06-02-2026

CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS STONES, BRICKS, CONCRETE
AND TECHNOLOGY BLOCKS

[Link] Pauline
Assistant Professor
UVOC

1 2

BRICKS
• Base Material: Clay (The plastic
binder that holds everything together)
• Filler: Sand/Silica (Prevents
cracking and shrinkage during drying)
Standard Size (The Real Brick): Nominal Size (The Brick + Its "Space Suit"):
• Flux: Lime (Helps fuse particles at • Dimensions: 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm
lower temperatures, reduces warping) • Dimensions: 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm (L x B x H)

• What it is: The actual fired dimension of the brick as it • What it is: The standard size + the assumed mortar
• Other Ingredients: Iron oxide (for joint thickness (10mm) on all sides. This is the space it
comes from the kiln. This is the object you hold in your
color), Magnesia (for yellow tint), etc. occupies in the wall.
hand.

3 4

Test 1st Class 2nd Class 3rd Class 4th Class

Color & Burn Deep red, well-burnt Red, well-burnt Pale, under-burnt Dark, over-burnt

Sound Clear metallic ring Duller ring Dull thud -

Minor flaws
Shape/Defects Perfect, no cracks Irregular Severely distorted
allowed
Slight impression
Fingernail Test No impression Easy impression Brittle
possible
Water
12-15% 16-20% ~25% Very low (vitrified)
Absorption
Crushing
>10 N/mm² >7 N/mm² Low (<7) High but brittle
Strength
Concealed
structural work, Crushed aggregate,
Exposed, prestige centring of foundation and
work, flooring and
Primary Use reinforced brick Temporary floors in lime
reinforced brick
work and reinforced concrete
cement concrete and road metal
(RCC) structures.

5 6

1
 06-02-2026

Feature Unburnt Bricks (Sun- Burnt Bricks (Kiln-Fired) Over-Burnt Bricks

Dried) (Jhama)
Key Process Sun Drying Controlled Kiln Firing Excessive Kiln Firing
The primary building
Structural Role Not a structural brick Not a building block
block
Medium to High (1st to
Strength Very Low Very High, but Brittle
3rd class)

Water Resistance Disintegrates if wet Good (depending on Very High (vitrified)

class)
Filler (Surki), Under-layer Crushed Aggregate
Primary Use Walls, Facades, Floors
(Soiling) (Ballast)
Very low embodied A form of industrial
Sustainability High embodied energy
energy recycling

7 8

Parameter Extruded Moulded (Hand) Dry-Pressed

Clay Moisture High (Plastic) High (Plastic) Very Low (Stiff

Powder)

Key Feature Perforations/Holes Sand-Finish, One Sharp Edges,

Frog Deep/Shallow Frog

Surface Texture Dense, Smooth Soft, Slightly Sandy, Very Smooth, Sharp
Irregular

Production Speed Very High Slow (Batch Process) High (Batch Pressing)
(Continuous)
Cost Lowest Highest Medium-High

Typical Use General masonry, Heritage, feature Pavers, engineering,

budget works walls facing bricks

9 10

Key Raw Primary Must Not Be Used

Brick Type Surface Finish Best Used For
Materials Strength For

General
Good (Varies Rough, needs
Burnt Clay Clay masonry -
with class) plaster
(walls, etc.)

Eco-friendly
High, Self- Smooth, often
Fly Ash Clay Clay + Fly Ash load-bearing -
Cementing no plaster
walls

Facades,
Concrete Smooth, Below-
Cement, Sand Low-Medium fences,
Brick Colored ground foundations
internal walls

High-strength
Very Smooth,
Sand Lime Sand, Lime Very High load-bearing Fireplaces, furnaces
no plaster
walls

Furnace, kiln,
High (at High General building
Fire Brick Refractory Clay Rough chimney
Temp) walls
linings

11 12

2
 06-02-2026

Classification of Bricks Based on Using Location

Classification of Bricks Based on Weather-resisting Capability
Backing Bricks: The Unsung Hero
Facing Bricks: The Building's "Skin“ Where is the brick located? Weather Grade & Raw Material:

