Introduction to Assessment:

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT: Definition, Description and

Differentiating Between
DEFINITION, DESCRIPTION AND Testing and Assessment

DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN
TESTING AND ASSESSMENT

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning of Psychological Assessment
1.3 Purpose of Assessment
1.4 Principle of Assessment
1.5 Process of Assessment
1.6 Methods of Assessment
1.6.1 The Interview Method
1.6.2 Observation Method
1.6.3 Case Study Method
1.7 Meaning of Psychological Testing
1.7.1 Difference between Psychological Assessment and Psychological Testing
1.8 Purpose of Psychological Testing
1.9 Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test
1.10 Types of Psychological Tests
1.11 Let Us Sum Up
1.12 Unit End Questions
1.13 Glossary
1.14 Suggested Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Assessment is the process of collecting information with regard to abilities,
interest, aptitude, personality, attitude and beliefs. It is an integral part of day to
day life, and is one of the important work of the counselor. Without assessment
the counselor can not reach any conclusion; so it is a basic step to get information
related to the client. For psychological assessment in counseling the counselor
uses various assessment techniques for which the most known is the standardized
tools named as psychological test to assess clients’ behaviour. Formal assessment
is planed and is based on certain predetermined criteria whereas some assessment
techniques are non standardized such as case study, interview, observation etc.
In this unit you’ll know the principles, purpose and methods of assessment, the
difference between psychological assessment and testing, and different types of
psychological tests.

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Introduction
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Describe the meaning of psychological assessment;
• Differentiate between psychological assessment and psychological testing;
• Describe the purposes for which psychological assessment is used;
• List out the important principles of assessment;
• Describe the different methods of assessment;
• Select a good psychological test; and
• Describe the different types of psychological tests.

1.2 MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

ASSESSMENT
Let us first define the term assessment. It can be defined as “the use of standards
or systematic procedure for observing our behaviour.” Assessment describes the
status of a phenomenon at a particular time; it describes without value judgment
a situation that prevails; it attempts no explanation of underlying reasons and
makes no recommendations for action. It may deal with prevailing opinion,
knowledge, practice, or conditions. The definition of assessment for our purpose
can be the process of collecting information to be used as the basis for informed
decision by the assessor or by those to whom results are communicated.

Psychological assessment usually involves a more comprehensive assessment

of the individual. This process of assessment makes use of psychological tests or
other qualitative method. Therefore, it is a process of collecting information
which can be formal, informal, qualitative and quantitative.
Psychological assessment is a process that involves the integration of information
from multiple sources, such as tests related to ability, intelligence, interests or
attitudes, as well as information from personal interviews. Collateral information
is also collected about personal, occupational, or medical history, such as from
records or from interviews with parents, spouses, teachers, or previous therapists
or physicians. Moreover the psychological assessment is a structured interview
that gathers information from and/or tests a person to evaluate his or her mental
health. It is “an extremely complex process of solving problems (answering
questions) in which psychological tests are often used as one of the methods of
collecting relevant data” (Anastasi, 1990).
The psychological assessment gathers information about the individual to provide
him/her guidance and counseling. It is the first step in any guidance and
counseling situation. The process typically starts with a key complaint or
presenting problem—this is usually what prompts the person to seek help. A
complete psychological assessment should include: bio psychosocial history,
neurological assessment, psychological testing and physical examination.
Once it is completed, the assessment will help to establish either a tentative or
definitive diagnosis. With this information, the counselor can inform to the client
about the results, and psycho therapy/counseling can be given.
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Thus, a psychological assessment is the attempt of a skilled professional, usually Introduction to Assessment:
Definition, Description and
a psychologist, to use the techniques and tools of psychology to learn either Differentiating Between
general or specific facts about another person, either to inform others of how Testing and Assessment
they function now, or to predict their behaviour and functioning in the future.
Maloney and Ward describe assessment as follows. It
1) Typically does not involve defined procedures or steps
2) Frequently uses tests
3) Contributes to some decision process to some problem, often by redefining
the problem, breaking the problem down into smaller pieces, or highlighting
some part(s) of the problem
4) Requires the examiner to consider, evaluate, and integrate the data
5) Produces results that can not be evaluated solely on psychometric grounds
6) Is less routine and inflexible, more individualised.
The point of assessment is often diagnosis or classification. These are the act of
placing a person in a strictly or loosely defined category of people. This allows
us to quickly understand what they are like in general, and to assess the presence
of other relevant characteristics based upon people similar to them.

