Module 4

Sampling Theory
Test of Significance for Large Samples:
1. Test for Single Proportion
i. A dice is thrown 9000 times and a throw of 3 or 4 is observed 3240 times. Show that the
dice cannot be regarded as an unbiased one and find the limits between which the
probability of a throw of 3 or 4 lies. (Hint: use note point 3 to calculate limits)

Answer:

Given,

𝑛 = 9000, 𝑥 = 3240

Observed proportion,
𝑥 3240
𝑃= = = 0.36
𝑛 9000

If the dice is unbiased, probability of getting 3 or 4 is

2 1
𝑝= = = 0.3333
6 3
1 2
𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝 = 1 − = = 0.6667
3 3

Null hypothesis:
1
𝐻0 : 𝑝 =
3

Alternative hypothesis:
1
𝐻1 : 𝑝 ≠
3

Test statistic:
𝑃−𝑝
𝑍=
𝑝𝑞
√
𝑛
 0.36 − 0.3333
𝑍=
√0.3333 × 0.6667
9000
0.0267
𝑍=
√0.00002469
0.0267
𝑍=
0.004969
𝑍 = 5.37

At 5% level of significance, critical value is

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣= 5.37 > 1.96

𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the dice cannot be regarded as an unbiased one.

Now, limits between which probability lies:

Using note point 3,

𝑃𝑄
𝑃 ± 3√
𝑛

Here,

𝑃 = 0.36, 𝑄 = 1 − 𝑃 = 0.64
0.36 × 0.64
= 0.36 ± 3√
9000
= 0.36 ± 3√0.0000256
= 0.36 ± 3(0.00506)
= 0.36 ± 0.01518

Lower limit:

0.36 − 0.01518 = 0.34482

Upper limit:
 0.36 + 0.01518 = 0.37518
0.3448 < 𝑝 < 0.3752

ii. In a sample of 1,000 people in Maharashtra, 540 are rice eaters and the rest are wheat
eaters. Can we assume that both rice and wheat are equally popular in this State at 1%
level of significance? (Use note point: 1)

Answer:

Given,

𝑛 = 1000, 𝑥 = 540

Observed proportion of rice eaters,

𝑥 540
𝑃= = = 0.54
𝑛 1000

If rice and wheat are equally popular,

𝑝 = 0.5, 𝑞 = 0.5

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.5

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝑝 ≠ 0.5

Test statistic:
𝑃−𝑝
𝑍=
𝑝𝑞
√
𝑛
0.54 − 0.5
𝑍=
√0.5 × 0.5
1000
0.04
𝑍=
√0.00025
0.04
𝑍=
0.01581
 𝑍 = 2.53

At 1% level of significance, critical value is

𝑍0.01 = 2.58

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣= 2.53 < 2.58

𝐻0 is accepted

Therefore, both rice and wheat are equally popular in Maharashtra at 1% level of
significance.

Rice and wheat are equally popular

iii. In a big city 325 men out of 600 men were found to be smokers. Does this information
support the conclusion that the majority of men in this city are smokers?

Answer:

Given,

𝑛 = 600, 𝑥 = 325

Observed proportion,
𝑥 325
𝑃= = = 0.5417
𝑛 600

To test whether majority of men are smokers:

𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.5
𝐻1 : 𝑝 > 0.5

Here,

𝑝 = 0.5, 𝑞 = 0.5

Test statistic:
 𝑃−𝑝
𝑍=
𝑝𝑞
√
𝑛
0.5417 − 0.5
𝑍=
√0.5 × 0.5
600
0.0417
𝑍=
√0.0004167
0.0417
𝑍=
0.02041
𝑍 = 2.04

At 5% level of significance for right-tailed test,

𝑍0.05 = 1.645

Since,

𝑍 = 2.04 > 1.645

𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the information supports the conclusion that majority of men in this city are
smokers.

Majority of men are smokers

iv. In a random sample of 125 cool drinkers, 68 said they prefer thumsup to pepsi. Test the
null hypothesis 𝑝 = 0.5 against the alternative hypothesis 𝑝 > 0.5.

Answer:

Given,

𝑛 = 125, 𝑥 = 68

Observed proportion,
𝑥 68
𝑃= = = 0.544
𝑛 125

Null hypothesis:
 𝐻0 : 𝑝 = 0.5

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝑝 > 0.5

Here,

𝑝 = 0.5, 𝑞 = 0.5

Test statistic:
𝑃−𝑝
𝑍=
𝑝𝑞
√
𝑛
0.544 − 0.5
𝑍=
√0.5 × 0.5
125
0.044
𝑍=
√0.002
0.044
𝑍=
0.04472
𝑍 = 0.984

At 5% level of significance for right-tailed test,

𝑍0.05 = 1.645

Since,

𝑍 = 0.984 < 1.645

𝐻0 is accepted

Therefore, there is no sufficient evidence to say that more cool drinkers prefer Thumsup to
Pepsi.

Preference for Thumsup is not significant

2. Test of significance of the difference between two sample
proportions
i. Random samples of 400 men and 600 women were asked whether they would like to
have a fly-over near their residence. 200 men and 325 women were in favour of the
proposal. Test the hypothesis that proportions of men and women in favour of the
proposal are same against that they are not, at 5% level.

