BECE204L

Module_1

Introduction to Microprocessor
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas
School of Electronics Engineering
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Module outline
• What is a microprocessor
• Block diagram of a computer system
• Nibble, byte, word and longword
• Internal structure and basic operation of a
microprocessor
• Bus system: data bus, address bus and control
bus.
• History of microprocessors : 4, 8, 16, 32 and
64 byte

5
 What does Microprocessor (μp) mean?

Differences between:

 Microcomputer – a computer with a microprocessor as its

CPU. Includes memory, I/O etc.

 Microprocessor – silicon chip which includes ALU, register

circuits & control circuits

 Microcontroller – silicon chip which includes microprocessor,

memory & I/O in a single package.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 The word comes from the combination micro and processor.

 Processor means a device that processes whatever. In this

context processor means a device that processes numbers,
specifically binary numbers, 0’s and 1’s.

 To process means to manipulate. It is a general term that

describes all manipulation. It means to perform certain
operations on the numbers that depend on the
microprocessor’s design.

 In the late 1960’s, processors were built using discrete

elements. These devices performed the required operation,
but were too large and too slow.
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
In the early 1970’s the microchip was invented. All of the
components that made up the processor were now placed on a
single piece of silicon. The size became several thousand times
smaller and the speed became several hundred times faster. The
“Micro” Processor was born.

The microprocessor is a multipurpose programmable logic

device which reads the binary instructions from a storage device
called ‘Memory, performs on them arithmetic or logical
operations according to the program (instruction) stored in
memory and then produces results as a result.
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC COMPUTER SYSTEM

Basic computer system consist of a Central Processing Unit

(CPU), memory (RAM and ROM), input/output (I/O) unit.

Address bus

ROM RAM I/O I/O

CPU interface devices

Data bus Control bus

Block diagram of a basic computer system

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 Basic components of a
microcomputer
1. CPU - Central Processing Unit
– The portion of a computer system that carries out the
instructions of a computer program
– The primary element carrying out the computer's functions.
– It is the unit that reads and executes program.
– Program: Set of instructions required to perform some
desired operations.
– The data in the instruction tells the processor what to do.

Pentium D dual core processors

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2. Memory
– Physical devices used to store data or programs.
– Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
Random-Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only Memory
(ROM).
– RAM can be read and written when the CPU commands it, but
ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so
the CPU can only read from it.
– ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up
instructions.
– In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to
the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely.
– In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the
BIOS that coordinates loading the computer's operating system
from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is
turned on or reset.
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3. I/O Unit

– Input/Output (I/O), refers to the communication between an

information processing system, and the outside world possibly a
human, or another information processing system.
– Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs
are the signals or data sent from it
– Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called
peripherals
– On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices
like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the
display and printer.
– Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve
as both input and output devices.
– Computer networking is another form of I/O.

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 Binary Information
Representation

• Bit: the smallest unit of storage. A

bit stores just a 0 or 1.
• One byte = collection of 8 bits e.g.
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0. One byte can store
one character, e.g. 'A' or 'x' or ‘$’.
• Word = 2 bytes = 16 bits e.g. ‘An’
• Long Word = 2 words = 32 bits
e.g. ‘Word’
• Very Long Word = 4 words = 64
bits e.g. ‘Alphabet’

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DATA SIZE

Nibble 4 bit

Byte 8 bit

Word 16 bit

Long word 32 bit

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Internal structure and basic operation of
microprocessor

ALU Register Address bus

Section
Data bus

Control and timing

section Control bus

Block diagram of a Microprocessor Unit

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 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
• The component that performs the arithmetic
and logical operations
• The most important components in a
microprocessor, and is typically the part of the
processor that is designed first.
• Able to perform the basic logical operations
(AND, OR), including the addition operation.

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 Control unit
• The circuitry that controls the flow of information
through the processor, and coordinates the
activities of the other units within it.
• In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it
controls what happens inside the processor, which
in turn controls the rest of the PC.
• On a regular processor, the control unit performs
the tasks of fetching, decoding, managing
execution and then storing results.

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 Register sets
• The register section/array consists completely
of circuitry used to temporarily store data or
program codes until they are sent to the
ALU or to the control section or to memory.

• The number of registers are different for any

particular CPU and the more register a CPU
have will result in easier programming tasks.

• Registers are normally measured by the

number of bits they can hold, for example, an
"8-bit register" or a "32-bit register".
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 System Bus

• Microprocessor Unit(MPU) communicates

with Memory and I/O using the System Bus
– Address bus
• Unidirectional
• Memory and I/O Addresses
– Data bus
• Bidirectional
• Transfers Binary Data and Instructions
– Control bus
• Read and Write timing signals
 Data bus

• The data bus is 'bi-directional’

– Data or instruction codes from memory or input/output
are transferred into the microprocessor
– The result of an operation or computation is sent out
from the microprocessor to the memory or input/output.
• Depending on the particular microprocessor,
the data bus can handle 8 bit or 16 bit data.

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 Address bus
• The address bus is 'unidirectional', over which the
microprocessor sends an address code to the
memory or input/output.
• The size (width) of the address bus is specified by
the number of bits it can handle.
• The more bits there are in the address bus, the more
memory locations a microprocessor can access.
• A 16 bit address bus is capable of addressing 65,536
(64K) addresses.