Aesthetics: Must look good. Available [Link] Support: Provides the main load-bearing 1. Exterior, in a freezing • SW Grade: Often Engineering or High-Density Clay.
in colors (reds, browns, buffs, greys) capacity for the wall. climate? → SEVERE WEATHER • MW Grade: Standard Burnt Clay, Fly Ash, Sand Lime.
and textures (smooth, rustic, sand-faced). GRADE.
[Link]-Effectiveness: No need for fancy colors or perfect
Durability: MUST be weather-resistant. Low • NW Grade: Under-burnt Clay, low-quality material.
faces. Can be lower-grade bricks (2nd or even good 3rd
water absorption to handle rain, frost, and 2. Exterior, in a
Class). Weather Grade & Quality Class:
pollution.
tropical/temperate • SW ≈ Top-end of First Class / Engineering.
Dimensional Consistency: Standard size with [Link]: Must bond well with mortar and with
sharp edges for clean mortar joints and neat climate? → MODERATE
the facing bricks (similar thermal movement, mortar • MW ≈ First Class & Good Second Class.
appearance. suction). WEATHER GRADE.
Strength: Generally stronger than common • NW ≈ Third Class.
backing bricks to withstand environmental 3. Interior, fully
stress. protected? → NO WEATHER Weather Grade & Using Location:
What They Are: Often First Class Burnt Clay GRADE (or MW if extra • SW/MW Grade = Facing or Backing Bricks (for exterior
Bricks, Engineering Bricks, or high-quality leaves).
strength is needed).
Sand Lime/Fly Ash Bricks. They are
• NW Grade = Only for internal backing.
the premium product from the kiln.

13 14

Classification of Bricks Based on their Usage

Engineering bricks uses:

•Common Bricks: Used where failure is inconvenient but not
catastrophic (an interior wall). Engineering Bricks: The
•Sewers & Manholes: Resists constant moisture, sewage Heavy-Duty Class
Compressive Water Absorption
Primary Use Case
•Engineering Bricks: Used where failure is unacceptable— chemicals, and abrasion. Strength (Min) (Max)
causing flooding, collapse, or severe deterioration
Champions
•Damp Proof Course (DPC): That critical layer in a wall just Most severe
(foundations, sewers). Highest (~70 conditions: Aggressive
above ground. It MUST block rising damp. Only a low- • High Compressive A Lowest (~2-3%)
N/mm²+) soils, heavy chemical
absorption engineering brick can do this reliably. Strength: (Often > 35-50 N/mm², far exposure, extreme load.
•High Exposure (Moisture, Load, Chemicals) + High
exceeding common bricks).
Consequence of Failure → ENGINEERING BRICK. •Retaining Walls & Basements: In constant contact with damp The Most Used: General
earth and subject to hydrostatic pressure. • Low Water
High (~50 civil engineering: sewers,
•Low Exposure (Dry, Interior) + Low Absorption: (Extremely low, often < B Very Low (~5-7%)
7%, sometimes as low as 2-3%). This N/mm²) manholes, DPC, retaining
Consequence → COMMON BRICK. •Groundworks & Foundations: Where contact with sulphates walls.
is their superpower.
in the soil can destroy ordinary bricks (sulphate attack).
• High Density & Chemical Less critical situations,
Good (~30
•Bridge Abutments & River Walls: Exposed to water, frost, and Resistance: Dense microstructure C Low (~10%) but where moisture
N/mm²)
de-icing salts. resists acids, alkalis, sulphates resistance is still key.
(common in groundwater and
sewage).
•Chemical Plants/Industrial Floors: Where spillage resistance is
needed.

15 16

TRUE OR FALSE (Stand for true and sit for false)

• First-class bricks must produce a clear, metallic ringing sound when
struck.
• True
• Second-class bricks are recommended for exposed exterior facades.
• F (they're for hidden work)
• The nominal size of a modular brick includes mortar thickness.
• True
• Engineering bricks have higher water absorption than common bricks.
• F (much lower)
• Fire bricks (refractory bricks) can be used for general building walls.
• F (specialized use only)

17 18

3
 06-02-2026

TRUE OR FALSE (Stand for true and sit for false) TRUE OR FALSE (Stand for true and sit for false)
• AAC blocks can be easily cut with a regular wood saw. • Laterite stones require seasoning for 6-12 months after quarrying.
• True • True
• The 'frog' in a brick is purely decorative. • Sand-lime bricks require plastering due to their rough surface.
• False (it's functional) • False (they're smooth)
• Facing bricks and backing bricks are exactly the same quality. • Severe Weather Grade bricks are designed for tropical climates.
• False (facing are higher quality) • False (for cold climates)
• Third-class bricks are suitable for load-bearing exterior walls. • Concrete bricks should not be used below ground level.
• False • True
• Hollow concrete blocks can be reinforced with steel and grout. • The cost of bricks is mostly determined by transportation distance.
• True • True

