MODULE- I

Control Systems – Introduction

A system is a combination of different physical components connected together to perform a
specific objective. Every physical object is an example of a system.
Ex: Classroom, fan, light etc…
To control means to command or to direct. Hence a Control system is an arrangement of
different physical elements connected in such a manner so as to regulate, direct or command it
to achieve a certain objective.
Any control system consists of three essential components namely input, system and
output. The input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a system from an external energy
source. A system is the arrangement of physical components and output is the actual
response obtained from the system.
The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by
varying input the control system got this name. Input is called controlling variable and output is
called controlled variable.
Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal
is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some
duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at
a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the
input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system operates on time basis.

Types of Control Systems

Control systems are classified into two general categories based upon the control action
which is responsible to activate the system to produce the output.
1. Open loop control system in which the control action is independent of the output.
2. Closed loop control system in which the control action is dependent upon the output and are
generally called as feedback control systems.
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the desired output. There is no provision for supervision of the output and no
mechanism is provided to correct the system behavior for any lack of proper performance of
system parameters.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal.
This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant
produces an output, which is controlled. To each reference input there is a corresponding output
which depends upon the system and its operating conditions. The accuracy of the system
depends on the calibration of the system. In the presence of noise or disturbances open loop
control will not perform satisfactorily.

Example: Automatic hand driver, automatic washing machine, bread toaster, electric lift,
trafficsignals etc.

Advantages of open loop system:

1. They are simple in construction and design.
2. They are economic.
3. Easy for maintenance.
4. Not much problem of stability.
5. Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of open loop system

1. Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on accuracy of calibration.
2. Inaccurate results are obtained with parameter variations, internal disturbances.
In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the
feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input,
the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination, the
output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response. Hence,
the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems.

Advantages of closed loop system:

1. Accuracy is very high as any error arising is corrected.
2. It senses changes -in output due to environmental or parametric change, internal
disturbanceetc. and corrects the same.
3. Reduce effect of non-linearities.
4. High bandwidth.
5. Facilitates automation.

Disadvantages

1. Complicated in design and maintenance costlier.

2. System may become unstable.

Traffic police is an example of a closed loop control system. He controls the traffic by seeing
the density of the traffic.
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the
following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Control action is independent of the desired Control action is dependent of the

output. desired output.

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback These are also called as feedback
control systems. control systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

Control Systems – Feedback

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part of
the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback systems play an important role in
order to improve the performance of the control systems.
Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback −

• Positive feedback(Regenerative feedback)

• Negative feedback

Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The following figure
shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.
The transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

Where,

• T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

• G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
• H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Where,

• T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.

• G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
• H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Effects of Feedback

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

• From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control
system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease
depending on the value of (1+GH).

• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH'
value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, 'GH'
value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gain
of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
One of the primary purpose of using feedback in control systems is to reduce the sensitivity of the
system to parameter variations. The parameters of a system may vary with age, with changing
environment etc. So sensitivity is a measure of the effectiveness of feedback in reducing the influence
of these variations on system performance.
The term Sensitivity is used to describe the relative variation in the overall transfer function T due to
the variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

From Equation 2, you will get

Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

So, we got the sensitivity of the closed loop control system w.r.t variation in G is the reciprocal
of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH' value is
negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.

• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, 'GH'
value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity of
the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore,
we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitive or less
sensitive to parameter variations.
Effect of Feedback on Stability
• A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
• In Equation 1, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = 1), then the output of the
control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with and
without feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor
of (1+GaGbH) as compared to that of an open loop system.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS - MATHEMATICAL MODELS
The requirements demanded by every control system are many and depend on the
system under consideration. Major requirements are 1) Stability 2) Accuracy and 3) Speed of
Response. An ideal control system would be stable, would provide absolute accuracy (maintain
zero error despite disturbances) and would respond instantaneously to a change in the reference
variable. Such a system cannot, of course, be produced. However, study of automatic control
system theory would provide the insight necessary to make the most effective compromises so
that the engineer can design the best possible system. One of the important steps in the study
of control systems is modeling.

Control systems being dynamic systems in nature require a quantitative mathematical

description of the system for analysis. This process of obtaining the desired mathematical
description of the system is called Mathematical Modeling.

The basic models of dynamic physical systems are differential equations obtained by
the application of appropriate laws of nature. Having obtained the differential equations and
possible the numerical values of parameters, one can proceed with the analysis
The following mathematical models are mostly used.

• Differential equation model

• Transfer function model
• State space model

Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow
these steps for differential equation model.