Assessments can be both process and product oriented. Process-oriented

assessments do not necessarily produce a finished product; they are primarily
tools used to guide ongoing relationships to direct activities and plans. Of course,
assessments frequently overlap in their nature and purpose. Product-oriented
assessments are assessments that result in the creation of a report or document.
For example, a medical history is required when patients are hospitalized and
mental status examinations and their results concerning emotional and cognitive
functioning are documented.

1.3 PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT

The purposes of assessment in guidance and counseling situation are as follows:
1) Self Understanding: The basic purpose of carrying out an assessment is
for gaining insight in helping the client understand themselves better, helping
them to know what they can do and cannot do including their strengths and
weaknesses.
2) To Diagnose Student’s Problem: To diagnose the client’s problem is another
purpose that assessment data fulfills .By using the data properly, we can
interpret causal factors. It also helps to identify various aspects such as family
background, physical health, academic performance etc
3) To Help in Career Planning and Education: Assessment done with the
help of various psychological tools guides the students in making choices
for their career and selection of subjects/courses.
4) To Help Predict the Future Performance: Counselors use assessment data
to estimate individual’s attitude, ability, personality, etc that have implication
for the success and adjustment which help to predict the future performance
of the individual. Moreover, the counselor can also motivate the client in a
direction where he /she can get more success. 7
Introduction 5) To Evaluate the Outcome of Counseling: Assessment is done prior to
counselling as well as at the end of it. This gives the counselor valuable
insights for further intervention and to achieve the expected outcome.

1.4 PRINCIPLE OF ASSESSMENT

The principles of assessment have been given by Shertzer and Linden which
states that assessment should be Holistic, Ongoing, Balanced, Accurate and
Confidential. These are explained below.

1) Assessment should be Holistic: This principle involves multiple methods

in collecting information. The use of a combination of assessment techniques
increases the likelihood of applying positive intervention and consequently
the achievement of the desired goals. The principle of holistic assessment
follows a systematic process to arrive at an understanding of the individual.
To make the assessment process more systematic a counselor needs to keep
in mind three important factors i.e. What to assess, when to assess and in
which state of assessing is required.

Assessment should be within the context of life pattern of the individual,

i.e., supportive information regarding other aspects of the person need also
to be considered to better understand the problem. For example, a student
may experience difficulty in school due to limited academic preparation.
However, it may not be the only factor; other factor such as self esteem
which might not be evident, but could influence the academic achievement
of the students.

Assessment measures and procedures must be based on the demands of the

situation. The selection of the tool and procedure to be used will depend on
the demands of the presented situation. Therefore, first the basic data should
be collected and examined before obtaining information on the supporting
factors through administering different tests.
Special condition and situation for understanding client’s behaviour should
also be given due consideration in the process of assessment. In addition to
this the counselor should also keep in mind the capacity, motivation and
other aspects related to client’s behaviour while assessing. The counselor
should be alert to behaviour which is observable through nonverbal cues.
Nonverbal behaviour shows many hints which can be noted through body
posture, facial expressions, hand movements etc. of the client .
In holistic assessment it is necessary for the counselor to know the culture
and the social context of the client, as it can explain the nature and personality
of the client. Different characteristics of the client such as self reliance,
assertiveness, competiveness and adjustment with the group members can
be understood in the context of the client’s cultural context.

