PIE CHART
• A pie chart is simply a circle divided into sections.
The circle represents the total of the data being
presented and each section is drawn proportional
to its relative size. A pair of compass and protractor
is needed in the construction of pie chart.
1
Example
• The table below represents the skill classification
of the workforce at two factories. Draw a degree
and percentage pie chart to represent the data.
Skill Classification Number of Workers
Unskilled 20
Semi-skilled 30
Skilled 70
Total 120
2
• HISTOGRAM
• Histogram consists of a set of rectangles having:
a) A title, which identifies the population of concern.
b)A vertical scale, which identifies the frequencies in
the various classes.
c) A horizontal scale, which identifies the variable
d)The bars of histogram touches each other.
3
EXAMPLE
Represent the information in the table below on a
histogram.
Class Freq class boundaries
10-14 3 9.5-14.5
15-19 6 14.5-19.5
20-24 10 19.5-24.5
25-29 11 24.5-29.5
30-34 5 29.5-34.5
35-39 3 34.5-39.5
4
ADVANTAGES OF HISTOGRAM
1). They display the comparative frequency
occurrence of data items within each class
interval and so show which class interval are the
most frequently occurring and which are the least.
2). They indicate whether the range of values is
wide or narrow and whether most values occur in
the middle of the range or whether the
frequencies are more evenly spread.
5
Frequency Polygon
This is a line graph of the class frequency plotted
against the class mark. It can be obtained by
connecting the midpoints of the tops of the rectangles
in the histogram. (Note: Class mark or midpoint is the
average of class limits)
6
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE (OGIVE)
The graph of a cumulative frequency distribution is called
cumulative frequency curve or ogive curve. In its
construction, each cumulative frequency is plotted against
the upper class boundaries of the class interval.
When the cumulative totals of successive frequencies of a
distribution are plotted against the corresponding class
boundaries then we have a cumulative frequency curve.
7
(also known as ogive). Since cumulative frequencies are
formed by successive additions, the cumulative frequency
for a can never be less than the cumulative frequency of the
preceding class. For this reason the graph of cumulative
frequency curve either increases or remains level, and can
never drop down towards the x-axis. The last cumulative
frequency is the total of the frequencies in the distribution.
8
Examples
1. The number of maids in ten houses
Number of maids 6 1 2 3 4
Number of houses 1 3 4 1 1
Represent this on a histogram and draw the frequency
polygon on the histogram
2. Draw the cumulative frequency curve of the data below
Group 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Frequency 1 4 12 8 3
9
Solution
Group Frequency Cumulative Class
Frequency Boundaries
1-10 1 1 0.5-10.5
11-20 4 5 10.5-20.5
21-30 12 17 20.5-30.5
31-40 8 25 30.5-40.5
41-50 3 28 40.5-50.5
10
30
25
20
Cummulative frequency
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Class boundaies
11
QUARTILES FROM CUMULATIVE FREQ. CURVE
To help read from the ogive, percentage cumulative
frequencies are marked on the vertical axis and the
corresponding values are read from the horizontal axis.
These are quartiles and percentiles.
To obtain the percentiles and quartiles, we find the sum of
the frequencies N = ∑f and then calculate the following and
read it from the ogive.
12
(a). The lower quartile or first quartile:
Q1 N 0r 25% of N
4
(b) The median: Q2 N 0r 50% of N
2
(c) The upper quartile or 3rd quartile:
Q3 3 N 0r 75% of N
4
13
(d) Decile: D N 0r 10% of N
10
(e) Quintile: Q N 5 0r 20% of N
(f) Inter-quartile range= Q3 Q1 ( from the graph)
1
(f) Semi-interquartile range (Q3 Q1 )
2
14
Example
• The table below shows the weight of 40 female
students in a school. Form a cumulative frequency
table and use it to draw an ogive.
Weight 118- 125- 132- 139- 146- 153- 160- 167- 174-
(kg) 124 131 138 145 152 159 166 173 180
No of 1 3 7 8 9 5 4 2 1
Students
15
Using your graph, determine the following:
(a). Lower quartile (137.5kg)
(b). Median (146.3kg)
(c). Upper Quartile (155.3kg)
(d). Decile (131.8kg)
(e). Quintile (135.7kg)
(f). Interquartile range (17.8kg)
(g). Semi-interquartile range. (8.9kg)
16
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY OR
LOCATION
• As earlier stated, descriptive statistics aims at describing
data by summarising the values in the data set. One of the
ways to achieve this is to find a single value that will
describe the general location of the data. This single value
which is a central point of the distribution is referred to as
measure of central tendency or location.
17
Measures of central tendency are typical and
representative of a data. All other value in the
distribution clusters around the measure of
location. These measures include;
arithmetic mean, median, mode, mode, harmonic
mean and geometric mean.
