Hurricanes

Module 11
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Hurricanes are one of nature’s most

What is a Tropical Cyclone?

powerful storms. They produce strong
winds, storm surge flooding, and heavy
rainfall that can lead to inland flooding,
tornadoes, and rip currents. The term
hurricane is derived from Huracan, a
Carib god of evil.

Definition: Tropical Cyclones are intense,

rapidly rotating storm systems originating over
tropical or subtropical oceans.

Hurricane Humberto, as captured by a NOAA satellite September 15, 2019.

Global Terminology – Tropical Cyclone
• Hurricanes in north Atlantic and eastern pacific
• Typhoons in the northwestern Pacific
• Cyclones in the southwestern Pacific and Indian Ocean.
 Global – Tropical Cyclone

Hurricane Humberto, as captured by a NOAA satellite September 15, 2019.

Satellite image of category 5 severe Tropical Cyclone Ilsa, April 2023.

Remember: Cyclones rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
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Hurricane Florence in 2018 as viewed
from International Space Station:

Hurricane Definition
The eye, eyewall, and
surrounding rainbands are
characteristics of tropical cyclones.

Tropical cyclones are classified by their

maximum wind speed.
• Winds less than 39 mph: Tropical
depressions
• Winds 39-73 mph: Tropical storms
• Winds 74 mph or greater: Hurricane
• Major hurricanes have winds of at
least 111 mph and can reach speeds of
over 180 mph, with gusts of 200 mph.

*Sustained winds of for over a 1-minute

period*
 What is a Hurricane?
• Key Features: Low-pressure
center, powerful winds, intense
convective thunderstorms, heavy
rainfall, storm surges, and possible
tornadoes.
• Size: Typically ~ 600 km (375 miles)
across, though they can range
widely. Size doesn’t indicate
strength—wind speed, driven by
the pressure gradient, is a more
reliable measure of intensity.

Hurricane Milton rapidly intensifies into a strong Category 5 hurricane in the Gulf of
Mexico on October 7, 2024. Credit: CIRA/NOAA
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Warm water powers the tropical
cyclone and is the most important

Energy Source
factor in its development.
Once the center of the storm (the
"eye") moves over land, it will begin to
weaken rapidly, not because of friction,
but because the storm lacks the
moisture and heat that the ocean
provided

• Unlike midlatitude cyclone - they don’t

have distinct fronts or contrasting air
masses.
• Hurricanes are fueled by warm, moist air
from tropical oceans, which releases latent
heat.
 Hurricane Structure
• Eye: Central calm region, warmest part;
clear skies or scattered clouds with
descending air.
• Eye Wall: Surrounds the eye with the
highest wind speeds and heaviest rainfall;
most destructive area.
• Rain Bands: Concentric thunderstorm
bands around the eye wall, producing rain
and winds, partially hidden by high clouds.
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The cause of eye formation is still not
fully understood. It is probably related

Hurricane Structure – The Eye

to the combination of "the conservation
of angular momentum" and centrifugal
force. The conservation of angular
momentum means that objects will spin
faster as they move toward the center
of circulation. In other words, air
increases its speed as it heads toward

• Eye: Located at the storm’s center, the

eye is typically a calm zone with sinking
air and warmer temperatures than
surrounding areas.
• Characteristics: Clearer skies, low
winds, and temperatures that are
warmer due to descending air heating
by compression.
• Size: Varies from 5 to over 60 km (3 to
over 35 miles) in diameter. The eye is
usually smaller at the surface, expanding
upward.
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The eyewall consists of a ring of tall
thunderstorms that produce heavy

Hurricane Structure – Eye Wall

rains and usually the strongest winds.
Changes in the structure of the eye
and eyewall can cause changes in the
wind speed, which is an indicator of the
storm's intensity. The eye can grow or
shrink in size, and double (concentric)
eyewalls can form.

• Eye Wall: The ring of intense

thunderstorms surrounding the
eye, where the strongest winds and
heaviest rains occur.
• Destructive Potential: The eye wall is
the most dangerous part of the storm
due to the high wind speeds and
extreme rainfall.
 Hurricane Structure – Eye Wall 1
• Rain Bands: Concentric bands of
thunderstorms that spiral
outward from the eye wall.
• Features: Capable of producing
heavy rain and strong winds,
though less intense than the eye
wall.
• Challenges in Observation: Thick,
high-level clouds often obscure these
bands from satellite imagery, though
radar can monitor these structures
effectively.
Hurricane Circulation Pressure Gradient: A steep
gradient near the center
generates rapid inward-spiraling
winds, increasing in speed as they
approach the eye wall.