2) Assessment should be on Going: Ongoing assessment allows comparison

between the client’s initial present problems and the client’s current
functioning. It appraises the counselor of possible new and urgent needs
which may arise after the initial assessment, therefore psychological
assessment must take into account the dynamics nature of the human
behaviour which involves his/her needs, goals, abilities etc.
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 In assessment, the conceptualization of an individual must be continuous. Introduction to Assessment:
Definition, Description and
This is important because the counselor keeps on refining his Differentiating Between
conceptualization of the client in the light of more and more information Testing and Assessment
collected and interaction between the client and the counselor. Hence,
assessment needs to be considered as ongoing and not episodic. As far as
possible, assessment should be based on the longitudinal data i.e.
understanding of individual’s behaviour is better and more meaningful if
the data in collected over a period of time rather than on current information.
e.g. longitudinal data is helpful for the diagnosis of the maladaptive
behaviours.

3) Assessment should be Balanced: Assessment makes use of normative

information as well as individualised data. Both types of data combined try
to give a better understanding about the client. It is the purpose and the
situation that decides which type of assessment data is required.

4) Assessment should be Accurate: The assessment device used should be

accurate and the counselor should have the skill for interpreting the data.
Counselors must keep in mind the possibility of errors, as all tools may not
be 100% accurate; so they must try to minimize the errors by using
standardized procedures.

Predictions of future behaviour should always be stated in terms of

probabilities as human behaviour is so complex and dynamic. Assessment
therefore can only provide useful insights to derive inferences rather than
making prediction in absolute terms.

5) Assessment should be Confidential: Clients need to be assured of

confidentiality of their personal information. This will develop trust with
the counselor. It is one of the basic ethic of counseling as well. The client
will also be able to build a good rapport based on mutual trust and respect.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Define psychological assessment.
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2) Describe the different ways in which assessment can be used in guidance
and counselling situation.
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Introduction
3) What do you mean by holistic assessment?
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1.5 PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment is always a systematized and planned process involving a number
of steps. These are as follows:
• Formulating goals
• Identifying tools and techniques
• Data collection
• Interpreting specific assessment data
• Integrating data from different sources
• Formulating assessment information
• Reformulating goal

1) Formulating goals
7) Reformulating goals

6) Formulating assessment
Steps in the 2) Identifying tools and
information
process of techniques
assessment
5) Integrating data from 3) Data collection
differen

4) Interpreting specific assessment data

t sources
Fig. 1.1: Process of Assessment

The first step in the assessment process always starts with defining or formulating
goals for counselling. According to the goals decided, the tools and techniques
for assessment are identified. This assessment tools aim at providing data with
regard to the goals established. Then the actual data collection process starts; the
data collected then are interpreted. This results in getting information about the
client and his situation. However, for a comprehensive understanding of the client,
the interpretation of the data collected is also collated with data obtained from
different sources. Interpretations are then translated into their implications for
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various decisions, conclusions and recommendations. In the process of Introduction to Assessment:
Definition, Description and
assessment, if the counselor finds that goals set were not properly formulated, Differentiating Between
then the goals are reformulated. Testing and Assessment

1.6 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT

The counselor can make use of different methods of assessment. It depends on
the requirement of the case, e.g., if the client is suffering from mental or
developmental problem, the counselor may use case study method. The various
methods of assessment are interview, observation and case study. These are
described below.

1.6.1 The Interview Method

The interview is probably the most commonly used assessment tool. Counselors
use interview method to help gather information about clients and clarify results
of other assessments. Assessors must be appropriately trained. Their skills and
experience are essential for the interviewee.

Below are several aspects which must be kept in mind:

Verbal and face-to-face: what does the client tell you? How much information
are they willing/able to provide?

Para-verbal: how does the client speak? At normal pace, tone, volume,
inflection? What is their command on language, how well do they choose their
words? Do they pick up on non-verbal cues for speech and turn taking? How
organised is their speech?

Situation: Is the client cooperative? Is their participation voluntary? For what

purpose is the interview conducted? Where is the interview conducted?