18
• Measures of partition are measures that divide a
distribution into a specified fraction of the
distribution. These measures are also known as
fractiles they includes: median, quartiles,
percentiles and deciles.
19
The Arithmetic Mean
It is the usual average of a set of population. i.e. The
equal sharing among all the values in the data set.
It is denoted mathematically as,
n
x i
x i 1
1
n
N
x i
i 1
3
N
20
Example
1. Find the mean of 2g, 4g, 6g, 8g and 10g
2. Calculate the mean of 2.3, 5.4, 0 , 6.2, 7.9, 8.1, 0,
3.4
21
Solution
1. n
x i
x i 1
n
2 4 6 8 10
x
5
30
6g
5
n
2. x i
x i 1
n
8
x i
x i 1
n
2.3 5.4 0 6.2 7.9 8.1 0 3.4
x
8
33.3
8
4.163 22
Arithmetic Mean of an Ungrouped Frequency
Distribution
It is denoted mathematically as n
fx i i
x i 1
Where
f
xi represents ith observation
fi represents ith frequency of each observation
f total number of cases
23
Example
The table below indicates the number of children in the
families of twenty teachers in a school. Compute the
arithmetic mean
Number of children 1 2 3 4 5
Number of teachers 4 2 6 5 3
24
Arithmetic Mean : Method of Assumed Mean
This can be used to find the arithmetic mean of any
distribution, whether grouped or ungrouped. It
involves subtracting each value of ‘x’ from a specified
assumed mean which is the mid mark of the class with
the highest frequency
If A is the assumed mean and if the obtained
deviation is represented by d i then,
25
For a frequency distribution, the arithmetic mean is
given by: x
Where : x A
fd
n
This method reduces the value of the data to be
n
computed:
n f
i 1
i
26
Example
With the aid of assumed mean method, find the
arithmetic mean of the table below:
x 3 4 5 6
f 2 6 8 4
27
Solution
The highest frequency is 8
The value of x corresponding to this is 5. hence, 5 is the
assumed mean
x f d(x-5) fd
3 2 -2 -4
4 6 -1 -6
5 8 0 0
6 4 1 4
20 -6
28
Arithmetic mean: A
fd
n
6
5
20
5 ( 0.3)
4.7
Assignment:
Attempt to solve the above using:
fx
f
29
Properties of the Arithmetic Mean
[Link] is unique since there is only one in a set of data
[Link] makes use of every value in the data, making it
suitable for further statistical analysis
[Link] can sometimes give rise to ridiculous values e.g.
4.67 students
[Link] is the most stable and widely used of the measures
of central tendency
30
[Link] is unwise to use the mean as average if the distribution is open
ended
[Link] represents equal sharing of the items in the distribution
[Link] algebraic sum of all deviations from the arithmetic mean is
always zero i.e. X X 0
31
MEDIAN
It is the middle value in a distribution.
To obtain the median of a data, there’s a need to
arrange the values either in ascending or descending
order and select the middle value(s).
It is easier to select the middle number if the number
of items is odd. If it is even, the median will be the
average of the two middle terms
32
Example
1. Find the median of 6, 7, 2, 4, 9, 0, 3
2. Find the median of 163, 149, 152, 160, 195, 180
33
Solution
1. Rearrange (ascending or descending) the numbers; 0, 2, 3, 4, 6,
7, 9 the middle value is 4.
2. Rearrange; 149, 152, 160, 163, 180 , 195 Here, we have a tie
hence the median is
160 163
161.5
2
34
Median of an Ungrouped Frequency Table
Firstly, find the total frequency, add 1 and
divide by two. There's a need to create a
column for cumulative frequency to help locate
the median
35
Example
1. Find the median of the following ungrouped frequency
table
x 2 4 6 8 10
f 15 12 23 6 4
2. The age distribution of 20 students are given in the data
below, obtain the median for the table.
Age 3 5 7 9 10
No of Students 2 3 4 5 6
36
Solution
1. Total frequency is 15+12+23+6+4=60 hence
n 1 60 1
30.5
2 2
x f Cumulative Freq
2 15 15
4 12 27
6 23 50
8 6 56
10 4 60
60
37
From the cumulative frequency, 30.5 falls
under 50 and the corresponding value of x is
6. Therefore, the median is 6
2. Total frequency is 20
n 1 20 1
10.5
2 2
38
x f Cumulative
Freq
3 2 2
5 3 5
7 4 9
9 5 14
10 6 20
20
From the commutative frequency, 10.5 is located under
‘14’ and the corresponding x value is 9.
The median is 9
39
Properties of the Median
1. It is the central observation of a data
2. The median gives the actual value for a set of discrete and
odd items
3. it can be estimated from incomplete data
4. The median always exist
5. The median cant be used for further statistical computation
6. It is unique because there is only one value for median in a
data
40
MODE
It is the highest occurring item in a set of
observation.
