Revision Notes for Class 12 Chemistry

Chapter 1 – Solutions
1.1 Definition

A solution is a mixture of two or more components that is homogeneous.

Take, for instance, ordinary salt in water.

1.2 Classification

Binary solutions are solutions that have two components in them. Components are substances
that are used to make a solution.

The solvent is the component that is present in the greatest quantity. The physical condition of
a solution is determined by the solvent.

Solute refers to the other component in the solution that is present in smaller amounts.

Each element could be solid, liquid, or gaseous.

Types of
Solute Solvent Common Examples
Solution

Gaseous
Gas Gas Oxygen and nitrogen gas mixture
Solutions

a mixture of chloroform and nitrogen

Liquid Gas
gas

Solid Gas nitrogen gas with camphor

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 Liquid
Gas Liquid Water with oxygen dissolved in it
Solutions

Ethanol is a liquid that can be

Liquid Liquid
dissolved in water.

Glucose that has been dissolved in

Solid Liquid
water

Solid
Gas Solid Hydrogen solution in palladium
Solutions

Liquid Solid Mercury and sodium amalgam

Solid Solid dissolving copper in gold

1.3 Strength of Solutions

Strength of solution refers to the amount of solute dissolved per unit of solution or solvent.
There are several methods for determining the strength of a solution.

1. Mass Percentage (%w/w): “It denotes the mass of a component in 100 g of solution.”

Mass of component in the sol.

Mass % of a component = 100
Total Mass of sol.

2. Volume Percentage (%v/v): "It represents the volume of a component in a solution of

100 mL ."

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 Volume of component
Volume % of a component = 100
Total Volume of sol.

3. Mass by Volume Percentage (% w / v): "It denotes the mass of the solute in grams in
100 mL of solution."

Mass of solute in g
Mass by vol, percent = 100
Vol. of sol. in mL

4. Parts Per Million (ppm):

No. of parts of the component

Parts per million = 106
Total no. of all the components of sol.

Mass to mass, volume to volume, and mass to volume are all ways to express concentration in
parts per million.

5. Mole Fraction (x): "It denotes the number of moles of a solute in one mole of solution."

No. of molos of the component

Mole fraction =
Total no. of moles all the components

If the amount of moles of A and B in a binary mixture is n A and nB , respectively, the mole
fraction of A will be

nA
xA =
nA + nB

6. Molarity, M: "It represents the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of solution."

Moles of solute
Molarity, M =
Vol. of sol in L

Molarity is measured in milligrams per litre and is denoted by the letters ' M ' or 'Molar.' "The
density of a solution is its mass per unit volume."

Mass of sol.
Density, d = = m/V
Vol. of sol.

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7. Molality, m: “It denotes the number of moles of solute present per kilogramme of solvent.”

Moles of solute
Molality, m =
Mass of solvent in kg

Molality is measured in mol/kg, which can also be written as 'm' or 'molal.'

8. Normality, N: It denotes the number of solute equivalents in 1 litre of solution.

No. of Equivalents of solute

Normality, N =
Vol. of sol. in L

Weight
No. of equivalents, eq =
Equivalent weight (W / E)

M
E= (Z is the valency factor).
z

Some Important Relationships

Dilution Law: When we dilute a solution with solvent, the amount of solute remains constant,
and we can write:

M1 V1 = M 2 V2 and N1 V1 = N 2 V2

Molarity and Normality

Normality = z  Molarity

Important:

The temperature has no effect on the mass per cent, ppm, mole fraction, or molality, however
temperature influences molarity and normality. This is because the volume is affected by
temperature whereas mass is not.

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2. Vapour Pressure

2.1 Definition

At a given temperature, the vapour pressure of a liquid/solution is the pressure exerted by

vapours in equilibrium with the liquid/solution.

Vapour pressure  escaping tendency

2.2. Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions and Raoult’s Law :

(Raoult’s law for volatile solutes)

Raoult's law states that the partial vapour pressure of each component in a solution of volatile
liquids is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

p1  x1

and p1 = p10 x1

Component 2 is the same way.

p2 = p20 x 2

The total pressure P(total) over the solution phase in the container, according to Dalton's partial
pressure law, is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the solution's components and is
given as:

p(iotal) = p1 + p2

We get by substituting the values of p1 and p2

p(total ) = x1 p10 and x2 p20

= (1 − x2 ) p10 + x2 p20

(
= p10 + p20 − p10 x2 )

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At constant temperature, the plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an ideal solution.
The partial pressures of the components are shown by the dashed lines I and ‖ .p1 and p 2 are
directly proportional to x1 and X2 , respectively, as can be seen from the plot. The total vapour
pressure is represented in the figure by line III.