Example: Hurricane Sandy (2012)

 Hurricane Circulation 1
Conservation of Angular Momentum:
• Hurricane-strength winds occur primarily in the inner
region of a hurricane, a zone about 160 kilometers
(100 miles) across in an average storm.
• Like a spinning figure skater pulling in their arms, the
inward movement increases the speed of winds near the
storm’s center.
• Outer potion of the storm tends to have gale-
force winds—winds > 50 km per hour (30 mph).
What happen in hurricane cone?
• Watch the video in the link below
• [Link]
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Figure: A cross section. Rain bands
fall from outside the eye of the

Hurricane Circulation 2
hurricane. The eye is at the center and
it is surrounded by an eyewall. Air
updrafts where rain falls, rises through
the hurricane to the tropopause, then
falls through the eye. Aloft, airflow
moves outward from the storm’s
Airflow Patterns: center, creating a cloud shield that

• Ascending air in the eye wall forms cumulonimbus clouds; greatest

precipitation here.
• Outflow at storm top spreads air outward, supporting inward surface
flow and storm intensification.
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This circulation supports rain bands
further from the eye, producing heavy

Hurricane Circulation 3
rain and strong winds—though weaker
than those in the eye wall.
The steep pressure gradient and
strong winds increase near the eye
wall, generating the heaviest
precipitation, while downdrafts between
rain bands bring cooler, drier air,

Vertical Air Motion:

• Eye wall updrafts cause heavy rainfall, while downdrafts between
rain bands create drier, rain-free areas.
• Air reaching the tropopause (upper boundary) redirects, forming
further rain bands and sustaining the storm’s circulation.
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Latent heat is transferred from the
ocean to the atmosphere through the

Hurricane Formation
process of evaporation. Temperature
inversions, often from subtropical
highs, prevent vertical development.
Strong upper-level winds can disrupt
storm structure and disperse latent
heat, stopping storm growth. Without
adequate divergence at the storm's

• Heat engines fueled by thermal energy

from warm ocean surfaces and latent heat
from condensation.
• They form between 5° and 30° latitude, mostly
in warm ocean regions, where sea-surface
temperatures are at least 27°C (80°F).
• Conditions include warm, moist air, low vertical
wind shear, and a central structure of
cumulonimbus towers.
• Tropical disturbances, often initiated by easterly
waves, can develop into hurricanes with a
low-pressure center and cyclonic rotation.
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Requirement for warm ocean waters
explains why hurricanes only rarely

Conditions for Hurricane Development

form over the relatively cool waters of
the South Atlantic and the eastern
South Pacific. Hurricanes rarely form
within 5° of the equator because the
Coriolis force is too weak in that region
to initiate the necessary rotary motion.
Unlike severe thunderstorms, which

• Warm ocean waters (at least 80°F / 27°C) throughout a

depth of about 150 ft. (46 m).
• An atmosphere which cools fast enough with height
such that it is potentially unstable to moist convection.
• Relatively moist air near the mid-level of
the troposphere (16,000 ft. / 4,900 m).
• Generally, a minimum distance of at least 300 miles
(480 km) from the equator. 5 degrees from the
equator. Coriolis force.
• A pre-existing near-surface disturbance. E.g. Tropical
wave.
• Low vertical wind shear between the surface and
the upper troposphere.
 Presenter Notes

Conditions for Hurricane Development 1

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[Link]

• Trade winds are consistent winds that blow from east to west in the equatorial regions of the Earth
• The trade winds can steer hurricane.
Conditions for
Hurricane
Development
2
 Conditions for Hurricane Development 3
Presenter Notes
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To the east of the wave axis, the
streamlines get progressively closer
together, indicating that the surface
flow is converging. Recall from Chapter
4 that convergence encourages air to
rise and form clouds. As a result,
tropical disturbances form on the east
side of an easterly wave
Tropical disturbances must also be

Tropical disturbances that

produce most of the strongest
hurricanes that threaten North
America usually begin as large
undulations or ripples in the
trade winds known as easterly
waves (or tropical waves).

Streamlines (wind direction)

show low-level (surface) airflow.
Tropical disturbances are
associated with the convergent
flow of the easterly wave.
From Tropical Disturbance to Hurricane
Formation of African Easterly Waves: Disturbances called easterly waves form over Africa due
to intense land heating, creating low-pressure regions and clusters of thunderstorms.