There can be two types of interview: Structured and Unstructured. That is, the
interview can range from being totally unplanned i.e., unstructured to carefully
designed i.e., completely structured.

i) Structured Interview: The most structured interviews have characteristics

such as standardized questions, trained interviewers, specific question order,
controlled length of time, and a standardized response evaluation format. A
structured interview will be more reliable and valid. It is designed to provide
a diagnosis for a client by detailed questioning of the client in a “yes/no” or
“definitely/somewhat/not at all” forced choice format. It is broken up into
different sections reflecting the diagnosis in question. Often Structured
interviews use closed questions, which require a simple pre-determined
answer. Examples of closed questions are “When did this problem begin?
Was there any particular stressor going on at that time? Can you tell me
about how this problem started?” Closed interviews are better suited for
specific information gathering.

ii) Unstructured Interview: Interviews can also be less structured and allow
the client more control over the topic and direction of the interview.
Unstructured interviews are better suited for general information gathering.
Unstructured interviews often use open questions, which ask for more
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Introduction explanation and elaboration on the part of the client. Examples of open
questions are “What was happening in your life when this problem started?
How did you feel then? How did this all start?”

Major functions of interview method are:

Description: Interview has been found to be particularly useful in providing
insight into the interactive quality of social life. The verbal interaction enables
the interviewer in understanding how people view the subject under investigation.

Exploration: In this the interviewer tries to explore some new variable for study
as it also helps in conceptual clarity. A review of the work done in the related
area also is taken into account.

The advantage of interview method is that it allows greater flexibility in the

process of questioning. It facilitates the counselor in obtaining the desired
information.

1.6.2 Observation Method

Observation method is a fundamental technique of the data collection. It refers
to watching and listening to the behaviour of the client over time without
manipulating and controlling it. It also records findings in ways that allow some
degree of analytic interpretation and discussion. Thus, observation involves
broadly selecting, recording and coding behaviour; therefore, it is scientific. It
tells us, How does the person act – nervous, calm, smug? What do they do and
not do? Do they make and maintain eye contact? How close to you do they sit?
Often, some of the most important information you can gather from the
observation of behaviour. Behavioural observations may be used clinically (such
as to add to interview information or to assess results of treatment).

Type of Observation Method:

1) Naturalistic observation
2) Structured observation
3) Unstructured observation
4) Participative observation
1) Naturalistic observation: Naturalistic observation is particularly good for
observing specific subjects. It provides ecologically valid recordings of
natural behaviour. Spontaneous behaviours are more likely to happen.

2) Structured observation: Allows control of extraneous factors and the

reliability of results can be tested by repeating the study. It provides a safe
environment to study contentious concepts such as infant attachment.

3) Unstructured observation: Gives a broad overview of a situation. Useful

where situation/subject matter to be studied is unclear.

4) Participant observation: Gives an “insiders” view. Behaviors are less prone

to misinterpretation because researcher is a participant. It provides
opportunity for the researcher to become an “accepted” part of the
environment.
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The advantages of the observation method are that it removes any kind of Introduction to Assessment:
Definition, Description and
artificiality. It is one of the valid forms of assessment as it is direct and capable Differentiating Between
of analysing the situation or behaviour of the client. Testing and Assessment

1.6.3 Case Study Method

A case study is an in-depth investigation/analysis of a single person. Counselor
uses case study to investigate in detail a specific situation or person. Case studies
are often used in clinical cases or in situations when lab research is not possible
or practical. Typically data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using
several different methods. Experiments, interviews, questionnaires, observations,
diaries, and psychometric tests can all be used within a case study.

Case study can be based on an individual, a family, a social group, event, or

series of events.

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history,
i.e. the patient’s personal history - idiographic method). The case study method
often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing ‘the case
history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or
a specific social group). Case studies allow a counselor to investigate a topic in
far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large
number of research participants.

Therefore it has advantages as case study method provides sufficient basal factors
of the client on which opinion can be drawn easily.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe the various steps in the process of assessment.
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2) What are the different types of observation?
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3) Describe the major functions of the interview method.
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Introduction
1.7 MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
Psychological testing is a field characterised by the use of samples of behaviour
in order to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional
functioning, about a given individual. The technical term for the science behind
psychological testing is psychometrics. By samples of behaviour, one means
observations of an individual performing tasks that have usually been prescribed
beforehand, which often means scores on a test. These responses are often
compiled into statistical tables that allow the evaluator to compare the behaviour
of the individual being tested to the responses of a norm group.