19 20

Puzzle: "The Brick Sorting Challenge" Puzzle: "The Weather Grade Match-Up"
Scenario: You're at a construction site with 4 piles of mixed bricks. Based on Match the climate to the required brick weather grade:
these quick observations, sort them into: 1st Class, 2nd Class, 3rd Class, and
4th Class/Jhama. [Link] area with salt spray

Clues: [Link] bathroom wall

[Link] region with snowfall
•Pile A: Deep red, sharp edges, metallic ring, no scratches with fingernail.
[Link] city like Mumbai
•Pile B: Pale color, dull sound, fingernail leaves mark, some are misshapen.
•Pile C: Minor cracks allowed, still strong, not perfectly shaped. Options: Severe Weather (SW), Moderate Weather (MW), No
Weather (NW)
•Pile D: Dark blue-black, warped, fused together in places, very hard.
Answer: 1=SW, 2=NW, 3=SW, 4=MW
Answer: A=1st Class, B=3rd Class, C=2nd Class, D=4th Class/Jhama

21 22

Preparation of Brick Earth (The 6-Step

The Birth of a Brick: From Mud to Monument"
Purification)

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

1 2 3 4 Un-soiling (The "Skin Digging (The Cleaning (The "De- Weathering (The Blending (The Tempering (The
Removal"): "Harvest"): stoning"): "Aging Process"): "Recipe Mix"): "Kneading the
•Action: Remove top •Action: Excavate the •Action: Remove pebbles, •Action: Spread clay and •Action: Add other Dough"):
~200mm of soil. good clay below. gravel, lime nodules leave it exposed to rain, ingredients (sand, ash,
PREPARE (Make MOULD (Give it DRY (Remove BURN (Transform •Why? This layer •Scale: Hand tools for (kankar). sun, and frost for a grog) to adjust properties
•Action: Add water and
knead to a uniform,
the perfect clay the perfect water without it with fire) is "vegetative poison" –
full of roots, organic
small
batches, excavators for
•Why? These
cause pitting, cracking,
season.
•The Magic: Water seeps
and mix intimately.
•Goal: Achieve uniform
plastic consistency.
•Industrial Tool: The Pug
recipe) shape) cracking) matter that will decay
and leave holes, causing
industrial production. and lime popping (when
kankar slakes and
in, breaks down lumps,
and allows organic
composition. Mill.
bricks to fail. expands after firing). matter to decompose
naturally. It makes
clay plastic and
workable.

23 24

4
 06-02-2026

The PUG MILL

MOULDING OF BRICKS
How it Works (The Mechanical Stomach):
•Is the project SMALL SCALE & BUDGET-CONSCIOUS?

[Link] Iron Tube: Sunk into the ground for stability. • Is skilled, cheap labour AVAILABLE?
• YES → HAND MOULDING
[Link] Vertical Shaft: Powered by bullocks
•Is the project LARGE SCALE & TIME-SENSITIVE?
(traditional), diesel, or electricity (modern).
• Is consistency & speed CRITICAL?
[Link] Arms with Knives: These are the "teeth" Moulding
• YES → MACHINE MOULDING
that chop, shear, and homogenize the clay.
[Link]: Blended clay + water fed in from top → Hand Machine
Moulding Moulding
Chopped and mixed → Extruded as a uniform, plas c
column from a side opening at the bottom.
PUG MILL - Wire Cut Brick Making Machine, Ground Table
Plastic clay Dry Clay
Moulded moulded
Key Stat: Yield: ~1500 bricks per pug mill cycle. Clay brick making machine,clay brick
bricks bricks
machines Machines
The Outcome: Produces a homogeneous, air-free,
perfectly tempered clay mass. This consistency is critical
for uniform drying and firing.

25 26

i) Ground Moulding (The Traditional Way):

Machine Moulding: The Industrial Revolution
•Process: Mould placed on sand/ash-sprinkled ground, filled,
struck off, lifted. i) Plastic Clay Machine (The "Wire-Cut" Method):

•Key Technique: "Slop Moulding" – Dipping mould in water The Common Element – The FROG:
•Process: Tempered, plastic clay is forced (extruded) through a rectangular die, forming a
each time to prevent sticking. "Sand Moulding" – Using sand continuous column. Wires slice it to brick thickness.
instead of water. •Made with: A pair of pallet boards.
•The Signature Product: WIRE-CUT BRICKS.
•Economics: Most economical. Uses the earth itself as the •Depth: 10-20 mm.
table. •Key Feature: Often creates perforations/holes in the extrusion process (saves clay, improves
•Dual Purpose:
drying/firing).
•Character: Bricks have a soft, sandy base and slightly irregular • Functional: Creates a "mortar lock" for better bond.
edges. •Next Step: Requires drying before firing.
• Branding: Often contains the
ii) Table Moulding (The Elevated Craft): manufacturer's trademark. ii) Dry Clay Machine (The "Press" Method):