Answer:

Given,

For men:

𝑛1 = 400, 𝑥1 = 200
𝑥1 200
𝑃1 = = = 0.5
𝑛1 400

For women:

𝑛2 = 600, 𝑥2 = 325
𝑥2 325
𝑃2 = = = 0.5417
𝑛2 600

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝑃1 = 𝑃2

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝑃1 ≠ 𝑃2

Combined proportion:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑃=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
200 + 325
𝑃=
400 + 600
525
𝑃= = 0.525
1000
𝑄 = 1 − 𝑃 = 1 − 0.525 = 0.475

Standard error:
 1 1
𝑆. 𝐸. = √𝑃𝑄 (𝑛 + 𝑛 )
1 2
1 1
= √0.525 × 0.475 (400 + 600)

= √0.249375(0.004167)
= √0.001039
= 0.0322

Test statistic:
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.
0.5 − 0.5417
𝑍=
0.0322
𝑍 = −1.295
∣ 𝑍 ∣= 1.295

At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣< 1.96
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, there is no significant difference between proportions of men and women in favour
of the proposal.

The proportions are same

ii. In a large city A, 20% of a random sample of 900 school boys had a slight physical defect.
In another city B, 18.5% of a random sample of 1600 schools boys had the same defect. Is
the difference between the proportions significant?

Answer:

Given,

For city A:

𝑃1 = 0.20, 𝑛1 = 900
For city B:

𝑃2 = 0.185, 𝑛2 = 1600

Number of defective boys:

𝑥1 = 0.20 × 900 = 180

𝑥2 = 0.185 × 1600 = 296

Combined proportion:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑃=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
180 + 296
𝑃=
900 + 1600
476
𝑃= = 0.1904
2500
𝑄 = 1 − 𝑃 = 1 − 0.1904 = 0.8096

Standard error:

1 1
𝑆. 𝐸. = √𝑃𝑄 (𝑛 + 𝑛 )
1 2
1 1
= √0.1904 × 0.8096 (900 + 1600)

= √0.1542(0.001736)
= √0.0002677
= 0.01636

Test statistic:
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.
0.20 − 0.185
𝑍=
0.01636
𝑍 = 0.917

At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96
Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣< 1.96
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the difference between the proportions is not significant.

Difference is not significant

iii. In two large populations, there are30%, and 25% respectively of fair-haired people. Is
this difference likely to be hidden in samples of 1200 and 900 respectively from the two
populations?

Answer:

Given,

𝑃1 = 0.30, 𝑛1 = 1200
𝑃2 = 0.25, 𝑛2 = 900
𝑄1 = 1 − 0.30 = 0.70
𝑄2 = 1 − 0.25 = 0.75

Standard error:

𝑃1 𝑄1 𝑃2 𝑄2
𝑆. 𝐸. = √ +
𝑛1 𝑛2

0.30 × 0.70 0.25 × 0.75

=√ +
1200 900
= √0.000175 + 0.0002083
= √0.0003833
= 0.01958

Test statistic:
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.
0.30 − 0.25
𝑍=
0.01958
𝑍 = 2.55
At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣> 1.96
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the difference is significant and is not likely to be hidden in samples.

Difference is significant

iv. In a sample of 600 students of a certain college, 400 are found to use ball pens. In
another college from a sample of 900 students, 450 were found to use ball pens. Test
whether two colleges are significantly different w.r.t. the habit of using ball pens?

Answer:

Given,

For first college:

𝑛1 = 600, 𝑥1 = 400
400
𝑃1 = = 0.6667
600

For second college:

𝑛2 = 900, 𝑥2 = 450
450
𝑃2 = = 0.5
900

Combined proportion:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑃=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
400 + 450
𝑃=
600 + 900
850
𝑃= = 0.5667
1500
𝑄 = 1 − 𝑃 = 1 − 0.5667 = 0.4333
Standard error:

1 1
𝑆. 𝐸. = √𝑃𝑄 (𝑛 + 𝑛 )
1 2
1 1
= √0.5667 × 0.4333 (600 + 900)

= √0.2455(0.002778)
= √0.000682
= 0.0261

Test statistic:
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.
0.6667 − 0.5
𝑍=
0.0261
𝑍 = 6.39

At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣> 1.96
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the two colleges are significantly different with respect to the habit of using ball
pens.

Two colleges differ significantly

3. Test of Significance for Single Mean

i. A sample of 900 members has a mean of 3.4 cms and S.D 2.61 cms. Is this sample has
been taken from a large population of mean 3.25 cm and S.D 2.61 cms. If the population is
normal and its mean is unknown find the 95% fiducial limits of true mean.

Answer:

Given,
 𝑛 = 900
𝑥ˉ = 3.4 cm
𝜎 = 2.61 cm

Population mean,

𝜇 = 3.25 cm

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 3.25

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 3.25

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ − 𝜇
𝑍=
𝜎/√𝑛
3.4 − 3.25
𝑍=
2.61/√900
0.15
𝑍=
2.61/30
0.15
𝑍=
0.087
𝑍 = 1.72

At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣< 1.96
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the sample may be regarded as taken from the population having mean 3.25cm.

Now, 95% fiducial limits:

From notes,
 𝜎
𝑥ˉ ± 1.96
√𝑛

2.61
= 3.4 ± 1.96 ( )
30
= 3.4 ± 1.96(0.087)
= 3.4 ± 0.1705

Lower limit:

3.4 − 0.1705 = 3.2295

Upper limit:

3.4 + 0.1705 = 3.5705

Therefore, the 95% fiducial limits are

3.2295 < 𝜇 < 3.5705

ii. A sample of 400 items is taken from a population whose standard deviation is 10. The
mean of the sample is 40. Test whether the sample has come from a population with
mean 38. Also calculate 95% confidence interval for the population.

Answer:

Given,

𝑛 = 400
𝑥ˉ = 40
𝜎 = 10
𝜇 = 38

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 38

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇 ≠ 38
Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ − 𝜇
𝑍=
𝜎/√𝑛
40 − 38
𝑍=
10/√400
2
𝑍=
10/20
2
𝑍=
0.5
𝑍=4

At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣> 1.96
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the sample has not come from a population with mean 38.