Psychological tests are written, visual, or verbal evaluations administered to assess

the cognitive and emotional functioning of children and adults. It is “an objective
and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour.” Psychological testing is a
standard procedure of measurement designed to measure characteristics, abilities,
personality, etc. They are used to measure the quantified characteristics and have
standards.

According to Anastasi (2003), psychological test can be defined as a sample of

an individual’s behaviour, obtained under standard conditions and scored
according to a fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score. Test can be used to
compare the same individual on one or more tests; at the same time two or more
persons can also be assessed and compared. A psychological test is characterised
by a standardized procedure of administration, scoring, and interpretation which
are uniform across the different examiner and settings.

Thus a psychological test is an instrument designed to measure unobserved

constructs, also known as latent variables. Psychological tests are typically, but
not necessarily, a series of tasks or problems that the respondent has to solve.
Psychological tests can strongly resemble questionnaire which are also designed
to measure unobserved constructs, but differ in that psychological tests ask for a
respondent’s maximum performance whereas a questionnaire asks for the
respondent’s typical performance. A useful psychological test must be both valid
(i.e., there is evidence to support the specified interpretation of the test results)
and reliable (i.e., internally consistent or give consistent results over time, across
raters, etc.).

1.7.1 Difference between Psychological Assessment and

Psychological Testing
A term closely associated with assessment is psychological test, which Anastasi
and Urbina (1997) defined as an objective and standardized measure of a sample
of behaviour. Cronbach’s (1990) definition is similar, with a test being a systematic
procedure for observing behaviour and describing it with the aid of numerical
scales or fixed categories. As these two similar definitions suggest, there are
some commonalities among all the definitions of assessment. They all discuss
getting a measure or using some type of measurement. In assessment, counselors
often want an indication of quantity (e.g., How depressed is the client? Are the
test scores high enough to get into Harvard?).
In simple terms, many test questions are related to whether there is a lot of
“something” or just a little .In counseling, practitioners are often interested in
14
human constructs such as emotions, intelligence, personality factors, self-esteem, Introduction to Assessment:
Definition, Description and
and aptitudes. These constructs, however, cannot be directly measured. For Differentiating Between
example, individuals cannot give a pint of emotions in the same way they can Testing and Assessment
give a pint of blood. Humans, for the most part, indicate their emotions by their
behaviour, their statements, or even the answers they give on a questionnaire.
It is important to remember that speaking and responding to a questionnaire are
behaviours. When working with clients, a counselor must consider this sample
of behaviour and then reflect on two important questions: first, is the sample of
behaviour indicative of how the person usually behaves, and second, are the
inferences being made correct?
Psychological assessment is similar to psychological testing but usually involves
a more comprehensive assessment of the individual. Psychological assessment
is a process that involves the integration of information from multiple sources,
such as tests of normal and abnormal personality, tests of ability or intelligence,
tests of interests or attitudes, as well as information from personal interviews.
Collateral information is also collected about personal, occupational, or medical
history, such as from records or from interviews with parents, spouses, teachers,
or previous therapists or physicians. A psychological test is one of the sources of
data used within the process of assessment; usually more than one test is used.
Many psychologists do some level of assessment when providing services to
clients or patients, and may use for example, simple checklists to assess some
traits or symptoms, but psychological assessment is a more complex, detailed,
in-depth process. Typical types of focus for psychological assessment are to
provide a diagnosis for treatment settings; to assess a particular area of functioning
or disability often for school settings; to help select type of treatment or to assess
treatment outcomes; to help courts decide issues such as child custody or
competency to stand trial; or to help assess job applicants or employees and
provide career development counseling or training.
A distinction is there in assessment and testing given by AERA, APA and NCME
(1999). It defines assessment as a broader term referring to a process that integrates
test information with information from other sources e.g. from schools, hospitals
etc.
Difference between Psychological Assessment and Psychological Testing
Psychological Assessment Psychological Testing
1) Assessment is a broader term 1) Testing is a narrow term
2) Assessment is process of 2) Test is a standardized procedure of
collecting information through measurement designed to measure
various techniques such as characteristics such as ability,
formal, informal, qualitative personality, aptitude, interest etc.
and quantitative
3) Psychological testing (e.g., an
3) Professional psychological intelligence test, personality test, or
assessment usually also mental health test) occurs as part
includes: interview, of the process of psychological
demographic information, assessment
medical information, personal
4) An objective and standardized
history, observations by others
measure of a sample of behaviour”
15
Introduction
4) An extremely complex process 5) Information collected is based on
of solving problems (answering test only; so little is known of
questions) in which psycholo- client’s behaviour.
gical tests are often used as one 6) It is a task upon which people are
of the methods of collecting asked to try their best (aptitude &
relevant data achievement tests). They measure
5) Information collected about the maximum performance
client’s behaviour is more 7) A test provides only part of the
accurate and is detailed. picture about a person.
6) Refers to any method used to
measure characteristics of
people, programs, or objects
7) The assessment process
combines and evaluates all the
information gathered about an
individual.

