gas velocity to
allow particles to settle under gravity.

Analysis — Block (Plug) Flow Model

Collection Efficiency Formula:

η = (Vt × L × W) / Q = Vt × A_floor / Q

Where:
Vt = terminal settling velocity of particle (m/s)
L = chamber length (m)
W = chamber width (m)
A_floor = L × W = floor area of chamber (m²)
Q = volumetric gas flow rate (m³/s)

If η > 1: ALL particles of that size are captured (η = 100%)

Smaller particles (lower Vt) have lower efficiency.

Model Assumptions
• Horizontal velocity of gas and particles = V_avg everywhere (plug flow)
• Vertical velocity of particles = terminal settling velocity Vt
• If a particle reaches the floor, it is captured (no re-entrainment)
• Uniform particle distribution at inlet

Terminal Settling Velocity (Stokes' Law — for small particles)

Vt = (ρp − ρg) × g × dp² / (18 × μ)

Where:
ρp = particle density (kg/m³)
ρg = gas density (kg/m³)
g = 9.81 m/s²
dp = particle diameter (m)
μ = gas dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS — Full Worked Solutions

Q16 — NUMERICAL

N1 (Q16) · PM₂.₅ Concentration from Filter Weights

GIVEN: Flow rate = 16.7 L/min | Duration = 24 hours

Tare weight (fresh filter) = 0.1400 g | Gross weight (loaded filter) = 0.1405 g
FIND: Average PM₂.₅ concentration in µg/m³

Step-by-Step Solution
• Step 1 — Mass of collected PM₂.₅:
◦ Mass = Gross − Tare = 0.1405 − 0.1400 = 0.0005 g = 500 µg

• Step 2 — Volume of air sampled:

◦ Time = 24 hours × 60 min/hr = 1440 minutes
◦ Volume = 16.7 L/min × 1440 min = 24,048 L = 24.048 m³

• Step 3 — PM₂.₅ Concentration:

◦ C = Mass / Volume = 500 µg / 24.048 m³ ≈ 20.8 µg/m³

★ ANSWER: ≈ 21 µg/m³

Key conversion: 1 g = 1,000,000 µg | 1 m³ = 1,000 L

EPA PM₂.₅ method: 24-hour collection on filter; dried to consistent humidity before weighing; flow rate
~16.7 L/min

Q17 — NUMERICAL

N2 (Q17) · ESP Collection Efficiency — Deutsch-Anderson Equation

GIVEN: Gas flow Q = 250,000 ACFM | Plate area A = 100,000 ft²

Migration velocity w = 0.20 ft/s
FIND: Collection efficiency η

Step-by-Step Solution
• Step 1 — Convert flow rate to ft³/s:
◦ Q = 250,000 ft³/min ÷ 60 = 4,167 ft³/s

• Step 2 — Apply Deutsch-Anderson equation:

 ◦ η = 1 − exp(−w × A / Q)
◦ η = 1 − exp(−0.20 × 100,000 / 4,167)
◦ η = 1 − exp(−4.80)
◦ η = 1 − 0.00823 = 0.9918

★ ANSWER: η ≈ 99.2% (≈ 99%)

Remember: ALWAYS convert ACFM ÷ 60 to get ft³/s before applying Deutsch-Anderson

Increasing efficiency: Increase plate area A OR decrease flow rate Q OR increase migration velocity
w

Q18 — NUMERICAL

N3 (Q18) · Gaussian Plume — Centerline Concentration

GIVEN: Q = 20 g/s | u = 3 m/s | At x = 1 km: σy = 30 m, σz = 20 m

FIND: Centerline SO₂ concentration (y = 0, z = 0) using simplified centerline form

Step-by-Step Solution
• For the centerline ground-level equation (simplified, with both exponential terms = 1):
◦ C = Q / (π · σy · σz · u)

• Converting Q: 20 g/s = 20 × 10⁶ µg/s

• Denominator: π × 30 × 20 × 3 = 3.1416 × 1800 = 5,655 m²·(m/s)

• C = 20,000,000 µg/s ÷ 5,655 m³/s ≈ 3,537 µg/m³ ≈ 3,540 µg/m³

★ ANSWER: ≈ 3,540 µg/m³

Full Gaussian Equation Reference

Full form (ground-level, y=0, z=0, with ground reflection):

C = [Q / (π · σy · σz · u)] × exp(−H² / 2σz²)

At centerline (y=0, z=H): exp term = 1 → C = Q / (π · σy · σz · u)

At max concentration: σz ≈ H/√2

Q19 — NUMERICAL

N4 (Q19) · Cyclone Cut Diameter — Lapple Method

 GIVEN: Inlet gas velocity Vi = 48 ft/s | Cyclone diameter Dc = 8 ft
Inlet width B = 2 ft | Effective turns Ne = 5
Particle density ρp = 3.0 g/cm³ | Gas viscosity μ = 0.02 cP
FIND: Cut diameter d_c (the particle size collected at 50% efficiency)

Unit Conversions (Critical!)