Now, 95% confidence interval:

𝜎
𝑥ˉ ± 1.96
√𝑛
10
= 40 ± 1.96 ( )
20
= 40 ± 1.96(0.5)
= 40 ± 0.98

Lower limit:

40 − 0.98 = 39.02

Upper limit:

40 + 0.98 = 40.98

Therefore, 95% confidence interval is

39.02 < 𝜇 < 40.98

iii. An ambulance service claims that it takes on the average less than 10 minutes to reach
its destination in emergency calls. A sample of 36 calls has a mean of 11 minutes and the
variance of 16 minutes. Test the claim at 0.05 level significance.

Answer:

Given,

𝑛 = 36
𝑥ˉ = 11

Variance,

𝜎 2 = 16

Therefore,

𝜎=4

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 10

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 10

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ − 𝜇
𝑍=
𝜎/√𝑛
11 − 10
𝑍=
4/√36
1
𝑍=
4/6
1
𝑍=
0.6667
𝑍 = 1.5

At 5% level of significance for right tailed test,

 𝑍0.05 = 1.645

Since,

𝑍 < 1.645
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the claim of the ambulance service may be accepted.

Average time is less than 10 minutes

4. Test of Significance for Difference of Means

i. The means of two large samples of sizes 1000 and 2000 members are 67.5 inches and
68.0 inches respectively. Can the samples be regarded as drawn from the same population
of S.D 2.5 inches.

Answer:

Given,

𝑛1 = 1000, 𝑛2 = 2000
𝑥ˉ1 = 67.5, 𝑥ˉ2 = 68.0

Population standard deviation,

𝜎 = 2.5

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2

Standard error:

1 1
𝑆. 𝐸. = 𝜎√ +
𝑛1 𝑛2
 1 1
= 2.5√ +
1000 2000
= 2.5√0.001 + 0.0005
= 2.5√0.0015
= 2.5(0.03873)
= 0.0968

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ1 − 𝑥ˉ2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.
67.5 − 68.0
𝑍=
0.0968
−0.5
𝑍=
0.0968
𝑍 = −5.16
∣ 𝑍 ∣= 5.16

At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣> 1.96
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the samples cannot be regarded as drawn from the same population.

Samples are significantly different

ii. Samples of students were drawn from two universities and from their weights in
kilograms, mean and standard deviations are calculated and shown below. Make a large
sample test to test the significance of the difference between the means.

Answer:

The table containing the values is not clearly visible in the uploaded notes/question bank.

Use the following standard formula from the notes:

 𝑥ˉ1 − 𝑥ˉ2
𝑍=
𝜎12 𝜎22
√
𝑛1 + 𝑛2

Procedure:

1. Calculate sample means:

𝑥ˉ1 , 𝑥ˉ2

2. Calculate standard error:

𝜎12 𝜎22
𝑆. 𝐸. = √ +
𝑛1 𝑛2

3. Find test statistic:

𝑥ˉ1 − 𝑥ˉ2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.

4. Compare with critical value:

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

If,

∣ 𝑍 ∣< 1.96

accept 𝐻0 ,

otherwise reject 𝐻0 .

iii. A researcher wants to know the intelligence of students in a school. He selected two
groups of students. In the first group there are 150 students having mean IQ of 75 with a
S.D. of 15. In the second group there are 250 students having mean IQ of 70 with S.D. of
20. Is there a significant difference between the means of two groups?

Answer:

Given,

𝑛1 = 150, 𝑛2 = 250
 𝑥ˉ1 = 75, 𝑥ˉ2 = 70
𝜎1 = 15, 𝜎2 = 20

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2

Standard error:

𝜎12 𝜎22
𝑆. 𝐸. = √ +
𝑛1 𝑛2

152 202
=√ +
150 250

225 400
=√ +
150 250
= √1.5 + 1.6
= √3.1
= 1.761

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ1 − 𝑥ˉ2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.
75 − 70
𝑍=
1.761
5
𝑍=
1.761
𝑍 = 2.84

At 5% level of significance,

𝑍0.05 = 1.96

Since,

∣ 𝑍 ∣> 1.96
 𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, there is significant difference between the IQ means of the two groups.

Difference between the means is significant

iv. The average marks scored by 32 boys is 72 with a S.D. of 8. While that for 36 girls is 70
with a S.D. of 6. Does this indicate that the boys perform better than girls at level of
significance 0.05?

Answer:

Given,

For boys:

𝑛1 = 32, 𝑥ˉ1 = 72, 𝜎1 = 8

For girls:

𝑛2 = 36, 𝑥ˉ2 = 70, 𝜎2 = 6

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇1 = 𝜇2

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇1 > 𝜇2

Standard error:

𝜎12 𝜎22
𝑆. 𝐸. = √ +
𝑛1 𝑛2

82 62
=√ +
32 36

64 36
=√ +
32 36
= √2 + 1
 = √3
= 1.732

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ1 − 𝑥ˉ2
𝑍=
𝑆. 𝐸.
72 − 70
𝑍=
1.732
2
𝑍=
1.732
𝑍 = 1.155

At 5% level of significance for right tailed test,

𝑍0.05 = 1.645

Since,

𝑍 < 1.645
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, there is no significant evidence that boys perform better than girls.

Boys do not perform significantly better than girls

Small Sample Test

Student’s 𝒕-test
1. Test of Significance of the Difference Between Sample Mean
and Population Mean
i. A sample of 26 bulbs gives a mean life of 990 hours with a S.D. of 20 hours. The
manufacturer claims that the mean life of bulbs is 1000 hours. Is the sample not up to the
standard?