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 Control bus
• The control bus is used by the microprocessor to
send out or receive timing and control signals in
order to coordinate and regulate its operation and to
communicate with other devices, i.e. memory or
input/output.

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 Timing Circuit: Micro processor clock

• Also called clock rate, the speed at which a

microprocessor executes instructions.
• Every computer contains an internal clock that
regulates the rate at which instructions are
executed and synchronizes all the various
computer components.

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HISTORY OF MICROPROCESSORS

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 Contents

 Introduction

 4-Bit Microprocessors

 8-Bit Microprocessors

 16-Bit Microprocessors

 32-Bit Microprocessors

 64-Bit Microprocessors
 Introduction

 Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the first

IC in 1959.

 In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew Grove

resigned from Fairchild Semiconductors.

 They founded their own company Intel (Integrated

Electronics).
 Intel grown from 3 man start-up in 1968 to industrial giant by
1981.

 It had 20,000 employees and $188 million revenue.

Intel 4004

 Introduced in 1971.

 It was the first

microprocessor by Intel.

 It was a 4-bit µP.

 Its clock speed was 740KHz.

 It had 2,300 transistors.

 It could execute around

60,000 instructions per
second.

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Intel 4040

 Introduced in 1974.
 It was also 4-bit µP.

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 8-bit Microprocessors
Intel 8008

 Introduced in 1972.

 It was first 8-bit µP.

 Its clock speed was 500 KHz.

 Could execute 50,000 instructions

per second.

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Intel 8080
 Introduced in 1974.
 It was also 8-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was 2 MHz.
 It had 6,000 transistors.
 Was 10 times faster than 8008.
 Could execute 5,00,000
instructions per second.

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Intel 8085  Introduced in 1976.
 It was also 8-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was 3 MHz.
 Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus
is 16-bit.
 It had 6,500 transistors.
 Could execute 7,69,230 instructions
per second.
 It could access 64 KB of memory.
 It had 246 instructions.
 Over 100 million copies were sold.

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 16-bit Microprocessors
 Introduced in 1978.
Intel 8086  It was first 16-bit µP.
 Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz
and 10 MHz, depending on the
version.

 Its data bus is 16-bit and address

bus is 20-bit.
 It had 29,000 transistors.
 Could execute 2.5 million
instructions per second.
 It could access 1 MB of memory.
 It had 117 basic instructions.

 It had Multiply and Divide

Intel 8088
 Introduced in 1979.

 It was also 16-bit µP.

 It was created as a cheaper

version of Intel’s 8086.

 It was a 16-bit processor with

an 8-bit external bus.

 Could execute 2.5 million

instructions per second.

 This chip became the most

popular in the computer
industry when IBM used it for
its first PC.

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Intel 80186 & 80188

 Introduced in 1982.
 They were 16-bit µPs.
 Clock speed was 6 MHz.
 80188 was a cheaper version
of 80186 with an 8-bit
external data bus.
 They had additional
components like:
 Interrupt Controller
 Clock Generator
 Local Bus Controller
 Counters
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Intel 80286

 Introduced in 1982.
 It was 16-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was 8 MHz.
 Its data bus is 16-bit and
address bus is 24-bit.
 It could address 16 MB of
memory.
 It had 1,34,000 transistors.
 It could execute 4 million
instructions per second.
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 32-bit Microprocessors
Introduced in 1986.

Intel 80386 It was first 32-bit µP.


 Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is

32-bit.
 It could address 4 GB of memory.
 It had 2,75,000 transistors.
 Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 33
MHz depending upon the various
versions.
 Different versions:
 80386 DX
 80386 SX
 80386 SL
Intel 80386 became th2e1 best selling
microprocessor in history.
Intel 80486
 Introduced in 1989.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 It had 1.2 milliontransistors.
 Its clock speed varied from
16 MHz to 100 MHz
 It had five different
versions:
 80486 DX
 80486 SX
 80486 DX2
 80486 SL
 80486 DX4
 8 KB of cache memory was
introduced.
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Intel Pentium
 Introduced in 1993.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 It was originally named
80586.
 Its clock speed was 66 MHz.
 Its data bus is 32-bit and
address bus is 32-bit.
 It could address 4 GB of memory.
 Could execute 110 million
instructions per second.
 Cache memory:
 8 KB for instructions.

 8 KB for data.
Intel Pentium Pro
 Introduced in 1995.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 It had L2 cache of 256 KB.
 It had 21 million transistors.
 It was primarily used in server
systems.
 Cache memory:
 8 KB for instructions.
 8 KB for data.

 It had L2 cache of 256 KB.

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Intel Pentium II

 Introduced in 1997.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was 233 MHz to
500 MHz.
 Could execute 333 million
instructions per second.
 MMX technology was supported.
 L2 cache & processor were on
one circuit.

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Intel Pentium II Xeon

 Introduced in 1998.

 It was also 32-bit µP.

 It was designed for servers.

 Its clock speed was 400 MHz
to 450 MHz.