•Process: Same actions, but on a table (~2m x 1m). •Process: Stiff, low-moisture clay is fed in. The machine tempers it, then compresses it with
immense force in a rigid steel mould.
•Pros: Easier on workers' backs, slightly better quality control.
•The Signature Product: PRESSED BRICKS.
•Cons: More expensive than ground moulding.
•Key Feature: So dense and dry they can often go directly to the kiln ("green" to firing),
•Output: Similar artisanal character
skipping the drying stage.

•Character: Very sharp edges, smooth faces, deep frog.

27 28

Drying of Raw Bricks- Removing Water Without Cracking – The Invisible Challenge

Hand Moulded Machine Moulded Machine Moulded Why Must We Dry Before Firing?
Aspect
(Ground/Table) (Wire-Cut) (Pressed)
Two Deadly Reasons: Explosions and Economics
Smooth, Dense, Slightly Very Smooth, Sharp, Reason 1: To Prevent Catastrophic Failure (The "Steam Bomb" Effect)
Surface Texture Sandy, Rustic, Irregular
Textured Precise
Regular, but can have Crisp, geometrically •Science: Trapped water turns to steam at 100°C inside the hot kiln.
Edges & Shape Softer, less precise
minor wire marks perfect
•Steam Expands ~1700x its liquid volume.
Slow (1000-1500/day per Very High (Tens of
Production Rate High
worker) thousands/day) •Result: Violent cracking or explosion of the brick. it's a physics-driven failure.
Capital (Machine),
Cost Driver Labour Capital, High Pressure Reason 2: To Save a Fortune on Fuel
Energy
Heritage projects, General masonry, bulk Pavers, engineering •Fact: It takes 5-6 times more energy to boil and vaporize water in a kiln than to simply heat dry clay
Ideal For restorations, feature to vitrification temperature.
construction bricks, facing bricks
walls
•Translation: Firing wet bricks is like trying to boil a swimming pool with a match – incredibly
Industrial, uniform, Engineered, premium,
"Soul" Artisanal, unique, warm wasteful.
efficient consistent
Drying is not just about waiting. It's about preventing disaster and saving money. It's a non-
negotiable quality and cost control step.

29 30

5
 06-02-2026

•Stack Height: 8-10 stairs (layers) is optimal. Too high, and the bottom bricks crush under weight. Too low, and you Sintering - The Magic of Fire
waste yard space.
The Process (The "Earth Oven"):
•The "Spacer" Technique: Bricks are not stacked directly on top of each other. They are offset to create vertical
and horizontal channels for air to pass through. [Link]: Make a sloped floor. Stack alternating layers of fuel (cow
dung, husk) and bricks.

[Link] Ground: "Built higher than surroundings." This •Hot, Dry, Windy Summer: ~3-7 days. [Link]: Plaster the whole mound with mud/clay to trap heat.
is crucial. Prevents:
•Cool, Humid, Calm Winter: ~7-14 days or more. [Link]: Light from the bottom. The fire slowly migrates
1. Rainwater pooling
upwards over weeks.
•Monsoon/Rainy Season: Drying is halted. Bricks must be
2. Rising ground moisture (capillary action) covered, leading to delays. [Link]: Let it burn out and cool slowly over months.
3. Flooding
Key Characteristics:
[Link] Drainage: Sloped surface for water to run off quickly
after rain. •Scale: Small batch (2-3 lakh bricks per 6-month cycle).
[Link] & Unshaded: Maximizes exposure to sun and wind. •Control: Almost none. Fire does what it wants.

[Link] Layout: Stacks arranged in rows with service •Quality: Highly variable. Outer bricks get over-burnt, inner ones
lanes for handling. under-burnt. Yields only ~60% first-class bricks.

•Economics: Cheap to build, but fuel-inefficient and labor-

intensive for the output.