Answer:

Given,

𝑛 = 26
 𝑥ˉ = 990
𝑠 = 20

Population mean,

𝜇 = 1000

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 1000

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇 < 1000

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ − 𝜇
𝑡=
𝑠/√𝑛
990 − 1000
𝑡=
20/√26
−10
𝑡=
20/5.099
−10
𝑡=
3.922
𝑡 = −2.55

Degrees of freedom:

𝑣 = 𝑛 − 1 = 26 − 1 = 25

From t-table at 5% level,

𝑡0.05 = 2.06

Since,

∣ 𝑡 ∣> 2.06
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the sample is not up to the standard.

 Sample is not up to the standard

ii. Tests made on the breaking strength of 10 pieces of a metal gave the following results:
578, 572, 570, 568, 572, 570, 570, 572, 596 and 584 kg. Test if the mean breaking strength
of the wire can be assumed as 577 kg.

Answer:

Given observations:

578, 572, 570, 568, 572, 570, 570, 572, 596, 584

Number of observations:

𝑛 = 10

Assumed population mean:

𝜇 = 577

Calculate mean:
Σ𝑥
𝑥ˉ =
𝑛
Σ𝑥 = 5752
5752
𝑥ˉ = = 575.2
10

Now calculate deviations.

𝑥 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ˉ 𝑑2

578 2.8 7.84

572 -3.2 10.24

570 -5.2 27.04

568 -7.2 51.84

572 -3.2 10.24

 𝑥 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ˉ 𝑑2

570 -5.2 27.04

570 -5.2 27.04

572 -3.2 10.24

596 20.8 432.64

584 8.8 77.44

Σ𝑑 2 = 681.6

Sample standard deviation:

Σ𝑑 2
𝑠=√
𝑛−1

681.6
=√
9
= √75.73
= 8.70

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ − 𝜇
𝑡=
𝑠/√𝑛
575.2 − 577
𝑡=
8.70/√10
−1.8
𝑡=
2.751
𝑡 = −0.654

Degrees of freedom:

𝑣 = 10 − 1 = 9

At 5% level,

𝑡0.05 = 2.262
Since,

∣ 𝑡 ∣< 2.262
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the mean breaking strength may be assumed as 577 kg.

Mean breaking strength can be assumed as 577 kg

iii. A certain injection administered to each of 12 patients resulted in the following

increases of blood pressure: 5, 2, 8, -1, 3, 0, 6, -2, 1, 5, 0, 4. Can it be concluded that the
injection will be, in general, accompanied by an increase in BP?

Answer:

Given data:

5, 2, 8, − 1, 3, 0, 6, − 2, 1, 5, 0, 4
𝑛 = 12

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 0

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 0

Calculate mean:

Σ𝑥 = 31
31
𝑥ˉ = = 2.583
12

Calculation table:

𝑥 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ˉ 𝑑2

5 2.417 5.842
 𝑥 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ˉ 𝑑2

2 -0.583 0.340

8 5.417 29.344

-1 -3.583 12.838

3 0.417 0.174

0 -2.583 6.672

6 3.417 11.676

-2 -4.583 21.004

1 -1.583 2.506

5 2.417 5.842

0 -2.583 6.672

4 1.417 2.008

Σ𝑑2 = 104.918

Standard deviation:

104.918
𝑠=√
11
𝑠 = √9.538
𝑠 = 3.088

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ − 0
𝑡=
𝑠/√𝑛
2.583
𝑡=
3.088/√12
2.583
𝑡=
0.891
𝑡 = 2.90
Degrees of freedom:

𝑣 = 12 − 1 = 11

At 5% level,

𝑡0.05 = 1.796

Since,

𝑡 > 1.796
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the injection is accompanied by an increase in blood pressure.

Injection increases blood pressure

iv. The heights of 10 males of a given locality are found to be 175, 168, 155, 170, 152, 170,
175, 160, 160 and 165 cms. Based on this sample, find the 95% confidence limits for the
height of males in that locality.

Answer:

Given data:

175, 168, 155, 170, 152, 170, 175, 160, 160, 165
𝑛 = 10

Calculate mean:

Σ𝑥 = 1650
1650
𝑥ˉ = = 165
10

Calculation table:
 𝑥 𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ˉ 𝑑2

175 10 100

168 3 9

155 -10 100

170 5 25

152 -13 169

170 5 25

175 10 100

Σ𝑑 2 = 578

Standard deviation:

578
𝑠=√
9
𝑠 = √64.22
𝑠 = 8.014

For 95% confidence limits,

𝑡0.05 = 2.262

Confidence limits:
 𝑠
𝑥ˉ ± 𝑡
√𝑛
8.014
= 165 ± 2.262 ( )
√10
= 165 ± 2.262(2.535)
= 165 ± 5.734

Lower limit:

165 − 5.734 = 159.266

Upper limit:

165 + 5.734 = 170.734

Therefore,

159.27 < 𝜇 < 170.73

v. Eight students were given a test in PROBABILITY & STATISTICS and after one month
coaching, they were given another test of the similar nature. The following table gives the
increase of their marks in the second test over the first.

Do the marks indicate that the students have gained from the coaching?

