AQA combined science
trilogy
Physics paper 2
Physics paper 2
Forces
Waves
Magnetism and electromagnetism
Forces
❖Contact and non contact forces ❖Distance-Time and Velocity-Time
❖Weight, mass and gravity
graphs
❖Resultant force and work done ❖Terminal velocity
❖Calculating forces ❖Newton's laws
❖Forces and elasticity ❖Investigating motion
❖Investigating springs ❖Reaction times
❖Distance, displacement, speed and velocity ❖Momentum
❖Acceleration
Forces
Vectors and Scalars Forces between Objects
▪ Displacement is distance in a given direction. ▪ Forces can change the shape of an object or
change its motion or its state of rest.
▪ A vector quantity is a physical quantity and
has magnitude (size) and direction. ▪ The unit of force is the Newton (N).
▪ A scalar quantity has magnitude but no ▪ A contact force is a force that acts on
direction. objects only when the objects touch each
other.
▪ A vector quantity can be represented by an
arrow in the direction of the vector and ▪ When 2 objects interact, they always exert
length in proportion to the magnitude of the equal and opposite forces on each other.
vector.
Forces
Resultant Forces
▪ The resultant force is a single force that has the same effect as all of the
forces acting on an object.
▪ If the resultant force on an object is:
▪ Zero, the object stays at rest or at the same speed and direction
▪ Greater than zero, the speed or direction of the object will change.
▪ If 2 forces act on an object along the same line, the resultant force is:
▪ Their sum, if the forces act in the same direction
▪ Their difference, if the forces act in opposite directions.
Forces
Centre of Mass The Parallelogram of Forces (Higher only)
▪ The centre of mass of an object is the point where its mass ▪ The parallelogram of forces is a scale diagram of 2
can be thought of as being concentrated. force vectors.
▪ The centre of mass of a uniform ruler is at its midpoint. ▪ The parallelogram of forces is used to find the
resultant of 2 forces that don’t act along the same line.
▪ When an object is freely suspended, it comes to rest with its
centre of mass directly underneath the point of suspension. ▪ The resultant is the diagonal of the parallelogram that
starts at the origin of the 2 forces.
▪ The centre of mass of a symmetrical object is along the axis
of symmetry.
Forces
Resolution of Forces (Higher only)
▪ Resolving a force means finding perpendicular components that
have a resultant force that is equal to the force.
▪ To resolve a force in 2 perpendicular directions, draw a
rectangle with adjacent sides along the two directions so that
the diagonal represents the force vector.
▪ For an object in equilibrium, the resultant force is zero.
▪ An object at rest is in equilibrium because the resultant force
on it is zero.
Forces
Speed and Distance-Time Graphs Velocity and Acceleration
▪ Speed (m/s) = Distance (m) ÷ Time (s) ▪ Velocity is speed in a given direction and
is a vector quantity.
▪ The distance-time graph for any object
that is: ▪ Acceleration (m/s2) = change in velocity
(m/s) ÷ time taken (s)
▪ Stationary is a horizontal line
▪ Deceleration is the change of velocity per
▪ Moving at constant speed is a straight second when an object slows down.
line that slopes upwards.
▪ The gradient of a distance-time graph for
an object represents the object’s speed.
Forces
Motion Graphs Forces and Acceleration
▪ The gradient of the line on a velocity-time ▪ The greater the resultant force on an
graph represents acceleration. object, the greater the object’s
acceleration.
▪ If a velocity-time graph is a horizontal line, the
acceleration is zero. ▪ The greater the mass of an object, the
smaller its acceleration for a given force.
▪ A positive gradient on a velocity-time graph
represents positive acceleration, a negative ▪ Force (N) = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)
gradient represents deceleration.
▪ The inertia of an object is its tendency to
▪ The area under the line on a velocity-time stay at rest or in uniform motion.
graph represents the distance travelled.
Forces
Weight and Terminal Velocity
▪ The weight of an object is the force acting on the object due
to gravity.
▪ The mass of an object is the amount of matter in the object.
▪ An object acted on by gravity accelerates at about 10m/s 2.
▪ The terminal velocity of an object is the velocity it eventually
reaches when it is falling. The weight of the object is then
equal to the frictional force on the object.
▪ When an object is moving at terminal velocity, the resultant
force on it is zero.
Forces
Forces and Braking Momentum (Higher only)
▪ Friction and air resistance oppose the driving ▪ Momentum (kg m/s) = Mass (kg) x Velocity
force of a vehicle. (m/s)
▪ The stopping distance of a vehicle depends on ▪ Conservation of momentum - A closed system
the thinking distance and the braking distance. is a system in which the total momentum
before an event is the same as the total
▪ High speed, poor weather conditions and poor momentum after the event.
vehicle maintenance all increase the braking
distance.
▪ Poor reaction time (due to tiredness, alcohol,
drugs or using a mobile phone) and high speed
both increase the thinking distance.
▪ F = ma gives the braking force of a vehicle.
Forces
Forces and Elasticity
▪ An object is called elastic if it returns to its original shape after
removing the force deforming it.
▪ The extension is the difference between the length of the object when
a force is applied to it and its original length.
▪ The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied
to it, as long as the limit of proportionality is not exceeded. The
relationship is linear.
▪ Beyond the limit of proportionality, the extension of a spring is no
longer proportional to the applied force. The relationship is non-
linear.
▪ Force applied (N) = Spring constant (N/m) x Extension (m) RP
RP
Forces – Exam practice
Forces – Exam practice
Forces – Exam practice
Forces – Exam practice
Forces – Exam practice
Waves
❖Transverse and longitudinal ❖Radio waves
waves
❖EM waves and their uses
❖Experiments with waves
❖More uses
❖Wave behaviour
❖Infrared radiation
❖Electromagnetic waves
❖Dangers of EMW
❖Refraction
Waves
Waves
▪ Used to transfer energy and information.