Historically, testing and assessment have been important foundations of

counseling and applied psychology. Tests have important roles both as tools to
facilitate the goals of counseling and for assessment.

1.8 PURPOSE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Psychological tests are used to assess a variety of mental abilities and attributes,
including achievement and ability, personality, and neurological functioning.

For children, academic achievement, ability, and intelligence tests may be used
as tools in school placement, in determining the presence of a learning disability
or a developmental delay, in identifying giftedness, or in tracking intellectual
development. Intelligence testing may also be used with teens and young adults
to determine vocational ability (e.g., in career counseling).

Personality tests are administered for a wide variety of reasons, from diagnosing
psychopathology (e.g., personality disorder, depressive disorder) to screening
job candidates. They may be used in an educational setting to determine
personality strengths and weaknesses.

Tests are thus used in the selection, classification, diagnosis, prediction. The
counselor makes use of it to determine client’s behaviour, know her/his personality
and help the client in making educational and vocational planning.

In short it can be said that the Psychological tests are formalized measures of
mental functioning. Most are objective and quantifiable; however, certain
projective tests may involve some level of subjective interpretation. Also known
as inventories, measurements, questionnaires, and scales, psychological tests are
administered in a variety of settings, including preschools, primary and secondary
schools, colleges and universities, hospitals, healthcare settings, and social
agencies. They come in a variety of formats, including written, verbal, and
computer administered.

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 Introduction to Assessment:
Self Assessment Questions Definition, Description and
Differentiating Between
1) Describe the different situations in which psychological tests are used. Testing and Assessment

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2) Point out the similarities and differences between psychological
assessment and psychological testing.
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1.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST
A test used in counseling / guidance or for training and development is considered
good if the following can be said about it:

1) The test measures what it claims to measure. For example, a test of mental
ability does in fact measure mental ability and not some other characteristic.

2) The test measures what it claims to measure consistently or reliably. This

means that if a person were to take the test again, the person would get a
similar test score.

3) The test is purpose-relevant. In other words, the test measures one or more
characteristics that are important to specific career decisions or for predicting
or monitoring training and development outcomes.

4) By using the test, more effective decisions can be made by and about
individuals. For example, an interest inventory helps you to guide a client
toward careers in which he or she is more likely to be satisfied. A mechanical
aptitude test may help you predict who would benefit from mechanical
training.

Thus, a good test is both reliable and valid, and has good norms. Test reliability
and validity are two technical properties of a test that indicate the quality and
usefulness of the test. These are the two most important features of a test. The
counselor should examine these features when evaluating the suitability of the
test. Reliability refers to the consistency of the test results. Validity refers to how
well a test measures what it says it does. Norms are designed to tell you what the
result of measurement (a number) means in relation to other results (numbers).
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Introduction The “normative sample” should be very representative of the sample of people
who will be given the test. Thus, if a test is to be used on the general population,
the normative sample should be large, include people from ethnically and
culturally diverse backgrounds, and include people from all levels of income
and educational status.

A good psychological test is thus a standardized test with a manual which gives
complete information about the development of the test, administration, scoring
and interpretation of the results.

However, whenever you use a psychological test you should keep in mind a few
things. Good test use requires:
• Comprehensive assessment using history and test scores
• Acceptance of the responsibility for proper test use
• Consideration of the Standard Error of Measurement and other psychometric
knowledge
• Maintaining integrity of test results (such as the correct use of cut-off scores)
• Accurate scoring
• Appropriate use of norms
• Willingness to provide interpretive feedback and guidance to test takers.

