Science Lab Manual
Biology & Physics Experiments
Class 10 | CBSE
Table of Contents
BIOLOGY EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1: CO₂ is Released During Respiration
Experiment 2: Identification of Parts of a Dicot Seed Embryo
Experiment 3: Temporary Mount of Leaf Peel to Show Stomata
Experiment 4: Binary Fission in Amoeba and Budding in Yeast
PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1: Dependence of Potential Difference on Current (Ohm's Law)
Experiment 2: Determination of Focal Length of Concave Mirror and Convex Lens
Experiment 3: Equivalent Resistance of Resistors in Series and Parallel
Experiment 4: Image Distance for Varying Object Distances – Convex Lens
Experiment 5: Tracing the Path of a Ray of Light Through a Glass Slab
Experiment 6: Tracing the Path of Rays of Light Through a Glass Prism
━━━ BIOLOGY EXPERIMENTS ━━━
Biology Experiment 1
CO₂ is Released During Respiration
Aim
To experimentally demonstrate that carbon dioxide is released during the process of respiration.
Principle / Theory
The process of respiration is biochemically carried out wherein food (glucose) is oxidized and
energy is released. Germinating gram seeds actively release carbon dioxide; the released CO₂
is absorbed by a KOH solution in the setup, creating a partial vacuum that causes water to rise
in the U-tube.
Materials Required
• Soaked gram seeds (approx. 25)
• U-shaped delivery tube
• Conical flask
• Moist blotting paper / cotton wool
• Thread
• Water
• Beaker
• Test tube
• Rubber cork with a single hole
• Freshly prepared 20% KOH solution
• Vaseline
Procedure
1. Germinate about 25 seeds by wrapping them in moist blotting paper or cotton wool for
3–4 days.
2. Set up the germinated seeds in the conical flask and spray some water to dampen them.
3. Using a thread, suspend a test tube containing freshly prepared 20% KOH solution
inside the conical flask.
4. Seal the opening of the conical flask with a rubber cork.
5. Insert one end of the U-shaped glass delivery tube through the hole in the rubber cork;
place the other end in a beaker filled with water.
6. Seal all connections with Vaseline to create an air-tight environment.
7. Mark the initial water level in the U-shaped delivery tube.
8. Leave the setup undisturbed for 1–2 hours and observe the change in water level.
Observation
After a certain period, the water level in the U-shaped delivery tube rises towards the beaker
side.
Conclusion
The rise in the water level indicates that CO₂ is released by germinating gram seeds during
respiration. The CO₂ is absorbed by the KOH solution, creating a vacuum in the flask, which
draws water up the delivery tube.
Precautions
• The seeds to be germinated must be kept moistened.
• All connections in the experimental setup must be made air-tight.
• The KOH solution used must be freshly prepared.
• Ensure one end of the delivery tube is inside the conical flask and the other is
submerged in water.
• The test tube containing the KOH solution must be suspended carefully inside the flask.
Biology Experiment 2
Identification of Parts of a Dicot Seed Embryo
Aim
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed.
Principle / Theory
Fertilization in plants results in the formation of a seed (mature ovule). A dicot seed contains a
seed coat, endosperm, and an embryo comprising two cotyledons, a radicle, a plumule, a
hypocotyl, and an epicotyl. Soaking the seed softens the seed coat, making dissection and
identification easier.
Materials Required
• Seeds of red kidney bean or gram
• Forceps
• Magnifying glass
• Moist cloth
• Petri dish
• Water
Procedure
9. Soak a few seeds in water overnight.
10. Next morning, drain the excess water.
11. Wrap the seeds in a clean, moist cloth for a day and allow to germinate.
12. Carefully peel off the seed coat using forceps.
13. Dissect the seed to obtain two equal halves.
14. Examine the halves with a magnifying glass.
15. Carefully identify and locate the different parts: cotyledons, radicle, plumule, hypocotyl,
epicotyl, hilum, and micropyle.
16. Sketch the interior of the seed and label all parts.
Observation
The bean seed is kidney-shaped with a convex and a concave side. A scar (hilum) is visible on
the concave side; a tiny pore (micropyle) is adjacent to it. Two large white cotyledons are
present; the embryonal axis shows the radicle at the lower end (towards the micropyle) and the
plumule at the upper end. The hypocotyl lies between the radicle and the cotyledon junction; the
epicotyl lies between the cotyledon junction and the plumule.