Answer:

Given,

𝑑: 4, − 2, 6, − 8, 12, 5, − 7, 2
𝑛=8

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 : 𝜇 = 0

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 : 𝜇 > 0
Calculation table:

𝑑 𝑑2

4 16

-2 4

6 36

-8 64

12 144

5 25

-7 49

2 4

Σ𝑑 = 12
Σ𝑑 2 = 342

Mean:
Σ𝑑
𝑑ˉ =
𝑛
12
=
8
= 1.5

Standard deviation:

2 (Σ𝑑)2
√Σ𝑑 − 𝑛
𝑠=
𝑛−1
122
√ 342 −
= 8
7
342 − 18
=√
7
 324
=√
7
= √46.286
𝑠 = 6.803

Test statistic:

𝑑ˉ
𝑡=
𝑠/√𝑛
1.5
=
6.803/√8
1.5
=
2.405
𝑡 = 0.624

Degrees of freedom:

𝑣 =𝑛−1=7

At 5% level of significance,

𝑡0.05 = 2.365

Since,

𝑡 < 2.365
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the students have not significantly gained from the coaching.

Students have not significantly gained from coaching

 2. 𝒕−Test for Difference of Sample Means

i. Two independent samples of sizes 8 and 7 contained the following values:

Sample 1: 19, 17, 15, 21, 16, 18, 16, 14
Sample 2: 15, 14, 15, 19, 15, 18, 16
Is the difference between the sample means significant

Answer:
For Sample 1:
𝑛1 = 8
Σ𝑥1 = 136
136
𝑥ˉ1 = = 17
8

For Sample 2:
𝑛2 = 7
Σ𝑥2 = 112
112
𝑥ˉ2 = = 16
7

Calculation table for Sample 1:

𝑥1 𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 17 𝑑12
19 2 4
17 0 0
15 -2 4
21 4 16
16 -1 1
18 1 1
16 -1 1
14 -3 9
Σ𝑑12 = 36

Calculation table for Sample 2:

𝑥2 𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 16 𝑑22
15 -1 1
14 -2 4
15 -1 1
19 3 9
15 -1 1
18 2 4
 𝑥2 𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 16 𝑑22
16 0 0
Σ𝑑22 = 20

Pooled variance:
Σ𝑑12 + Σ𝑑22
𝑠2 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2
36 + 20
=
8+7−2
56
=
13
= 4.307
𝑠 = √4.307 = 2.075

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ1 − 𝑥ˉ2
𝑡=
1 1
𝑠√𝑛 + 𝑛
1 2
17 − 16
=
1 1
2.075√8 + 7
1
=
2.075√0.2679
1
=
1.074
𝑡 = 0.931

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2 = 13

At 5% level,
𝑡0.05 = 2.160

Since,
∣ 𝑡 ∣< 2.160
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the difference between the sample means is not significant.

Difference is not significant

ii. The following data represent the biological values of protein from cow's milk and
buffalo's milk at a certain level.
Cow's milk: 1.82, 2.02, 1.88, 1.61, 1.81, 1.54
Buffalo's milk: 2.00, 1.83, 1.86, 2.03, 2.19, 1.88
Examine if the average values of protein in the two samples significantly differ.

Answer:
For cow’s milk:
𝑛1 = 6
Σ𝑥1 = 10.68
10.68
𝑥ˉ1 = = 1.78
6

For buffalo’s milk:

𝑛2 = 6
Σ𝑥2 = 11.79
11.79
𝑥ˉ2 = = 1.965
6

Calculation table:
Cow’s milk

𝑥1 𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 1.78 𝑑12

1.82 0.04 0.0016

2.02 0.24 0.0576
1.88 0.10 0.0100
1.61 -0.17 0.0289
1.81 0.03 0.0009
1.54 -0.24 0.0576
Σ𝑑12 = 0.1566

Buffalo’s milk

𝑥2 𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 1.965 𝑑22

2.00 0.035 0.0012

1.83 -0.135 0.0182
1.86 -0.105 0.0110
2.03 0.065 0.0042
2.19 0.225 0.0506
1.88 -0.085 0.0072
Σ𝑑22 = 0.0924
 Pooled variance:
0.1566 + 0.0924
𝑠2 =
6+6−2
0.249
=
10
= 0.0249
𝑠 = √0.0249 = 0.1578

Test statistic:
1.78 − 1.965
𝑡=
1 1
0.1578√6 + 6
−0.185
=
0.0911
𝑡 = −2.03

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = 10

At 5% level,
𝑡0.05 = 2.228

Since,
∣ 𝑡 ∣< 2.228
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, there is no significant difference between the average protein values.

Difference is not significant

iii. The following data relate to the marks obtained by 11 students in 2 tests, one
held at the beginning of a year and the other at the end of the year after intensive
coaching.
Test 1: 19, 23, 16, 24, 17, 18, 20, 18, 21, 19, 20
Test 2: 17, 24, 20, 24, 20, 22, 20, 20, 18, 22, 19
Do the data indicate that the students have benefited by coaching?

Answer:
Let,
𝑑 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Test 1 (𝑥1 ) Test 2 (𝑥2 ) 𝑑 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑑2

19 17 -2 4
23 24 1 1
16 20 4 16
24 24 0 0
Test 1 (𝑥1 ) Test 2 (𝑥2 ) 𝑑 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑑2
17 20 3 9
18 22 4 16
20 20 0 0
18 20 2 4
21 18 -3 9
19 22 3 9
20 19 -1 1
Σ𝑑 = 11
Σ𝑑 2 = 69
𝑛 = 11

Mean difference:
Σ𝑑
𝑑ˉ =
𝑛
11
𝑑ˉ = =1
11

Standard deviation:
2 (Σ𝑑)2
√Σ𝑑 − 𝑛
𝑠=
𝑛−1
112
√ 69 −
= 11
10
69 − 11
=√
10

58
=√
10
= √5.8
𝑠 = 2.408

Test statistic:
𝑑ˉ
𝑡=
𝑠/√𝑛
1
=
2.408/√11
1
=
0.726
𝑡 = 1.377

Degrees of freedom:
 𝑣 = 𝑛 − 1 = 10

At 5% level,
𝑡0.05 = 2.228

Since,
∣ 𝑡 ∣< 2.228
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the students have not significantly benefited by coaching.