Mole Fraction in The Vapour Phase

Using Dalton's rule of partial pressures, if y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of components 1
and 2 in the vapour phase, then:

p1 = y1p total

p 2 = y2 p total

Generally

pi = yi p total

2.3. Vapour Pressures of Solutions of Solids in Liquids and Raoult’s Law

(Raoult’s law for non-volatile solutes)

When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent to make a solution, the number of solvent
molecules leaving from the surface is reduced, lowering the vapour pressure.

The amount of non-volatile solute present in the solution, regardless of its composition,
determines the drop in solvent vapour pressure.

In its most general form, Raoult's law states that the partial vapour pressure of each volatile
component in a solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction for every solution.

p1  x1

p1 = x1p10 = p total

If Raoult's law holds true for all concentrations, a solution's vapour pressure will vary linearly
from zero to the pure solvent's vapour pressure.

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2.4. Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions

Ideal Solutions:

An ideal solution is one in which each component follows Raoult's rule under all temperature
and concentration circumstances.

Properties of Ideal Solutions:

H MIXING = 0
VMIXING = 0
The attractive forces between the A-A and B-B molecules are approximately comparable to
those between the A-B molecules.

For example, benzene and toluene solution, n-hexane and n-heptane solution

Non – Ideal Solutions:

When a solution deviates from Raoult's law over a wide concentration range, it is referred to
as a non-ideal solution.

Solutions Showing Positive Deviation from Raoult’s Law:

• SoluteSolute(B-B) and Solvent-Solvent(A-A) forces are weaker than Solvent-

Solute(A-B) forces.

• The vapour pressure is higher than the law predicts.

H MIXING  0
VMIXING  0
Ethanol with acetone, for example, or carbon disulphide and acetone.

Negative Deviations from Raoult's Law are Shown in the Following Solutions:

• The Solvent-Solute(A-B) force is more powerful than the other two.

• The vapour pressure is lower than the law predicts.

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 H MIXING  0
VMIXING  0

2.5. Azeotropes

Azeotropes are binary mixes that boil at the same temperature and have the same composition
in the liquid and vapour phases.

Minimum Boiling Azeotrope

Minimum boiling azeotrope at a certain composition is formed by solutions that demonstrate

a considerable positive departure from Raoult's law.

For example, an azeotrope with a boiling point of 351.15 K is formed by a mixture of ethanol
and water containing roughly 95% ethanol.

The temperature at which water boils - composition Large positive deviations are depicted in
this diagram for solutions (Minimum boiling azeotrope).

Maximum Boiling Azeotrope:

Maximum boiling azeotrope at a certain composition is formed by solutions that demonstrate

a substantial negative divergence from Raoult's law. A mixture of 68 per cent nitric acid and
water produces an azeotrope with a boiling point of 393.5 K.

The temperature at which water boils - composition Large negative variances are depicted in
this diagram for solutions. (Azeotrope with the highest boiling point)

3. Solubility

3.1. Solubility of a Solid in Liquid

A substance's solubility refers to how much of it can be dissolved in each amount of solvent.

Factors Impacting a Solid's Solubility in a Liquid Include:

1. Nature of solute and solvent: Like disintegrates into like. Sodium chloride and sugar, for
example, dissolve quickly in water, but naphthalene and anthracene do not. Naphthalene and

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anthracene, on the other hand, dissolve quickly in benzene, but sodium chloride and sugar do
not.

2. Temperature: If ( sol H0) the solubility of a nearly saturated solution increases as the
temperature rises, and if ( sol H0) , the solubility falls as the temperature rises.

3. Pressure's Effect: Solids and liquids are highly incompressible, so, this has little effect.

3.2. Henry’s Law

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas at a fixed
temperature, according to Henry's law.

“The partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of
the gas (x) in the solution,” according to the most frequent version of Henry's law. This is
written as:The constant K H stands for Henry's law.

K H Characteristics

The type of the gas determines K H . The lower the solubility of the gas in the liquid, the higher
the value of K H at a given pressure. K H values increase as temperature decreases, indicating
that gas solubility increases as temperature decreases.

Henry's Law has a Variety of Applications.