Conclusion
Three principal parts of the embryo of a dicot seed are identified: cotyledons, plumule, and
radicle.
Precautions
• Take care while dissecting the seed to avoid damaging the embryo.
• The cloth used to wrap the seeds must be kept moist throughout.
Biology Experiment 3
Temporary Mount of Leaf Peel to Show Stomata
Aim
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel in order to show the stomata of a leaf.
Principle / Theory
Stomata are small elliptical openings on leaves, flanked by two kidney-shaped guard cells.
Guard cells control opening and closing of stomata: turgid guard cells open stomata; flaccid
guard cells close them. Staining with safranin makes the cellular structures visible under a
microscope.
Materials Required
• A potted plant of Bryophyllum or Tradescantia
• Needles
• Forceps
• Watch glass
• Dropper
• Glass slides
• A brush
• Coverslips
• Blotting paper
• Safranin stain
• Compound microscope
• Glycerine
Procedure
17. Pick a healthy leaf from the potted plant.
18. Fold the leaf gently and pull to separate a peel from the lower surface; use forceps.
Allow the peel to rest in a watch glass with water.
19. Stain the peel by adding a few drops of safranin using a dropper.
20. After 2–3 minutes, remove the peel and place it on a clean glass slide.
21. Add a drop of glycerine on the peel and gently lower a coverslip using a needle.
22. Remove excess glycerine and stain with blotting paper.
23. Examine first under low-power, then high-power magnification of the compound
microscope.
Observation
Visible epidermal cells with irregular outlines and no intercellular spaces; stomata scattered
among epidermal cells; guard cells with chloroplasts, nucleus, thin outer wall, and thick inner
(concave) wall.
Conclusion
Epidermal cells containing stomata are found on the lower surfaces of the leaf.
Precautions
• Do not fold the leaf excessively; the peel should be trimmed to a proper size.
• Always place the peel at the centre of the slide; hold slides from the sides.
• The peel should be neither overstained nor understained.
• Use a brush to handle the peel to avoid damaging the cells.
• Apply glycerine to prevent drying of the peel.
• Place the coverslip carefully to avoid air bubbles.
• Blotting paper may be used to remove excess stain.
Biology Experiment 4
Binary Fission in Amoeba and Budding in Yeast
Aim
To study (a) binary fission in Amoeba and (b) budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides.
Principle / Theory
Budding and binary fission are types of asexual reproduction in lower organisms. In binary
fission, the parent cell divides into two daughter cells through amitosis. In budding, a new
organism develops from an outgrowth (bud) on the parent cell due to cell division at a specific
site.
Materials Required
• Compound microscope
• Permanent prepared slide of binary fission in Amoeba
• Permanent prepared slide of budding in yeast
Procedure
24. Place the prepared slide of binary fission in Amoeba under the compound microscope.
25. Focus first under low power and then under high power magnification.
26. Carefully examine and note the stages of binary fission observed.
27. Replace the slide with the prepared slide of budding in yeast.
28. Focus first under low power and then under high power.
29. Carefully examine and note the stages of budding observed.
30. Sketch the observations for each slide.
Observation
Binary fission in Amoeba: (i) Pseudopodia are retracted and the body becomes round. (ii)
Amitosis (nucleus division) is observed, followed by cytoplasmic splitting. (iii) A constriction
develops at the point of fission, deepening to form two daughter cells. Budding in Yeast: (i) A
small protuberance (bud) appears on the parent cell. (ii) Nuclear division is observed; nucleus
moves into the bud. (iii) Repetitive budding may form a chain of cells.
Conclusion
The prepared slides display asexual reproduction in which a single parent produces offspring of
its own kind without fertilization.
Precautions
• Slides must be aligned and focused accurately.
• Sketch the observations seen under the microscope.
• Always examine slides first under low-power magnification before switching to high
power.
━━━ PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS ━━━
Physics Experiment 1
Dependence of Potential Difference on Current (Ohm's Law)
Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.
Principle / Theory
According to Ohm's Law, the potential difference V across a metallic wire is directly proportional
to the current I flowing through it (at constant temperature): V ∝ I, i.e., V = IR, where R is the
resistance (constant for a given metallic wire).