Students have not significantly benefited by coaching

iv. Below are given the gain in weights (in lbs) of pigs fed on two diets A and B.

Diet A 25 32 30 34 24 14 32 24 30 31 35 25 - - -

Diet B 44 34 22 10 47 31 40 30 32 35 18 21 35 29 22

Test, if the two diets differ significantly as regards their effect on increase in
weight.

Answer:
For Diet A:
𝑛1 = 12
Σ𝑥1 = 336
336
𝑥ˉ1 = = 28
12

For Diet B:
𝑛2 = 15
Σ𝑥2 = 450
450
𝑥ˉ2 = = 30
15

Calculation table for Diet A

𝑥1 𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 28 𝑑12

25 -3 9
32 4 16
30 2 4
34 6 36
24 -4 16
 𝑥1 𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 28 𝑑12

14 -14 196
32 4 16
24 -4 16
30 2 4
31 3 9
35 7 49
25 -3 9
Σ𝑑12 = 380

Calculation table for Diet B

𝑥2 𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 30 𝑑22

44 14 196
34 4 16
22 -8 64
10 -20 400
47 17 289
31 1 1
40 10 100
30 0 0
32 2 4
35 5 25
18 -12 144
21 -9 81
35 5 25
29 -1 1
22 -8 64
Σ𝑑22 = 1410

Pooled variance:
2
Σ𝑑12 + Σ𝑑22
𝑠 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2
380 + 1410
=
12 + 15 − 2
1790
=
25
= 71.6
 𝑠 = √71.6 = 8.462

Test statistic:
𝑥ˉ1 − 𝑥ˉ2
𝑡=
1 1
𝑠√𝑛 + 𝑛
1 2
28 − 30
=
1 1
8.462√12 +
15
−2
=
8.462√0.15
−2
=
3.278
𝑡 = −0.61

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2 = 25

At 5% level,
𝑡0.05 = 2.06

Since,
∣ 𝑡 ∣< 2.06
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the two diets do not differ significantly in their effect on increase in weight.
Difference between diets is not significant

v. Ten soldiers participated in a shooting competition in the first week. After

intensive training they participated in the competition in the second week. Their
scores before and after training are given as follows:
Score before 67 24 57 55 63 54 56 68 33 43

Scores after 70 38 58 58 56 67 68 75 42 38

Do the data indicate that the soldiers have been benefited by the training.

Answer:
Let,
𝑑 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Before (𝑥1 ) After (𝑥2 ) 𝑑 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑑2

67 70 3 9

24 38 14 196

57 58 1 1

55 58 3 9

63 56 -7 49

54 67 13 169

56 68 12 144

68 75 7 49

33 42 9 81

43 38 -5 25

Σ𝑑 = 50
Σ𝑑 2 = 732
𝑛 = 10

Mean difference:
Σ𝑑
𝑑ˉ =
𝑛
50
𝑑ˉ = =5
10

Standard deviation:

2 (Σ𝑑)2
√Σ𝑑 − 𝑛
𝑠=
𝑛−1
502
√ 732 −
= 10
9
732 − 250
=√
9

482
=√
9
= √53.56
 𝑠 = 7.318

Test statistic:
𝑑ˉ
𝑡=
𝑠/√𝑛
5
=
7.318/√10
5
=
2.314
𝑡 = 2.16

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 =𝑛−1=9

At 5% level,
𝑡0.05 = 2.262

Since,
∣ 𝑡 ∣< 2.262
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the soldiers have not significantly benefited by the training.

Training is not significantly effective

Chi-square (𝝌𝟐) test

1. Chi-square (𝝌𝟐) test as a test of goodness of fit

i. The following data represent the monthly sales (in Rs) of a certain retail
store in a leap year. Apply chi-square test to examine if there is any
seasonality in the sales: 6100, 5600, 6350, 6050, 6250, 6200, 6300, 6250,
5800, 6000, 6150, 6150
Answer:

Null hypothesis:

𝐻0 :There is no seasonality in sales

Alternative hypothesis:

𝐻1 :There is seasonality in sales

Observed frequencies:

Month O
1 6100
2 5600
3 6350
4 6050
5 6250
6 6200
7 6300
8 6250
9 5800
10 6000
11 6150
12 6150

Total sales:

Σ𝑂 = 73200

Expected sales for each month:

73200
𝐸= = 6100
12

Now calculate:

𝑂 (𝑂 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝑂 𝐸
−𝐸 − 𝐸)2 𝐸
6100 6100 0 0 0
5600 6100 -500 250000 40.98
6350 6100 250 62500 10.25
6050 6100 -50 2500 0.41
6250 6100 150 22500 3.69
6200 6100 100 10000 1.64
 𝑂 (𝑂 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝑂 𝐸
−𝐸 − 𝐸)2 𝐸
6300 6100 200 40000 6.56
6250 6100 150 22500 3.69
5800 6100 -300 90000 14.75
6000 6100 -100 10000 1.64
6150 6100 50 2500 0.41
6150 6100 50 2500 0.41
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒2 = Σ
𝐸
𝜒 2 = 84.43

Degrees of freedom:

𝑣 = 𝑛 − 1 = 12 − 1 = 11

At 5% level,
2
𝜒0.05 = 19.675

Since,

𝜒 2 > 19.675
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, there is seasonality in sales.