• In the manufacture of carbonated drinks.

• During a deep-water dive.

• Climbers and those who live at high altitudes will benefit from this.

Henry's Law as a Specific Example of Raoult's Law

Raoult's law states that pi = x i pi 0

One of the components of a gas in a liquid solution is so volatile that it exists as a gas.
According to Henry's law, it is soluble in water.

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pi = K H x
As a result, Raoult's law becomes a specific case of Henry's law, in which K H equals pi 0 .

4. Colligative Properties

Colligative qualities are those that are dependent on the number of solute particles present in
a solution, regardless of their type relative to the total number of particles present.

There are four qualities that are colligative:

1. A Relative Decrease in Vapor Pressure

2. Boiling Point Elevation

3. Freezing point depression

4. Osmotic pressure is the factor to consider.

4.1. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the vapour pressure decreases. The lowering
of vapour pressure with respect to, the vapour pressure of the pure solvent is called “Relative
lowering in vapour pressure”.

Raoult's Law States That:

p1 = x1p10
The reduction in the vapour pressure of solvent (p1 ) is given as:

Deltap1 = p10 − p1 = p10 − p10 x1 = p10 (1 − x1 )

Knowing that x 2 = 1 − x1 equation then reduces to p=x 2 p10

This equation can be written as

p p10 − p1
= = x2
p10 p10

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As previously stated, the expression on the left-hand side of the equation is known as relative
lowering of vapour pressure and equals the mole fraction of the solute. The equation above
can be represented as:

p10 − p1 n2  n2 
 since x 2 
p1 0
n1 + n 2  n1 + n 2 
The number of moles of solvent and solute present in the solution are denoted by n1 and n 2 ,
respectively. Because n 2 << n1 for dilute solutions, we can ignore n 2 in the denominator.

p10 − p1 n 2
=
p10 n1

Or

p10 − p1 w 2  M1
=
p10 M 2  w1

The masses w1 and w 2 are the masses of the solvent and solute, respectively, while M1 and
M 2 are the molar masses of the solvent and solute.

4.2. Elevation in Boiling Point

The temperature at which a liquid's vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure is known as
the boiling point of the liquid.

The vapour pressure of the solvent decreases when a non-volatile solute is added, hence the
needed temperature to boil the solution will be higher. As a result, the boiling point of the
solution will rise.

Elevation of boiling point is defined as an increase in boiling point Tb = Tb − Tb0 , where Tb 0 is
the boiling point of pure solvent and Tb is the boiling point of solution.

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Expression:

Tb = K b m
The Boiling Point Elevation Constant, or Kb , is also known as the Molal Elevation Constant
(Ebullioscopic Constant).

Calculation of the Solute's Molar Mass:

w 2 / M 2 1000  w 2
m= =
w1 /1000 M 2  w1
By changing the molality value in the equation, we get

K b 1000  w 2
Tb =
M 2  w1

1000  w 2  K b
M2 =
Tb  w1

K b When the molality of the solution is unity, it is defined as an increase in boiling [Link]
unit of K b is kg mol−1 .
R  M1  Tb 2
Determination of K b : K b =
1000   vap

Where, R = gas constant (8.314 JK/mol)

Tf = freezing temperature in K M1 = Molar mass of solvent in Kg/mol vap H = enthalpy of

vapourization in J/mol .The solution's vapour pressure curve is lower than that of pure water.
Tb denotes the elevation of a solvent's boiling point in solution, as seen in the diagram.

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4.3. Depression in freezing point

A substance's freezing point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the substance
in its liquid phase equals the vapour pressure of the substance in its solid phase.

When a non-volatile solid is introduced to a solvent, the vapour pressure drops until it equals
that of a solid solvent at a lower temperature. As a result, the solvent's freezing point drops.

Depression in freezing point is defined as Tf = Tf 0 − Tf , where Tf 0 is the freezing point of pure
solvent and Tf is the freezing point when a non-volatile solute is dissolved.

Expression

Tf = K f m
Freezing Point Depression Constant, Molal Depression Constant, or Cryoscopic Constant are
all names for K f .

Calculation of molar mass of solute:

w 2 / M2
m=
w1 /1000
By Substituting This Molality Value into the Equation, We Get:

Kf  w 2 / M2
Tf =
w1 /1000
K f  w 2 1000
Tf =
M 2  w1
K f  w 2 1000
M2 =
Tf  w1
When the molality of the solution is unity, it is defined as a decrease in freezing point.