Materials Required
• A battery
• Insulated copper wire
• A key (plug key)
• An ammeter
• A voltmeter
• A rheostat
• A resistor
• A piece of sandpaper
Procedure
31. Arrange the devices as shown in the circuit diagram with the key open.
32. Connect the positive terminal of the battery to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
33. Check the +ve and −ve terminals before connecting the voltmeter; connect it in parallel
with the resistor.
34. Insert the key and check the ammeter and voltmeter readings; adjust the rheostat slider.
35. Record three sets of current (I) and potential difference (V) readings by varying the
rheostat.
36. Record all observations in the observation table.
37. Calculate resistance using R = V/I for each reading.
38. Plot a graph with V on the x-axis and I on the y-axis.
Observation
For all three readings, the ratio V/I (resistance) remains constant. The graph between V and I is
a straight line passing through the origin, verifying Ohm's Law.
Conclusion
1. The value of R is constant for all three readings. 2. The ratio V/I equals the resistance of the
resistor. 3. The straight-line V–I graph verifies Ohm's Law.
Precautions
• Use thick copper wires as connecting wires; remove insulation at ends with sandpaper.
• Keep all connections tight to avoid external resistance.
• Connections must follow the circuit diagram and be approved by the teacher.
• Current must enter the ammeter from its positive terminal; connect ammeter in series.
• Resistor and voltmeter must be connected in parallel.
• Record the least count of ammeter and voltmeter properly.
• When no current flows, pointers of ammeter and voltmeter must read zero.
• Pass current for a short time only, to avoid unnecessary heating.
Physics Experiment 2
Determination of Focal Length of Concave Mirror and Convex Lens
Aim
To determine the focal length of (a) a concave mirror and (b) a convex lens by obtaining the
image of a distant object.
Principle / Theory
For a concave mirror, parallel rays from a distant object converge at the principal focus after
reflection, forming a real, inverted, and diminished image on a screen placed in front of the
mirror. The distance between the mirror and the screen equals the focal length. Similarly for a
convex lens, parallel rays from a distant object are refracted and converge at the principal focus
on the other side; the distance between the lens and the screen is the focal length.
Materials Required
• (a) Concave mirror, mirror stand, screen holder, metre scale
• (b) Convex lens, lens holder, wooden bench, screen fixed to stand, metre scale
Procedure
39. (Concave Mirror) Place the concave mirror on its stand facing a distinct object more than
50 ft away.
40. Place a screen in front of the reflecting surface and adjust it until a clear, sharp image is
obtained.
41. Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen using a metre scale;
this distance equals the focal length.
42. Repeat the procedure three times and calculate the average focal length.
43. (Convex Lens) Place the convex lens on its holder on a wooden bench, facing a distant
object.
44. Place the screen on the bench and adjust its position until a sharp image of the distant
object is obtained on it.
45. The distance between the lens and the screen equals the focal length of the convex
lens.
46. Repeat for different distant objects and calculate the average focal length.
Observation
A clear, real, inverted, and diminished image is obtained on the screen. The distance between
the concave mirror/convex lens and the screen gives the focal length (≈ 10 cm in each case for
the sample).
Conclusion
The focal length of the concave mirror = _____ cm. The focal length of the convex lens = _____
cm.
Precautions
• (Concave mirror) The distant object must be well-illuminated; place the mirror near an
open window.
• The polished surface of the mirror and the distant object must face each other.
• No obstacle should exist between the object and the mirror.
• The screen and mirror stand must be parallel to the measuring scale.
• The mirror holder must be perpendicular to the measuring scale.
• (Convex lens) The convex lens must be placed vertically.
• No obstacle should exist between the object and the convex lens.
• The lens stand and screen must be parallel to the measuring scale.
Physics Experiment 3
Equivalent Resistance of Resistors in Series and Parallel
Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected (a) in parallel and (b) in
series.
Principle / Theory
In a parallel combination, the total current I = I₁ + I₂ and the equivalent resistance R ₚ is given
by 1/Rₚ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂. In a series combination, the total resistance Rₛ = R₁ + R₂, the current is
the same through all resistors, and the total voltage V = V₁ + V₂.
Materials Required
• Two resistors of different values
• A battery of 6 V
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Plug key
• Rheostat
• Connecting wires
• A piece of sandpaper
Procedure
47. (Parallel) Make all connections as shown in the parallel circuit diagram with the key off.