Sales show seasonality

ii. A pair of dice are thrown 360 times and the frequency of each sum is
indicated below:
Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
frequency 8 24 35 37 44 65 51 42 26 14 14
Would you say that the dice are fair on the basis of the chi-square test at 5%
level of significance?

Answer:
Null hypothesis:
 𝐻0 :The dice are fair

Alternative hypothesis:
𝐻1 :The dice are not fair

For two fair dice, theoretical probabilities are:

Sum Probability
2 1/36
3 2/36
4 3/36
5 4/36
6 5/36
7 6/36
8 5/36
9 4/36
10 3/36
11 2/36
12 1/36
Expected frequencies:
𝐸 = 360 × 𝑃

Sum O E
2 8 10
3 24 20
4 35 30
5 37 40
6 44 50
7 65 60
8 51 50
9 42 40
10 26 30
11 14 20
12 14 10

Now calculate:
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
O E 𝑂−𝐸 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝐸
8 10 -2 4 0.40
 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
O E 𝑂−𝐸 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝐸
24 20 4 16 0.80
35 30 5 25 0.83
37 40 -3 9 0.225
44 50 -6 36 0.72
65 60 5 25 0.417
51 50 1 1 0.02
42 40 2 4 0.10
26 30 -4 16 0.533
14 20 -6 36 1.80
14 10 4 16 1.60
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒2 = Σ
𝐸
𝜒 2 = 7.445

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = 𝑛 − 1 = 11 − 1 = 10

At 5% level,
2
𝜒0.05 = 18.307

Since,
𝜒 2 < 18.307
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, the dice may be regarded as fair.

Dice are fair

iii. The following figures show the distribution of digits in numbers chosen at
random from a telephone directory.
Digits 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
frequency 1026 1107 997 966 1075 933 1107 972 964 853
Apply the chi-square test to check whether the digits may be taken to occur
equally frequently in the directory at 5% level of significance?

Answer:
Null hypothesis:
𝐻0 :Digits occur equally frequently

Alternative hypothesis:
 𝐻1 :Digits do not occur equally frequently

Observed frequencies:
Digit O
0 1026
1 1107
2 997
3 966
4 1075
5 933
6 1107
7 972
8 964
9 853
Total frequency:
Σ𝑂 = 10000

Expected frequency:
10000
𝐸= = 1000
10

Now calculate:
𝑂 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
O E (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
−𝐸 𝐸
1026 1000 26 676 0.676
1107 1000 107 11449 11.449
997 1000 -3 9 0.009
966 1000 -34 1156 1.156
1075 1000 75 5625 5.625
933 1000 -67 4489 4.489
1107 1000 107 11449 11.449
972 1000 -28 784 0.784
964 1000 -36 1296 1.296
853 1000 -147 21609 21.609
2
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒 =Σ
𝐸
𝜒 2 = 58.542

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = 𝑛 − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9
 At 5% level,
2
𝜒0.05 = 16.919

Since,
𝜒 2 > 16.919
𝐻0 is rejected

Hence, the digits do not occur equally frequently.

Digits are not equally distributed

2. Chi-square (𝝌𝟐) test for Independence of Attributes

i. Two researchers adopted different sampling techniques while

investigating some group of students to find the number of students
falling into different intelligence level. The results are as follows:
Below Above
Researchers Average Genius Total
average average
X 86 60 44 10 200
Y 40 33 25 2 100
Total 126 93 69 12 300
Apply the chi-square test to test significance of sampling techniques adopted by the
two researchers at 5% level of significance?

Answer:
Null hypothesis:
𝐻0 :Sampling technique and intelligence level are independent

Alternative hypothesis:
𝐻1 :They are dependent

Expected frequencies:
(Row Total)(Column Total)
𝐸=
Grand Total

Expected frequencies table:

Researchers Below average Average Above average Genius Total

200 × 126 200 × 93 200 × 69 200 × 12

X 300 300 300 300 200
= 84 = 62 = 46 =8

100 × 126 100 × 93 100 × 69 100 × 12

Y 300 300 300 300 100
= 42 = 31 = 23 =4

Now calculate:

𝑂 (𝑂 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
O E
−𝐸 − 𝐸)2 𝐸

86 84 2 4 0.0476

60 62 -2 4 0.0645

44 46 -2 4 0.0870

10 8 2 4 0.5000

40 42 -2 4 0.0952

33 31 2 4 0.1290

25 23 2 4 0.1739

2 4 -2 4 1.0000

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒2 = Σ
𝐸
𝜒 2 = 2.0972

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = (𝑟 − 1)(𝑐 − 1)
= (2 − 1)(4 − 1) = 3

At 5% level,
2
𝜒0.05 = 7.815

Since,
𝜒 2 < 7.815
𝐻0 is accepted
Hence, there is no significant association between sampling techniques and intelligence levels.

Sampling techniques are not significantly different

ii. The following table gives for a sample of married women, the level of
education and the marriage adjustment score:
Marriage adjustment

Very low Low High Very Total

high
College 24 97 62 58 241
Level of
High 22 28 30 41 121
Education
school
Middle 32 10 11 20 73
school
Total 78 135 103 119 435
Apply the chi-square test to check the relation between level of education and the
marriage adjustment score of married women.
Answer:
Null hypothesis:
𝐻0 :Education level and marriage adjustment are independent

Alternative hypothesis:
𝐻1 :They are associated

Expected frequencies:
(Row Total)(Column Total)
𝐸=
Grand Total

Expected frequency table:

Level of Education Very low Low High Very high

College 43.2 74.77 57.06 65.93

High school 21.69 37.53 28.64 33.09

Middle school 13.09 22.66 17.29 19.97

Now calculate:

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
O E
𝐸

24 43.2 8.53

97 74.77 6.61

62 57.06 0.43

58 65.93 0.95

22 21.69 0.004

28 37.53 2.42

30 28.64 0.065

41 33.09 1.89

32 13.09 27.31

10 22.66 7.07

11 17.29 2.29

20 19.97 0.00005

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒2 = Σ
𝐸
𝜒 2 = 57.57

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = (𝑟 − 1)(𝑐 − 1)
= (3 − 1)(4 − 1) = 6

At 5% level,
2
𝜒0.05 = 12.592

Since,
𝜒 2 > 12.592
𝐻0 is rejected
Hence, education level and marriage adjustment are associated.