K f is measured in kg mol−1 .

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Determination of K f

R  M 2  Tf 0
Kf =
1000   fus
Where

R = gas constant (8.314 JK/mol)

Tf = freezing temperature in K
M1 = Molar mass of solvent in Kg/mol
 fus H = enthalpy of fusion in J/mol Tf , or the depression of a solvent's freezing point in a
solution, is depicted in this diagram.

4.4. Osmosis

When a semipermeable membrane separates a pure solvent and a solution, the solvent particles
move through the membrane from the solvent side to the solution side. “Osmosis” is the name
given to this phenomenon.

The semi-permeable membrane allows only small molecules to pass through, while blocking
bigger solute molecules.

Osmotic Pressure: The excess pressure that must be given to a solution to prevent osmosis,
or the flow of solvent molecules through a semipermeable barrier into the solution, is known
as the osmotic pressure of a solution.

The osmotic pressure must be equal to the excess pressure. To prevent osmosis, a coating
should be put on the solution.

Expression: At a given temperature T, osmotic pressure is proportional to the molarity, C, of

a dilute solution.

Thus:  = C R T

The osmotic pressure is P, while the gas constant is R.

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Calculation of Molar Mass:

 = ( n 2 / V ) RT
w 2 RT
M2 =
V
Isotonic Solutions: Isotonic solutions are two liquids that have the same osmotic pressure at
the same temperature.

In comparison to a more concentrated solution, a solution with a lower concentration or lower

osmotic pressure is referred to as "Hypotonic."

In comparison to a dilute solution, a solution with a higher concentration or higher osmotic

pressure is referred to as "hypertonic."

Reverse Osmosis: The solvent will flow from the solution into the pure solvent through the
semi-permeable membrane if a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution side.

The process is known as reverse osmosis.

Application: Desalination of seawater: Pure water is squeezed out of the seawater through the
membrane when pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied.

4.5. Abnormal Molar Masses

The molecular mass of a substance is said to have aberrant molar mass when it is determined
by investigating any of the colligative qualities and differs from the theoretically expected
value.

Abnormal Molar Masses are Observed:

1. When the solute in the solution forms a connection.

2. When the solute in the solution undergoes dissociation.

Van’t Hoff Factor:

Van't Hoff proposed a factor [i] known as the van't Hoff Factor, to determine the level of
association or dissociation.

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 Normal molar mass
i=
Abnormal molar mass
Observed colligative property Total no. of moles of particles after association(dissociation)
i= =
Calculated colligative property No. of moles of particles before association(dissociation)

Association: the number of particles will always decrease because of connection, i1

nA → A n
Let initial particles (n i ) = 1

Final number = 1 −  +  / n

van’t Hoff Factor i= n f / n i = 1- + /n

Dissociation: Due to dissociation, the number of particles will always rise, hence i1

A n → nA
Initial particle = 1

Final particles = 1 −  + n , i=1- +n

Modified Expressions: Relatively lower solvent vapour pressure

p10 − p1 n
0
= i. 2
p1 n1
Elevation of boiling point Tb = iK b m

Depression of Freezing point Tf = iK f m

Osmotic pressure of solution,  = i n 2 RT/V

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5. Vapour Pressure

When the temperature of a liquid is raised, the molecules' desire to escape increases, and the
vapour pressure rises.

In a liquid, the distribution of molecule kinetic energy.

Claussius - Clapeyron Equation

p2 / p1 = (H VAP / R)(1/T1 − 1/ T2 )

Where H VAP represents the liquid's vaporisation enthalpy.

6. Thermodynamics of Dissolution

The process is exothermic if the contacts increase stronger during solution formation, and it is
endothermic if they become weaker. In the dissolving process, S is often positive. G must
be negative if the mixing process is spontaneous/natural.

6.1. Boiling Point Elevation

G VAP = 0

Tb = H VAP / SVAP

The non-volatile solute improves the unpredictability of the solution phase while maintaining
the same entropy of the vapours. As a result, SVAP lowers, causing the boiling point to rise.

The difference in their entropies of vapourization, SVAP , causes a solution's boiling point to
be greater than that of a pure solvent.

6.2. Freezing Point Depression

G FUS = 0

Due to the increase in the entropy of the solution, the entropy difference will increase in this
scenario. According to the above relationship, an increase in entropy causes a drop in the
freezing point.