48. Insert the key; for each resistor (R₁ and R₂) individually, note three readings of ammeter
and voltmeter.
49. Connect both resistors in parallel; record three readings of ammeter and voltmeter using
the rheostat.
50. Remove the key; calculate resistance using R = V/I and the equivalent resistance.
51. (Series) Make connections as shown in the series circuit diagram.
52. Connect the ammeter in series; connect the voltmeter in parallel with the combination.
53. Insert the key; record three ammeter and voltmeter readings by adjusting the rheostat.
54. Measure V₁ across R₁ and V₂ across R₂ separately and verify V = V₁ + V₂.
55. Calculate the series equivalent resistance and compare with the calculated value Rs =
R₁ + R₂.
Observation
In series: the equivalent resistance Rs = R₁ + R₂ (e.g., 3 Ω). In parallel: the equivalent
resistance Rₚ < R₁ and Rₚ < R₂ (e.g., 0.67 Ω for R₁ = 1 Ω and R₂ = 2 Ω). Experimental values
match the calculated values.
Conclusion
The equivalent resistance of resistors in series equals the sum of individual resistances (Rs =
R₁ + R₂). The equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is less than any individual resistance
(1/Rₚ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂).
Precautions
• Use thick copper wire as connecting wires; remove insulation at ends with sandpaper.
• Keep all connections tight to avoid external resistance.
• Connections must follow the circuit diagram.
• Connect the ammeter in series; voltmeter in parallel.
• Record the least count of ammeter and voltmeter properly.
• When no current flows, ammeter and voltmeter pointers must be at zero.
• Pass current only while taking readings to avoid heating and resistance change.
Physics Experiment 4
Image Distance for Varying Object Distances – Convex Lens
Aim
To find the image distance for varying object distances in case of a convex lens and to draw
corresponding ray diagrams showing the nature of the image formed.
Principle / Theory
The lens formula relates object distance (u), image distance (v), and focal length (f): 1/f = 1/v −
1/u. A convex (converging) lens forms different images depending on object position relative to
F and 2F.
Materials Required
• A convex lens (focal length 12–20 cm)
• Measuring scale
• Optical bench
• A lighted candle (or optical needle)
• A lens holder
• A screen
Procedure
56. Place the convex lens on a holder; place the screen on the other side. Obtain a sharp
inverted image of a distant object — this distance from lens to screen is the rough focal
length (f).
57. Mark the optical centre of the lens as O; mark points F and 2F on both sides.
58. Place the candle beyond 2F; adjust the screen to get a sharp image and record the
object distance u and image distance v.
59. Repeat with the candle placed at 2F, between F and 2F, at F, and between O and F.
60. For each position, calculate f using the lens formula and draw the corresponding ray
diagram.
61. Note the nature, position, and relative size of the image in each case.
Observation
Object at 2F → image at 2F, same size, real & inverted. Object between F & 2F → image
beyond 2F, enlarged, real & inverted. Object beyond 2F → image between F & 2F, diminished,
real & inverted. Object at F → image at infinity. Object between O & F → image on same side,
enlarged, virtual & erect.
Conclusion
The focal length of the given convex lens is confirmed as f = _____ cm. The nature and position
of images formed by a convex lens change systematically with object distance, as verified by
the lens formula.
Precautions
• The focal length of the convex lens must be between 15 and 20 cm.
• The convex lens must have a small aperture.
• Conduct the experiment in calm air to prevent candle flame from flickering.
• Perform the experiment in a darkened room for a distinct, sharp image.
• The image screen must not be shaky; avoid parallax when reading positions.
Physics Experiment 5
Tracing the Path of a Ray of Light Through a Glass Slab
Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and angle of emergence, and
interpret the results.
Principle / Theory
Refraction is the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another. Snell's Law: sin i / sin
r = constant (refractive index). Light entering a glass slab bends towards the normal (rarer to
denser); the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but laterally displaced.
Materials Required
• A drawing board (soft board)
• 4–6 all pins (optical pins)
• White sheet of paper
• Rectangular glass slab
• A protractor
• A scale
• A sharp pencil
• Thumb pins
Procedure
62. Fix a white sheet on the soft drawing board using thumb pins.
63. Place the glass slab at the centre of the white paper and draw its outline ABCD using a
sharp pencil.