Education and marriage adjustment are related

iii. Given the following contingency table for hair colour and eye colour.
Calculate the value of chi-square. Is there good association between
the two?
Hair colour

Fair Brown Black Total

Blue 15 5 20 40
Eye colour
Grey 20 10 20 50
Brown 25 15 20 60
Total 60 30 60 150

Answer:
Null hypothesis:
𝐻0 :Hair colour and eye colour are independent

Alternative hypothesis:
𝐻1 :They are associated

Expected frequencies:
(Row Total)(Column Total)
𝐸=
Grand Total

Expected frequency table:

Eye Fai Brow Blac
colour r n k
Blue 16 8 16
Grey 20 10 20
Brow
24 12 24
n

Now calculate:
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
O E
𝐸
15 16 0.0625
5 8 1.125
20 16 1.00
20 20 0
 (𝑂 − 𝐸)2
O E
𝐸
10 10 0
20 20 0
25 24 0.0417
15 12 0.75
20 24 0.6667
2
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒 =Σ
𝐸
𝜒 2 = 3.646

Degrees of freedom:
𝑣 = (𝑟 − 1)(𝑐 − 1)
= (3 − 1)(3 − 1) = 4

At 5% level,
2
𝜒0.05 = 9.488

Since,
𝜒 2 < 9.488
𝐻0 is accepted

Hence, there is no good association between hair colour and eye colour.
No significant association exists

2 MARKS

1. Define Null Hypothesis.

Answer:
Null hypothesis is a hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between
the observed and expected results.
It is denoted by
𝑯𝟎

2. Define Alternative Hypothesis.

Answer:
Alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis which is accepted when the null hypothesis is
rejected.
It is denoted by
𝑯𝟏

3. What is Level of Significance?

Answer:
Level of significance is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.
It is denoted by
𝜶

Usually,
𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓

or
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏

4. Define Type I Error.

Answer:
Rejecting a true null hypothesis is called Type I error.
Probability of Type I error is
𝜶

5. Define Type II Error.

Answer:
Accepting a false null hypothesis is called Type II error.
Probability of Type II error is denoted by
𝜷

6. What is a Critical Region?

Answer:
Critical region is the region in which the null hypothesis is rejected.

7. State the formula for standard error of proportion.

Answer:
𝑷𝑸
𝑺. 𝑬. (𝑷) = √
𝒏
where,
𝑸=𝟏−𝑷

8. State the test statistic for single proportion.

Answer:
𝑷−𝒑
𝒁=
𝒑𝒒
√
𝒏

9. State the test statistic for difference of proportions.

Answer:
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐
𝒁=
𝟏 𝟏
√𝑷𝑸 (
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 )

10. State the formula for combined proportion.

Answer:
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
𝑷=
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
and
𝑸=𝟏−𝑷

11. State the test statistic for single mean.

Answer:
𝒙ˉ − 𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈/√𝒏
𝒙
𝝁
𝝈
𝒙−𝝁
𝒛= ≈ 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟐
𝝈
𝚽(𝒛) ≈ 𝟔𝟕. 𝟖%

12. State the test statistic for difference of means.

Answer:
𝒙ˉ𝟏 − 𝒙ˉ𝟐
𝒁=
𝟐 𝟐
√𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

13. Define Chi-square test.

Answer:
Chi-square test is a statistical test used to test the goodness of fit, independence of
attributes and population variance.
It is denoted by
𝝌𝟐

14. State the formula for Chi-square test.

Answer:
(𝑶 − 𝑬)𝟐
𝝌𝟐 = ∑
𝑬
where,
𝑶 = Observed frequency
𝑬 = Expected frequency
15. Mention any two uses of Chi-square test.
Answer:
1. Test of goodness of fit
2. Test of independence of attributes

16. State the degrees of freedom for Chi-square test.

Answer:
For goodness of fit,
𝒗=𝒏−𝟏

For contingency table,

𝒗 = (𝒓 − 𝟏)(𝒄 − 𝟏)

17. Define Student’s t-test.

Answer:
Student’s t-test is used for testing significance of small samples when population standard
deviation is unknown.

18. State the t-test statistic for single mean.

Answer:
𝒙ˉ − 𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/√𝒏

19. State the t-test statistic for paired observations.

Answer:
𝒅ˉ
𝒕=
𝒔/√𝒏

20. What is meant by goodness of fit?

Answer:
Goodness of fit is used to test whether the observed frequencies agree with the expected
frequencies.

21. What are observed frequencies?

Answer:
The frequencies obtained experimentally are called observed frequencies.

22. What are expected frequencies?

Answer:
The theoretical frequencies obtained according to probability distribution are called
expected frequencies.
23. State any two conditions for Chi-square test.
Answer:
1. Sample observations should be independent.
2. Expected frequency should not be less than 10.

24. What is fiducial limit?

Answer:
The interval within which the population parameter lies with a specified confidence is
called fiducial limit.

25. What is standard error?

Answer:
Standard error is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic.

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