1.10 TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

The psychological tests vary in their content as well as the way they are
administered. Thus there are verbal test and nonverbal tests; power test and speed
test; group test and individual test. Psychological tests can be of various types
such as achievement tests, aptitude tests, mental ability tests, interest inventories,
personality inventories etc. Now let us know about these tests.

Intelligence test: IQ tests purport to be measures of intelligence, IQ (or cognitive)

tests and achievement test are common norm-referenced tests. In these types of
tests, a series of tasks is presented to the person being evaluated, and the person’s
responses are graded according to carefully prescribed guidelines. After the test
is completed, the results can be compiled and compared to the responses of a
norm group, usually composed of people of the same age or grade level as the
person being evaluated. IQ tests which contain a series of tasks typically divide
the tasks into verbal and non verbal and performance test. Some of the important
IQ tests are, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale,
Draw a man, Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Test of Intelligence, Raven’s
Progressive Matrices Test.

Tests of Interest and Aptitude: Tests of Interest assesses the likes and dislikes
of the client whereas aptitude tests aim at measuring the potential of the client in
a particular field. These are mainly used for the educational and vocational
[Link] of Interest test are Strong Vocational Interest Blank and
Kuder Preference Record. Commonly used aptitude tests are Differential Aptitude
Test (DAT) and DBDA.

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Attitude tests: Attitude test assess an individual’s feelings about an event, person, Introduction to Assessment:
Definition, Description and
or object. Attitude scales are used in marketing to determine individual (and Differentiating Between
group) preferences for brands, or items. Typically attitude tests use either a Testing and Assessment
Thurston Scale or Likert Scale to measure specific items.

Tests of Achievement: Achievement tests measure the individual’s performance

in a particular area. It assesses the acquisition of knowledge and skills by the
individual after the completion of a course/training. Achievement tests can be
standardized or informal achievement tests made by teachers. Achievement tests
help in finding out the student’s strengths and weaknesses in particular areas and
assessing student’s performance over a period of time.

Neuro-psychological tests: These tests consist of specifically designed tasks

used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular
brain structure or pathway. They are typically used to assess impairment after an
injury or illness known to affect neuro-cognitive functioning, or when used in
research, to contrast neuropsychological abilities across experimental groups.

Personality tests: Personality tests and inventories evaluate the thoughts,

emotions, attitudes, and behavioural traits that comprise personality. The results
of these tests can help determine a child’s personality strengths and weaknesses,
and may identify certain disturbances in personality. Psychological measures of
personality consist of rating scale or self-report measures and free response
measures or projective tests.

Objective tests, i.e., rating scale or self-report measure

These have a restricted response format, such as allowing for true or false answers
or rating using an ordinal scale. Prominent examples of objective personality
tests include the MMPI, MCMI and Child behaviour check list. Objective
personality tests can be designed for use in organisations for potential employees,
such as the NEO-PI, the 16PF, and the Occupational Personality Questionnaire,
all of which are based on the the Big Five Factor Model of normal personality.

Projective tests (Free response measures) attempt to measure personality based

on the theory that individuals tend to project their own unconscious attitudes
into ambiguous situations. An example of this would be the Rorschach test, in
which a person states what each of ten ink blots might be. Other projective tests
include Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the House-Tree-Person Test, Robert’s
Apperception Test, and the Attachment Projective.

Direct observation tests

These are also used in many situations. Although most psychological tests are
“rating scale” or “free response” measures, psychological assessment may also
involve the observation of people as they complete activities. This type of
assessment is usually conducted with families in a laboratory, home or with
children in a classroom. The purpose may be clinical, such as to establish a pre-
intervention baseline of a child’s hyperactive or aggressive classroom behaviours
or to observe the nature of a parent-child interaction in order to understand a
relational disorder. Direct observation procedures are also used in research, for
example to study the relationship between intrapsychic variables and specific
target behaviours, or to explore sequences of behavioural interaction.
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Introduction
1.11 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you learned about one of the important task carried out by a counselor,
i.e., psychological assessment of the client. There are various things to be kept in
mind about the assessment process. These principles of assessment were described
in detail. You also learned about the purpose and the steps in the process of
assessment. The methods of assessment – interview, observation and case study
were described. Psychological assessment is a broader term which includes
psychological testing. The purpose of testing was described and the characteristics
of a good psychological test were delineated. You also came to know the different
types of psychological tests available which a counselor can make use of to
collect information about the client.