• Apply basic laws to the given control system.

• Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).

Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The
input voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output
voltage vo.
Mesh equation for this circuit is
Transfer Function Model
Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The Transfer
function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of
output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s).
i.e.,TransferFunction=Y(s)/X(s)
The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X(s) & output Y(s).

MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.

• Translational mechanical systems

• Rotational mechanical systems
Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of
three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.
If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing forces
due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the opposing
forces are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero.
Let us now see the force opposed by these three elements individually.

Mass
Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body
having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is
proportional to the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
Fm𝖺a
⇒Fm=Ma=Md2x/dt2
F=Fm=Md2/xdt2
Where,

• F is the applied force

• Fm is the opposing force due to mass

• M is mass
• a is acceleration
• x is displacement

Spring
Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to
the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are negligible.

F𝖺x
⇒Fk=Kx
F=Fk=Kx
Where,

• F is the applied force

• Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring

• K is spring constant
• x is displacement
Dashpot
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the
dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and
elasticity are negligible.

Fb𝖺ν
⇒Fb=Bν=Bdx/dt
F=Fb=Bdx/dt
Where,

• Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot

• B is the frictional coefficient

• v is velocity
• x is displacement

Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three
basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques
due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the
opposing torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is
zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements individually.

Moment of Inertia
In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.
If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing
torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
Tj𝖺α
⇒Tj=Jα=Jd2/θdt2
T=Tj=Jd2/θdt2
Where,

• T is the applied torque

• Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia

• J is moment of inertia
• α is angular acceleration
• θ is angular displacement
Torsional Spring
In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.
If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement
of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are negligible.

Tk𝖺θ
⇒Tk=Kθ
T=Tk=Kθ
Where,

• T is the applied torque

• Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring

• K is the torsional spring constant

 • θ is angular displacement

Dashpot
If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the
body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.

Tb𝖺ω
⇒Tb=Bω=Bdθdt
T=Tb=Bdθdt Where,

• Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot

• B is the rotational friction coefficient

• ω is the angular velocity
• θ is the angular displacement

Problem: let us consider the linear displacement mechanical system which is shown below-

We have already marked various variables in the diagram itself. We have x is the displacement as
shown in the diagram. From the Newton’s second law of motion, we can write force as

From the diagram we can see that the,

F = F1+F2+F3
 On substituting the values of F1, F2 and F3 in the above equation and taking the Laplace
transformwe have the transfer function as,

Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System

In electrical type of systems we have three variables –

Voltage which is represented by ‘V’.

Current which is represented by ‘I’.Charge
which is represented by ‘Q’.

And also we have three parameters which are active and passive elements –
Resistance which is represented by ‘R’.
Capacitance which is represented by ‘C’.
Inductance which is represented by ‘L’.

Now we are in condition to derive analogy between electrical and mechanical types of systems. There are two types
of analogies and they are written below

Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems

Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are
satisfied.

• The two systems are physically different

• Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are two
types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage
analogy and force current analogy.
Force Voltage Analogy
In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.
The force balanced equation for this system is
F=Fm+Fb+Fk
⇒F=Md2x/dt2+Bdx/dt+Kx (Equation 1)
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in a series.
The input voltage applied to this circuit is V volts and the current flowing through the circuit
is i Amps.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

V=Ri+Ldi/dt+1/c∫Idt(Equation2)
Substitute, i=dq/dt in Equation2
V=Rdq/dt+Ld2q/dt2+q/C

(Equation 3)
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Voltage(V)

Mass(M) Inductance(L)

Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)

 Displacement(x) Charge(q)

Velocity(v) Current(i)

Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now discuss
about this analogy.

Torque Voltage Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are compared
with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is

T=Tj+Tb+Tk
⇒T=Jd2θdt2+Bdθdt+kθ (Equation 4)
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Voltage(V)

Moment of Inertia(J) Inductance(L)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)

Angular Displacement(θ) Charge(q)

Angular Velocity(ω) Current(i)

Force Current Analogy
In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical
system are compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in
parallel.

The nodal equation is

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Current(i)

Mass(M) Capacitance(C)

Frictional coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1R)

Spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1L)

Displacement(x) Magnetic Flux(ψ)

 Velocity(v) Voltage(V)

Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss this analogy.

Torque Current Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are compared
with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Current(i)

Moment of inertia(J) Capacitance(C)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1L)

Angular displacement(θ) Magnetic flux(ψ)

Angular velocity(ω) Voltage(V)