Development over the Atlantic Ocean: As the waves move westward over warm Atlantic
waters, the heat and moisture fuel the thunderstorms, helping the system strengthen.

Organization of Thunderstorms and Lowered Pressure: Thunderstorms organize around a

central low-pressure area with minimal wind shear, which supports vertical development.

Cyclonic Circulation and Intensification: The Coriolis effect causes rotation, concentrating
thunderstorms around the core and intensifying the low-pressure system into a tropical
depression or storm.

Evolution of a typical North Atlantic hurricane. Formation of a Mature Hurricane: With sustained winds reaching 74 mph, the system
becomes a hurricane, forming a stable eye, eyewall, and rainbands, fueled by oceanic heat and
moisture.
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Hurricanes weaken when they
encounter cooler waters, make landfall,

Hurricane Decay
or face strong upper-level winds.
Moving over land cuts off the storm’s
supply of warm, moist air, reduces
latent heat release, and increases
surface friction, leading to dissipation.
Interaction with cold air masses or
fronts can transform hurricanes into

Hurricanes weaken when they:

1. Move over ocean waters that are too cold
to supply adequate latent heat
2. Make landfall
3. Reach a location where upper-level winds are
strong.
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Hurricane Climatology [Link]

number of hurricanes (yellow area),
and combined named storms and
hurricanes (red area) that occur on
each calendar day over a 100-year
period. The data have been smoothed
using a 5-day running average
centered on each calendar day. For the
Atlantic basin (the Atlantic Ocean, the
 Presenter Notes
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Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, 1-minute maximum --------------------------------------------
sustained winds The Saffir-Simpson scale was
established to rank the intensities of
hurricanes based on pressure, winds,
and storm surge.
In 1971, the scale was developed by
civil engineer Herbert Saffir and
Category mph Damage meteorologist Joanne
Simpson (formerly Joanne Malkus,
born Joanne Gerould; March 23, 1923
5 ≥ 157 Catastrophic damage
Major Hurricane

4 130–156 Catastrophic damage

3 111–129 Devastating damage

2 96–110 Extensive damage

1 74–95 Some damage

Non-Hurricane

TS 39–73 --

TD ≤ 38 --

• The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 categorization based on the hurricane's intensity at the indicated time.
• The maximum sustained surface wind speed (peak 1-minute wind at 33 feet/10 meters) is the determining factor in the scale.
 Presenter Notes
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Global tropical cyclone scales

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Within all basins tropical cyclones are
named when the sustained winds
reach at least 35 kn (40
10-minute mph; 65
sustained km/h).
winds
The definition of sustained
winds recommended by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO)
and used by most weather agencies is
that of a 10-minute average at a height
of 10 m (33 ft) above the sea surface.

3-minute sustained winds

10-minute sustained winds

3-second wind gusts and maximum sustained winds averaged over a 10-minute interval.
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Broken utility poles downed by strong
wind gusts are seen as Hurricane

Wind damage
Milton approaches
Florida. Photograph: Ricardo
Arduengo/Reuters

• Wind damage is a primary cause of destruction in

hurricanes, sending debris flying and impacting
structures.
• Vulnerable Structures: Mobile homes and high-rise
buildings (especially upper floors) are highly vulnerable
to hurricane-force winds.
• Wind Affects Larger Area: Unlike storm surge,
hurricane-force winds impact a wide area, causing
extensive damage.
• Hurricanes Can Spawn Tornadoes: Many landfalling
hurricanes produce tornadoes, adding to the
destruction.

Hurricane Milton (2024) - Florida

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The piling up of ocean water by strong
onshore winds is the most important

Storm Surge
factor responsible for the development
of a storm surge. Low pressure at the
center of a hurricane will cause a
higher storm surge, but this effect is
relatively small.

• The most devastating damage in a coastal zone is

caused by a hurricane’s storm surge.
• Storm surge is the rising water level caused
predominantly by wind blowing water
onshore.
• A storm surge is a dome of water often 80
kilometers (50 miles) wide that sweeps across the
coast near the point where the eye makes
landfall.
• When all wave activity is smoothed out, the storm
surge is a measure of the height of the water
above normal high tide level
Storm Surge damage
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WPC rainfall summary graphic from