1.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Describe the purposes for which psychological assessment data are used.
2) Enumerate the important principles of assessment.
3) Illustrate the process of assessment.
4) Differentiate between psychological assessment and psychological testing.
5) Explain the various methods of assessment.
6) Explain the various types of psychological test.
7) Discuss the seven steps of assessment process.
8) Explain the purpose of psychological testing.

1.13 GLOSSARY
Psychological Assessment : Any method used to measure characteristics
of people, programs, or objects (process of
collecting information).
Psychological Test : A standardized procedure of measurement
designed to measure characteristics- ability,
personality, attitude etc. It is a task upon
which people are asked to try their best
(aptitude & achievement tests). They measure
maximum performance.
Questionnaires and : Evaluate typical performance. Personality
Inventories and interest inventories elicit self-reports of
opinions, preferences, and typical reactions.
Standardized Assessment versus Non-
standardized Assessment
Standardized Assessment : Meet certain criteria of test construction,
administration, and interpretation. This
includes uniform testing procedures,
objective scoring methods, and representative
norm groups for test interpretation, reliable
test scores, and studies of validity.
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Non-standardized : (Ratings scales, projective techniques, Introduction to Assessment:
Definition, Description and
Assessment behavioural observations, and biographical Differentiating Between
measures) Produce less reliable and less valid Testing and Assessment
results then standardized assessments but
allow counselors to consider aspects of
behaviour or the environment not covered by
traditional psychological tests. Nomothetic
Assessment versus Idiographic Assessment
Nomothetic Assessment : Greek for “law”. Emphasis is placed on
variables that show lawful or meaningful
distinctions among people. The group
provides a frame of reference for determining
which variables at access and how to interpret
the results.
Idiographic Assessment : Greek for “personal”. Emphasis is placed on
those variables that can be most helpful in
describing the individual. The individual
serves as the reference point to identify
relevant variables and how to interpret the
data. Quantitative Assessment versus
Qualitative Assessment
Quantitative Assessment : Most psychological tests are quantitative
procedures, yielding a specific score on a
continuous scale. Quantitative procedures
have been studied in terms of reliability and
validity.
Qualitative Assessment : Procedures such as interviews and
autobiographies produce verbal descriptions
of a person’s behaviour or of a situation that
can be placed into one of several categories.
(Examples: developmental stages or
personality types). Qualitative procedures
provide a holistic and integrated view of
clients, encourage activity on part of the
client, form part of the treatment in addition
to assessment, and can be easily adapted for
clients from different backgrounds.
Individual Assessment versus Environmental
Assessment
Individual Assessment : Counselors have historically paid more
attention to assessment of individuals.
Environmental Assessment : Counselors recently have begun devoting
more attention to the environment in
determining one’s behaviour.

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Introduction
1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS
Anastasi, A. (2003). Psychological Testing (5th ed.). Macmillan: New York.
Chadha, N.K. (1996). Theory and Practice of Psychometry. New Age International
Limited: New Delhi.
Cronbach, L.J. (1970). Essentials of Psychological Testing (3rd ed.). harper &
Row: New York.
Hersen, M. (2004). Comprehensive Handbook of Psychological Assessment. John
Wiley and Sons: New York.
Shertzer, B. & Linden, J.D. (1979). Fundamentals of Individual Appraisal.
Houghton Miffin Company: Boston.
Singh, A.K. (1998). Tests, Measurement and Research Methods in Behavioral
Sciences. Bharti Bhawan Publication: Patna.
Singh, P. (2005). Handbook of Measurement and Evaluation. Doaba House
Booksellers and Publishers: New Delhi.

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