31 32

METHOD 2: KILN BURNING

The "Pro" Argument (The Clamp's The "Con" Reality (Why We Moved
Legacy) On) •Intermittent Kilns: Fire a batch →
Cool completely → Unload → Reload
Slow cooling = Tougher Extremely slow (3-6 month cycle)
bricks (True for the good ones) → Reheat. (Wasteful, as the kiln
structure loses heat every time.)
Very low capital cost No control over fire → High waste
(~40% poor quality)

Uses local, cheap Fuel inefficient (heat escapes) •Continuous Kilns: Different zones
fuel (agricultural waste) (drying, pre-heating, firing, cooling)
operate simultaneously. The heat is
Simple, no skilled labor needed Cannot meet continuous, high
demand constantly recycled. (Highly
efficient.)

33 34

INTERMITTENT KILNS: THE "BATCH PROCESSOR" CONTINUOUS KILNS: THE INDUSTRIAL MARVELS

i) Up-Draught Kiln: Waste heat from one stage is used for the next stage.

•Gas Path: Fire at bo om → Hot gases rise upwards through bricks → Exit via roof
chimneys. How It Works (The "Heat Carousel"):
•Issue: Uneven heating. Top gets hottest. [Link] 1 (Cooling): Burnt bricks cool, heating the incoming air.
ii) Down-Draught Kiln (Superior Design): [Link] 2 (Firing): Main burners here. Bricks reach vitrification temperature.

•Gas Path: Fire at side/bo om → Gases rise to roof → Forced downwards through brick [Link] 3 (Pre-heating): Hot exhaust gases from the firing zone pre-heat the next batch of bricks
stacks by chimney dra → Exit at bo om. for free.

•Advantage: More uniform heating as hot gases are forced to travel through the entire [Link] 4 (Drying): Warm gases from pre-heating zone dry the green bricks.
stack. [Link] Cycle: Bricks are stationary on carts (Hoffman) or the fire moves (Bull's Trench). Zones
physically rotate around the kiln.
The Fatal Flaw of All Intermittent Kilns: After unloading, the entire massive kiln structure
(walls, floor) must cool down and then be reheated from cold for the next batch. This The Result: Fuel efficiency skyrockets. Quality consistency soars. Yield of first-class bricks
wastes ~50% of the fuel. reaches 80-90%.

35 36

6
 06-02-2026

"THE EXTREME ENVIRONMENT SPECIALIST"

Intermittent Continuous Kiln Normal bricks

A refractory is a non-metallic material with:
Parameter Clamp Kiln (Hoffman/Bull's
Trench) 600°C: Organic matter gone, but stable. [Link] Melting Point (>1580°C, often >1800°C).

Control None Moderate Precise ~900-1100°C: Vitrification range – where they are made. They
[Link] Strength at High Temperature (Hot Strength).
begin to soften at their own making temperature!

Low (Heat lost Very High (Heat [Link] Shock Resistance (Survives rapid heating/cooling).
Fuel Efficiency Very Low in cooling) recycled) >1100°C: Deformation, melting, structural collapse.
[Link] Inertness (Resists slag, ash, molten metal).
Production Very Slow Slow (Batch) Fast & The Need: Industries like steel, glass, cement, and power
The Raw Material Shift:
Rate (Seasonal) Continuous generation operate at 1400°C to 1800°C. We need a brick that
doesn't just resist heat, but functions structurally in it.

Quality Very Poor Excellent (85- •From: Generic clay (SiO₂ + Al₂O₃ + impurities)
Consistency (60% good) Good 90% good) •To: Engineered mixes of:
High (for • Silica (SiO₂) – For acid resistance.
Labor Skill Low Medium operation &
maintenance) • Alumina (Al₂O₃) – For high temperature and strength.

Capital Cost Negligible Medium Very High • Magnesia (MgO) – For basic (alkaline) environments.

• Chromite, Zirconia – For ultra-high performance.

37 38

2. Basic Refractories (The Magnesia Champions):

1. Acidic Refractories (The Silica Guardians):

•Main Ingredient: Magnesia (MgO) or Dolomite.

•Main Ingredient: >93% Silica (SiO₂).
•Superpower: Excellent resistance to basic slags (high
•Superpower: Excellent resistance to acidic slags (e.g., in
in lime, common in steelmaking).
glass furnaces).

•Weakness: Attacked by basic (alkaline) materials. •Weakness: Poor resistance to acidic slags, prone to
hydration.
•Use: Glass tank furnaces, coke ovens.
•Use: Steel furnace linings, cement kiln burning zones.

3. Neutral Refractories (The All-Rounders):

THANK YOU
•Main Ingredients: Alumina (Al₂O₃), Chromite, Carbon.

•Superpower: Resist both acidic and basic attacks. High

hot strength.

•Use: Blast furnace linings, foundry furnaces,

petrochemical heaters.

39 40