Heavy Rains and Inland Flooding

August 25-September 1, 2017. Figure
courtesy David Roth.
Raw NOAA Multi-radar multi-sensor
quantitative precipitation
estimation (inches) for Harvey in
southeastern Texas from August 25-
• Flooding Risk from Rain: Heavy rains from hurricanes are a major flooding threat, especially for inland
September 1, 2017. Figure courtesy
Jonathan Brazzell.
areas.
• Rainfall Depends on Storm Size and Speed: Larger, slower-moving hurricanes tend to produce the
most rainfall, regardless of storm intensity.
• Extreme Rainfall Example – Hurricane Harvey: Harvey stalled over Texas in 2017,
bringing record-breaking rainfall of 40-61 inches to southeast Texas and southwest
Louisiana.
• Elevated Terrain Increases Rainfall: Mountains and high elevations amplify rainfall amounts

Hurricane Harvey (2017) Peak accumulations of 60.58 in (5

feet), in Nederland, Texas. Harvey was the wettest tropical
cyclone on record in the United States.
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Hurricane Paths Vary
Steering by Airflow: Hurricanes are
"steered" by surrounding airflow
throughout the troposphere, similar to
how a leaf moves in a stream.
Influence of Trade Winds and Coriolis

Hurricane
Force: At lower latitudes, trade winds
push hurricanes west, then the Coriolis
effect turns them northward in the

Tracks
• Hurricane Paths Vary
• Steering by Airflow
• Influence of Trade Winds and Coriolis
Force
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The National Data Buoy Center
(NDBC) maintains a network of buoys

Detecting, Tracking, and Monitoring Hurricanes

and coastal stations that collect data.

• Satellites: Estimate wind speeds, rainfall, cloud heights

• Ground Radar: Estimate wind speeds and rainfall intensity
• Aircraft: Instrumented aircraft, dropsondes, and drone aircraft
• Buoys: Oceanographic and meteorological data
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Hurricane observations
scatterometer : Scatterometers are
active remote sensing instruments for
deriving wind direction and speed from
the roughness of the sea. determine
the wind direction over water.
[Link]

Satellite Wind and Precipitation Monitoring:

• Radar scatterometers on satellites estimate wind speeds by measuring ocean surface roughness.
• Satellites also identify intense cloud and rain activity in the eye wall, helping assess hurricane strength.

Aircraft Reconnaissance and Dropsonde Technology:

• Hurricane Hunter aircraft fly directly into storms to measure details of position and development.
• Dropsondes released from aircraft record temperature, humidity, air pressure, and wind speed from
high altitudes to the surface, providing precise data.
Hurricane observations 1

GPM Satellite - Hurricane Irma (2017)

NEXRAD - Hurricane Ian (2022)

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[Link]

Moored Buoys
NDBC's moored buoys measure and transmit
barometric pressure; wind direction, speed, and
gust; air and sea temperature; and wave energy
spectra from which significant wave height,
dominant wave period, and average wave period
are derived. Even the direction of wave propagation
is measured on many moored buoys.
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Hurricane Forecasting
[Link]

Forecasts help predict the storm's path, wind strength, rainfall, and potential storm surge, which are critical
for preparing and issuing warnings.

• Track Forecast Cone: The forecast cone shows the likely path of a hurricane, with uncertainty
increasing over time, represented by a widening cone. The cone width indicates track uncertainty, not
storm size.
• Evacuation Planning: Accurate track forecasts enable timely evacuations from high-risk surge
zones, significantly reducing the risk of fatalities.
• Improvements in Forecast Accuracy: Advances in computer models and satellite data have made 5-
day track forecasts as reliable as early 3-day forecasts, though some uncertainty still requires large
warning areas.

Forecasting Other Characteristics:

• Rainfall and Inland Flooding: Improved by the GPM satellite and coastal radar, which also forecasts
wind and tornado risks.
• Storm Surge: Predicted by the National Hurricane Center's SLOSH model, with LSU developing
high-resolution surge and flooding models for enhanced accuracy.
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Hurricane Forecasting 1
[Link]
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Forecast Modeling [Link]

[Link]

forecast/models/modeltypes/ensemble/ind
[Link]

Visit here to learn more about hurricane models:

[Link]
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Forecast Modeling Read more here: [Link]

[Link]
models/modeltypes/stormsurge/[Link]
1

The Sea Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes (SLOSH)

model (Jelesnianski, et al) is a numerical model that computes
storm surge.
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Two factors are especially important in
the watch-and-warning decision
process.
First, adequate lead time must be
provided to protect life and, to a lesser
degree, property.
Second, forecasters must attempt to
keep overwarning at a minimum,
because people may refuse to leave

Forecast communication
Resources
• [Link]