64. Mark a point E on face AB; draw a perpendicular (normal) EN at E.
65. Using a protractor, draw an incident ray at 30° to the normal; fix pins P and Q on this ray
at 4–5 cm apart.
66. Place the glass slab back on outline ABCD.
67. View through face CD and fix pins R and S such that P, Q, R, S appear collinear.
68. Circle the positions of all pins; remove pins and glass slab.
69. Join R and S to meet CD at point F; draw normal N'M' at F.
70. Join E and F (refracted ray inside slab); extend RS beyond F as the emergent ray.
71. Measure angles of incidence (∠i), refraction (∠r), and emergence (∠e); measure lateral
displacement.
72. Repeat for angles of incidence of 45° and 60°.
Observation
The angle of incidence ≈ angle of emergence for each trial (∠i ≈ ∠e). The angle of refraction
(∠r) < angle of incidence (∠i) since light travels from rarer to denser medium. Lateral
displacement is observed and remains consistent for the given slab thickness.
Conclusion
1. Angle of incidence and angle of emergence are almost equal. 2. The angle of refraction is
less than the angle of incidence inside the glass. 3. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident
ray but laterally displaced. 4. Light bends towards the normal when entering the denser medium
(glass).
Precautions
• The rectangular glass slab must have perfectly smooth, flat faces.
• The drawing board must be soft enough for pins to be easily fixed.
• Angle of incidence must be between 30° and 60°.
• All pins must be aligned such that their bases lie in a straight line.
• Maintain a gap of about 5 cm between pins P & Q and between pins R & S.
• Use a sharp pencil to draw thin, precise lines.
• Use a good-quality protractor and position it correctly for accurate angle measurement.
• Draw perpendiculars carefully.
Physics Experiment 6
Tracing the Path of Rays of Light Through a Glass Prism
Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.
Principle / Theory
A prism is a polyhedron with a triangular base and three rectangular lateral surfaces. When light
enters face AB, it bends towards the normal (glass is denser); when it exits face AC, it bends
away from the normal. The angle of deviation (∠D) is the angle between the incident ray
(extended) and the emergent ray (produced backwards). The prism formula: A + D = i + e,
where A = angle of prism.
Materials Required
• A glass (triangular) prism
• White sheet of paper
• Soft board
• Drawing board
• Thumb pins / drawing pins
• 4–6 all pins (optical pins)
• Pencil
• Scale
• Protractor
Procedure
73. Fix a white sheet on the drawing board using drawing pins.
74. Place the triangular prism resting on its triangular base; draw its outline with a pencil.
75. Draw normal NEN to face AB of the prism.
76. Draw an incident ray PE making an angle between 30° and 60° with the normal.
77. Fix two pins P and Q on the incident ray PE at a distance of 5 cm from each other.
78. Look through face AC of the prism for the images of pins P and Q; fix two more pins R
and S such that P, Q, R, S appear collinear when viewed from face AC.
79. Circle the pin positions; remove pins and the prism.
80. Join points R and S, extending to meet face AC at point F.
81. Extend the incident ray PQE to meet face AC; extend emergent ray SRF backwards to
meet at point G.
82. Mark and measure the angle of incidence (∠i), angle of refraction (∠r), angle of
emergence (∠e), and angle of deviation (∠D).
83. Repeat the experiment for two more angles of incidence between 30° and 60°.
Observation
At surface AB the light ray bends towards the normal (entering glass). At surface AC the light
ray bends away from the normal (entering air). An angle of deviation (∠D) is observed. With
increasing angle of incidence, ∠D first decreases to a minimum, then increases again.
Conclusion
The incident ray bends towards the normal when entering the prism and away from the normal
when leaving. The emergent ray is deviated from the direction of the incident ray by the angle of
deviation ∠D.
Precautions
• Soft board and pointed pins must be used.
• The distance between the pins must be 5 cm or more for greater accuracy.
• The pins must be fixed vertically and encircled when removed from the board.
• The angle of incidence must be between 30° and 60°.
• Use a sharp pencil to draw the boundary of the prism and rays.
• Arrows for incident, refracted, and emergent rays must be drawn correctly.
• While checking collinearity of pins, tilt the head slightly to one side; all pins should
appear to move together.