 L1 cache of 32 KB & L2 cache

of 512 KB, 1MB or 2 MB.

 It could work with 4 Xeons in

same system.
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Intel Pentium III

 Introduced in 1999.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 Its clock speed varied
from 500 MHz to 1.4 GHz.
 It had 9.5 million
transistors.

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Intel Pentium IV

 Introduced in 2000.

 It was also 32-bit µP.

 Its clock speed was from 1.3

GHz to 3.8 GHz.

 L1 cache was of 32 KB & L2

cache of 256 KB.

 It had 42 million transistors.

 All internal connections were

made from aluminium to
copper.
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Intel Dual Core
 Introduced in 2006.
 It is 32-bit or 64-bit µP.
 It has two cores.
 Both the cores have there
own internal bus and L1
cache, but share the
external bus and L2 cache.
 It supported SMT
technology.
 SMT: Simultaneously
Multi- Threading
 E.g.: Adobe Photoshop
supported SMT.
 64-bit Microprocessors
 Introduced in 2006.
Intel Core 2  It is a 64-bit µP.
 Its clock speed is from 1.2 GHz
to 3 GHz.
 It has 291 million transistors.
 It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core and 4 MB of L2 cache.
 It is launched in three different
versions:
 Intel Core 2 Duo
 Intel Core 2 Quad
 Intel Core 2 Extreme

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Intel Core i7
 Introduced in 2008.
 It is a 64-bit µP.
 It has 4 physical cores.
 Its clock speed is from 2.66 GHz
to 3.33 GHz.
 It has 781 million transistors.
 It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 256 KB of L2 cache and 8
MB of L3 cache.

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Intel Core i5
 Introduced in 2009.
 It is a 64-bit µP.
 It has 4 physical cores.
 Its clock speed is from 2.40
GHz to 3.60 GHz.
 It has 781 million transistors.
 It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 256 KB of L2 cache and
8 MB of L3 cache.

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Intel Core i3
 Introduced in 2010.
 It is a 64-bit µP.
 It has 2 physical cores.
 Its clock speed is from 2.93GHz to
3.33 GHz.
 It has 781 million transistors.
 It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core,
512 KB of L2 cache and 4 MB of
L3 cache.

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 8085
8086
80186
…286
…386
…486
…586
 P1
 P2
…P3, P4…
C2D..ci7
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Why Microprocessor required?

 Wherever programming is involved, we need a processor.

 Everything in the computer (either program or data) are stored in memory

(primary memory, e.g. RAM and ROM) in the form of millions and millions
of 0’s and 1’s.

 ROM is a permanent memory and RAM is a volatile memory.

 Whenever we are talking about memory here, it is a RAM. There are two
types of RAM, SRAM (static, very fast) and DRAM (dynamic). SRAM store
data in flip-flop and DRAM store data in capacitor. Most computer used
majority of dynamic RAM and small amount of static RAM caller cash. But
here in micro. Proc., we don’t have any difference between SRAM and
DRAM.
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Instructions are stored in the memory and it is executed by the processor.
Compiler or assembler covert the program in machine language (binary
form or opcode). Every instruction has its own unique opcode.
Instructional cycle:

 Fetching

 Decoding (understating the opcode)

 Executing

 In μp, al no. are given in hexadecimal form i.e., 0,1,2,…….E,F. All single no.
is represented by 4 bite binary form in computer.

 8 bit no. : 00H,…….,FFH (byte) (inside the computer it is from 0000

0000……..1111 1111).

 16 bit no. : 0000H,…….,FFFFH (word) (inside the computer it is from 0000

0000 0000 0000……..1111 Dr.
1111Shweta1111 1111).
B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Here everything is in binary, that’s why everything will be power of 2.

Power of 2  BUS (Set of lines, one line can transfer one bit at a
20 = 1
time)
21 = 2
22 = 4  Add bus (identify the location)
23 = 8  Data bus (select the data)
24 = 16
25 = 32  Control bus ( send the signal for read or write
26 = 64 operation to data bus read means processor is
27 = 128 getting data and write means processor
28 = 256
29 = 512 is sending data)
210 = 1024 (1K) All three bus together is called as a system bus. For
220 = 1K X 1K = 1M
read operation first control bus is selected, but for
230 = 1G
230 = 1T write operation first data bus is selected.
Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore
 Evolution of Microprocessors

 Intel introduced its first 4-bit microprocessor 4004 in 1971 and its
8-bit microprocessor 8008 in 1972. These microprocessors could
not survive as general purpose microprocessors due to their
design and performance limitations.

 The first general purpose 8-bit microprocessor 8080 was launched

in 1974 and later in 1977 an updated version of 8080, the 8085
microprocessor was introduced with more added features which
result in a functionally complete microprocessor.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

 The main limitations of the 8-bit microprocessors were their

 low speed,

 low memory addressing capability,

 limited number of general purpose registers and

 a less powerful instruction set.

 In the family of 16-bit microprocessors (can transfer 16 bit data

at a time i.e. in one cycle), Intel’s 8086 was the first one to be
launched in 1978.

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore

Dr. Shweta B. Thomas, VIT Vellore