▪ Transverse waves – oscillate perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer of the waves. E.g.
water waves, electromagnetic waves
▪ Longitudinal waves – oscillate parallel to the direction of energy transfer of the waves. E.g. sound
waves.
▪ Mechanical waves need a medium to travel through.
▪ Amplitude is the height of the wave crest or the depth of the wave trough from the mid-position.
▪ For any wave, its frequency is the number of wave crests passing a point in one second.
▪ Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz is 1 wave crest passing each second.
▪ For any wave, its wavelength is the distance from one wave crest to the next wave crest.
▪ Wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m)
Waves
Reflection and Refraction (Higher only)
▪ Plane waves in a ripple tank are reflected from a straight barrier at the same angle to the barrier as the
incident waves because their speed and wavelength do not change on reflection.
▪ Plane waves crossing a boundary between 2 different materials are refracted unless they cross the
boundary at normal incidence.
▪ Refraction occurs at a boundary between 2 different materials because the speed and wavelength of
the waves change at the boundary.
▪ At a boundary between 2 different materials, waves can be transmitted or absorbed.
Sound Waves
▪ Sound waves are vibrations that travel through a medium (a substance).
▪ Sound waves can’t travel through a vacuum or outer space. RP
RP
Waves
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
▪ The electromagnetic spectrum (in order of decreasing wavelength and
increasing frequency and energy is made up of:
▪ Radio waves; microwaves; infrared radiation; visible light (red to violet);
ultraviolet waves; X-rays and gamma rays.
▪ The human eye can only detect visible light. The wavelength of visible light
ranges from about 350nm to about 650nm.
▪ Electromagnetic waves transfer energy from a source to an absorber.
▪ White light contains all the colours of the visible spectrum.
Waves
Infrared, Microwaves and Radio waves
▪ Infrared radiation is used for carrying signals from remote controls and inside optical fibres.
▪ Microwaves are used to carry satellite TV programmes and mobile phone calls.
▪ Radio waves are used for radio and TV broadcasting, radio communications and mobile phone calls.
▪ Mobile phone radiation is microwave radiation and is also radio waves with near-microwave frequencies.
▪ Different types of electromagnetic radiation are hazardous in different ways.
▪ Microwaves and radio waves can heat internal parts of people’s bodies.
▪ Infrared radiation can cause skin burns.
RP
RP
Waves
Communications
▪ Radio waves of different frequencies are used for different purposes because the wavelength (and so
the frequency) of waves affects:
▪ How far they can travel
▪ How much they spread
▪ How much information they can carry.
▪ Microwaves are used for satellite and TV signals.
▪ Further research is needed to evaluate whether or not mobile phones are safe to use.
▪ Carrier waves are waves that are used to carry information. They do this by varying their amplitude.
▪ Optical fibres are very thin transparent fibres that are used to transmit communication signals by
light and infrared radiation.
Waves
Ultraviolet Waves, X-rays and Gamma Rays
▪ Ultraviolet waves have a shorter wavelength than visible light and can harm the skin and the eyes.
▪ X-rays are used in hospitals to make X-ray images.
▪ Gamma rays are used to kill harmful bacteria in food, to sterilise surgical equipment and to kill cancer cells.
▪ Ionising radiation makes uncharged atoms become charged.
▪ X-rays and gamma rays damage living tissue when they pass through it.
X-rays in Medicine
▪ X-rays are used in hospitals to make images of your internal body parts and to destroy tumours at or near the
body surface.
▪ X-rays are ionising radiation and so can damage living tissue when they pass through it.
▪ X-rays are absorbed more by bones and teeth than by soft tissues.
Waves – Exam practice
Waves – Exam practice
Waves – Exam practice
Waves – Exam practice
Magnetism and electromagnetism
❖Permanent and induced
magnets
❖Electromagnetism
❖The motor effect
❖Electric motors
Magnetism and electromagnetism
Magnetic Fields
▪ Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
▪ The magnetic field lines of a bar magnet curve around from the
north pole of the bar magnet to the south pole.
▪ Induced magnetism is magnetism created in an unmagnetised
magnetic material when the material is placed in the magnetic
field.
▪ Steel is used instead of iron to make permanent magnets
because steel does not lose its magnetism easily but iron does.
Magnetism and electromagnetism
Magnetic Fields of Electric Currents
▪ The magnetic field lines around a wire are circles centred on the wire in
a plane perpendicular to the wire.
▪ The magnetic field lines in a solenoid are parallel to its axis and are all
in the same direction. A uniform magnetic field is one in which the
magnetic field lines are parallel.
▪ Increasing the current makes the magnetic field stronger. Reversing the
direction of the current reverses the magnetic field lines.
▪ An electromagnet is a solenoid that has an iron core. It consists of an
insulated wire wrapped around an iron bar.
Magnetism and electromagnetism
The Motor Effect (Higher only)
▪ In the motor effect, the force is:
▪ Increased if the current or the strength of the magnetic field or the length of
the conductor is increased.
▪ Reversed if the direction of the current or the magnetic field is reversed.
▪ Always in the direction which is at right angles to the wire and the field lines.
▪ An electric motor has a coil that turns when a current is passed through it.
▪ Magnetic flux density is a measure of the strength of a magnetic field.
▪ Force (N) = Magnetic Flux Density (T) x Current (A) x Length (m)
Magnetism and electromagnetism – Exam
practice
Magnetism and electromagnetism – Exam
practice
Magnetism and electromagnetism – Exam
practice