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A difference in their entropies of fusion, SFUSION , causes a solution to have a lower freezing
point than a pure solvent.

7. Ostwald Walker Method

This is a common method for determining a solution's relative decrease in vapour pressure.
Dry air is carried through three systems in order: solution, pure solvent, and finally a drying
agent.

The decrease in weight of the vessels is represented by w1 and w 2 , whereas the rise in weight
of the third vessel is represented by w 3 . w1  PSOLUTION w 2  PSOLVENT - PSOLUTION

(since the air was already saturated) w 3  PSOLVENT

The relative decrease in vapour pressure can be computed using the relationships.

A denotes the solvent and B represents the solute in the formulas below.

M A = Molar mass of solvent

M B = Molar mass of solute
WA = Mass of solvent
VB = volume of solute
V = volume of solution
d = density of solution

Some Important Formulas

WB
1. Mass of percentage (w/w) = 100
WA + WB

VB
Volume percentage(v/v) = 100
VA + VB

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 w W 100
Mass by volume percentage   = B
v V(mL)

WB
Parts per million (ppm) = 106
WA + WB

nA
2. Mole Fraction of A, x A =
nA + nB

nB
Mole fraction of B, x B = xA + xB
nA + nB

3. Molarity (M)

Moles of solute n WB
Molarity(M)= = B =
Volume of solution in litre V(L) M B  V(L)

4. Molality (M)

Moles of solute n W 1000

Molality(M)= = B 1000 = B
Volume of solvent in kg WA M B  WA

5. Normality(N)

Gram Equivalents of solute WB

Normality(N)= =
Volume of solution in litre Gem of solute  V( L )
GEM= Gram Equivalent Mass

6. Relationship Between Molarity and Normality

A solution's normality (N) and molarity (M) are connected as follows:

Normality  [Link](solute)=Molarity  Molar mass(solute)

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7. Relationship Between Molarity and Mass percentage (p)

If p is the mass percentage of the solution and d is its density, then

p  d 10
Molarity=
Mol. mass(solute)
p  d 10
Normality=
Eq. mass(solute)

8. Dilution Formula

When a substance's solution is diluted by adding solvent from volume V1 to volume V2 ,

M1V1 = M 2 V2 , similarly, N1V1 = N 2 V2 .

9. Molarity of a Mixture

When V1 mL of a molarity M1 solution is mixed with another solution of the same substance
with volume V2 and molarity M 2 , the molarity of the resulting mixture of solution (M) can be
calculated as follows:

M1V1 = M 2 V2
M=
V1 + V2

10. Raoult’s Law for Volatile Solute.

pA = pA0 x A and pB = pB0 x B The partial vapour pressures of component ‘ A ' and component ‘
B ' in the solution are p A and p B , respectively. The vapour pressures of pure components
‘ A ' and ‘ B ' are pA0 and p B0 , respectively.
Total vapour pressure p = pA + pB = pA0 x A +pB0 x B

11. Raoult’s Law for Non-Volatile Solute

pA0 − p nB n W M
= xB = = B = B A
pA 0
n A + n B n A M B WA

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 pA0 − p
where x B is the mole-fraction of the solute and is the relative reduction in vapour
pA0
pressure.

12. Elevation in Boiling Point.

Tb = K b  m
K b WB
MB = Where Tf = Tf 0 − Tf
Tb  WA
14. Osmotic Pressure

( )  = cRT
where ‘c’ is molarity

15. Van’t Hoff Factor.

Normal molar mass

i=
Abnormal molar mass
Observed colligative property
Or i =
Calculated colligative property

Total no. of moles of particles after association(dissociation)

Or i =
No. of moles of particles before association(dissociation)

Modified Forms of Colligative Properties:

pA0 − pA
(a) = ix B
pA0

(b) Tb = i K b m

(c) Tf = iK f m

(d)  V=in BRT

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 i-1
16.  = where is the degree of dissociation, ‘ i ’ is the van't Hoff factor, and n is the number
n-1
of ions produced per compound formula.

1-i
17.  = where is the degree of association, 1 is the number of molecules of solute that
1
1-
n
must associate to produce an associated molecule, and n is the number of molecules of solute
1
that must associate to form an associated molecule where  1.
n

18. If i1 , the solute will dissociate. i1 , the solute forms a bond with another [Link] is
1
no linkage or dissociation when i=1 ,The i= solute is a dimer.
2

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