• μ = 0.02 cP × 6.72×10⁻⁴ lb/(ft·s·cP) = 1.344×10⁻⁵ lb/(ft·s)
• ρp = 3.0 g/cm³ × 62.4 lb/ft³ per g/cm³ = 187.2 lb/ft³

Lapple Cut Diameter Formula & Calculation

d_c = √[ 9 · μ · B / (π · Ne · Vi · ρp) ]

Numerator: 9 × 1.344×10⁻⁵ × 2 = 2.42×10⁻⁴

Denominator: π × 5 × 48 × 187.2 = 3.1416 × 44,928 = 141,136

d_c² = 2.42×10⁻⁴ / 141,136 = 1.71×10⁻⁹ ft²

d_c = √(1.71×10⁻⁹) = 4.14×10⁻⁵ ft

Converting: 4.14×10⁻⁵ ft × 12 in/ft × 25,400 µm/in ≈ 12.6 µm

★ ANSWER: d_c ≈ 12–13 µm → falls in the 5–20 µm range

Q20 — NUMERICAL

N5 (Q20) · Settling Chamber — Collection Efficiency

GIVEN: Chamber L = 10 m, W = 5 m, H = 2 m | Q = 2 m³/s

Terminal settling velocity Vt = 0.18 m/s (for large 50 µm particles)
FIND: Fractional collection efficiency using plug flow model

Step-by-Step Solution
• Plug flow efficiency formula: η = (Vt × L × W) / Q
• Floor area: A_floor = L × W = 10 × 5 = 50 m²
• η = (0.18 × 50) / 2 = 9 / 2 = 4.5
• Since η > 1 → ALL 50 µm particles are captured: η = 100% for this particle size

For a more instructive exam case with Vt = 0.018 m/s (smaller particles):
• η = (0.018 × 50) / 2 = 0.9 / 2 = 0.45 → 45% efficiency
 ★ KEY ANSWER: 45% when Vt = 0.018 m/s (the exam's intended calculation)

Remember: η = Vt·A/Q. If η > 1, set η = 1 (100%). Doubling length or width DOUBLES floor area and
therefore DOUBLES efficiency
Stokes' Law: Vt ∝ dp² — doubling particle diameter → 4× higher settling velocity → 4× more efficient
MASTER CHEAT SHEET — All 20 Answers at a Glance

Q# Type Topic ★ Key Answer to Remember

1 Theory Primary vs Secondary PAN = secondary; SO₂, CO = primary
Pollutants
2 Theory CO Health Effects CO forms HbCO (carboxyhemoglobin), blocks O₂
3 Theory Dry Adiabatic Lapse DALR = 9.8 K/km; ELR = 6.5 K/km (stable)
Rate
4 Theory Fumigation Plume Morning instability sweeps trapped plume to ground
5 Theory Fanning Plume Stable conditions → horizontal spread, far downwind
6 Theory Gaussian Model σy, σy = horizontal; σz = vertical dispersion coeff.
σz
7 Theory Montreal Protocol Targets CFCs (ozone-depleting), NOT greenhouse gases
8 Theory Paris Agreement Well below 2°C; India ratified Oct 2016
9 Theory India NAAQS 2009 PM₂.₅ added as NEW parameter (also O₃, NH₃, benzene)
10 Theory Isokinetic Sampling Vn > Vs → measured C < true C (under-estimate)
11 Theory ESP Working Principle High-voltage DC charges particles → collected on plates
12 Theory Cyclone Efficiency ~90% for particles > 20 µm; used as pre-cleaner
13 Theory Activated Carbon Adsorbent (surface); VOC/odour control; η > 95%
14 Theory Particle Deposition Inertial impaction dominant for dp > 3 µm
15 Theory Trapping Plume Inversions both above AND below source; worst dispersion
16 Numerical PM₂.₅ Concentration C = mass/volume = 500 µg / 24.05 m³ ≈ 21 µg/m³
17 Numerical ESP Deutsch- η = 1−exp(−wA/Q) ≈ 99%; convert ACFM÷60 first
Anderson
18 Numerical Gaussian Centerline C = Q/(π·σy·σz·u) = 20M/5655 ≈ 3,540 µg/m³
19 Numerical Cyclone Cut Diameter Lapple formula → d_c ≈ 12 µm → in 5–20 µm range
20 Numerical Settling Chamber η η = Vt·A/Q; for Vt=0.018, η = 45%

Critical Formulas Summary

1. GAUSSIAN PLUME: C = Q/(π·σy·σz·u) × exp(−y²/2σy²) × [exp(−(z−H)²/2σz²) +

exp(−(z+H)²/2σz²)]
2. ESP EFFICIENCY (Deutsch-Anderson): η = 1 − exp(−w·A/Q)
3. PM₂.₅ CONC: C (µg/m³) = mass collected (µg) / volume of air sampled (m³)
4. SETTLING CHAMBER: η = Vt × L × W / Q = Vt × A_floor / Q
5. LAPPLE CUT DIAMETER: d_c = √[9μB / (π·Ne·Vi·ρp)]
6. TERMINAL SETTLING VELOCITY: Vt = (ρp−ρg)·g·dp² / (18μ) [Stokes' Law]
 7. WIND SPEED POWER LAW: u(z) = u₀ × (z/z₀)^p
8. EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHT: H = hs + Δh (physical height + plume rise)

Key Numbers to Memorize

Parameter Value Context
DALR 9.8 K·km⁻¹ Dry air rising — adiabatic cooling rate
ELR (global avg) 6.5 K·km⁻¹ Actual atmosphere; stable for dry lifting
Latent heat of condensation 2.5 × 10⁶ J·kg⁻¹ Water vapor condensing — warms the rising
parcel
CO NAAQS (US) 9 ppm / 35 ppm 8-hr / 1-hr averaging time
Ozone (US NAAQS) 0.08 ppm (8-hr) Formed photochemically from NOx + VOCs
ESP efficiency > 99% for ≥ 1 µm With proper design
Cyclone efficiency ~90% for > 20 µm Pre-cleaner device
PM₂.₅ lung cancer increase 8% per 10 µg/m³ Dose-response relationship
extra
Pulmonary alveolar surface > 75 m² Huge area for gas exchange / pollutant entry
area
Smoker HbCO blood level 5–10% vs ~2% for non-smokers