When they are two modes it is called bimodal
distribution, if three, it is called trimodal
distribution and when it is more than three it is
called multimodal distribution
41
Example
Find the mode of the following;
i. 2, 5, 2, 3, 7, 1, 5, 6, 5
ii. 1, 6, 7, 6, 8, 4, 1
iii. 93, 72, 24, 43, 67, 93, 24, 43, 72, 67
42
Solution
i. The number that occurred most is 5 since it occurred thrice
ii. There’s a tie in the number that occurred most. They are; 1
and 6 each occurred twice hence this distribution is
bimodal
iii. This set has no mode since all the items occurs equally
(twice). This indicates that the mode may not exist in some
cases
43
Properties of the Mode
1. It is the most occurring
2. It may or may not exist and if it exists, it may not be
unique
3. It ignores a large part of the data hence not widely
used in research
4. It can be estimated from incomplete data
5. It cannot be used for further statistical analysis
44
Relationship between Mean, Median and Mode
An empirical relationship exists in unimodal distributions
which are not symmetrical in nature. The relationship is:
mean - mod e 3 mean - median
If two of the above named measures are known, the third
can be computed provided the distribution is unimodal
45
Example
1. The mode of a given distribution is 81.93 and
the mean is 97.68. compute the median
2. The mean value of a unimodal distribution is
181 while the mode is 160. Calculate the
median
46
Solution
1. mean - mod e 3 mean - median
97.68 - 81.93 3 97.68 - median
15.75 3 97.68 - median
15.75
97.68 - median
3
5.25 97.68 - median
median 97.68 - 5.25
median 92.43
47
2. mean - mod e 3 mean - median
181 - 160 3 181 - median
21 3 181 - median
21
181 - median
3
7 181 - median
median 181 - 7
median 174
48
Weighted Arithmetic Mean, Geometric Mean, and Harmonic
Mean
Weighted Arithmetic Mean: if the values in a set of
observations X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , , Xn are each given weights
or weighting factor w1 , w2 , w3 , , wn then the weighted
arithmetic mean is defined as:
w1 x1 w2 x2 w3 x3 wn xn
wx
w1 w2 w3 wn w
Example of W.A.M. is the Grade Point Average (GPA)
49
Example
The scores obtained by a Covenant University
Industrial Physics student in Alpha semester
is given below. Calculate her Grade Point
Average (GPA)
Courses MAT 114 MAT 111 CHM 111 TMC 111 GST 111
Units 2 3 3 1 2
Grade B C A A B
To obtain the Grade point average, the unit of the
courses form the weight.
50
Solution
We know what each grade represents i.e. A is 5
points, B-4, C-3, D-2, F-0
w1 x1 w2 x2 w3 x3 wn xn
w1 w2 w3 wn
2 4 3 3 3 5 1 5 2 4
2 3 3 1 2
8 9 15 5 8
11
45
4.09
11
51
ASSIGNMENT
The final grade in a biology course is determined by a score from 0 to 100,
which has three components: a laboratory component of 25%, two
hour-exams that together contribute 25%, and a final exam that
contributes 50%. There are 100 possible points for the laboratory, 50
possible points for each hour exam, and 100 possible points for the
final. A student in the course got 75 points for the laboratory, 40 and
38 points for the two hour-exams, and 85 points for the final. Use
weighted mean to determine his overall score (from 0 to 100) for the
course.
52
Geometric Mean
Geometric Mean
This is the nth root of the product of n numbers. If
X1 , X 2 , X 3 , , X n are observations then, geometric
mean G is :
G n X1 X 2 X 3 Xn
G.M. is used to find the rate of increase and decrease in a set of
variable. For instance, it can be used to find percentage increase
in business series also, in constructing index numbers
53
G n X1 X 2 X 3 Xn
G n X1 X 2 X 3 Xn
Take log of both sides
log G n log X 1 X 2 X 3 Xn
Simplifying with laws of logarithm
n log G log X 1 log X 2 log X 3 log X n
log X 1 log X 2 log X 3 log X n
log G
n
log G
log X
a
n
log X
G anti log
b
n
54
Either equation a or b can be used to obtain
geometric mean
Example
Find the geometric mean of 6, 8, 10, 16
55
Geometric Mean of a Frequency Distribution
Denoted mathematically by
f1 log X 1 f 2 log X 2 f 3 log X 3 f 3 log X n
log G
n
log G
f log X
f
For an ungrouped data, X i represent
individual observation while f i represents the
corresponding frequency.
For a grouped data, X i represents the mid mark of the class.
56
Example
1. The table below shows the distribution of
the life span of 50 batteries in hours,
calculate the geometric mean
Life of battery (hours) 10 15 20 25 30
Number of batteries 5 9 18 12 6
2. The table below shows the distribution of
the tenement rates of houses in Ota. Find the geometric mean
Tenement Rates 2-4 5-7 8-10 11-13 14-16
Number of Houses 3 4 10 15 5
57