CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design

A. Definition of Terms:

1. Concrete is a mixture of sand gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike mass
with a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one or more admixtures are added to change certain
characteristics of the concrete as its workability, durability, and time of hardening.

2. Plain Concrete is a simply a mixture of sand, gravel or other aggregates with a paste of cement and water.
It is a concrete containing no steel or reinforcing bars or containing not more than two-tenths of one
percent of reinforcing.

3. Reinforced Concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the
tensile strength lacking in the concrete.

B. Components of Concrete

1. Cement is a cementitious material which has the adhesive and cohesive properties necessary to bond inert
aggregates into a solid mass of adequate strength and durability.
2. Water is needed for the chemical process in which the cement powder sets and hardens into one solid mass.
For complete hydration of a given amount of cement, an amount of water equal to 25 percent of that
cement by weight is needed. This liquid must be free from salts, alkaline or other minerals which react in
an undesirable manner with the cement.
3. Aggregates in an ordinary structural concrete the aggregates occupy about 70 to 75 percent of the volume
of the hardened mass.
4. Admixture it is often used for special purposes to improve workability, accelerate or retard setting and
hardening, to aid in curing, to improve durability, to add color, and to impart other properties. An example
of this is an air-entraining agent. This type of agent is most important and most widely used admixtures
and they cause the entrainment of air in the form of small-dispersed bubbles in the concrete.

C. Classification of Aggregates

1. Fine Aggregates or Sand is any material which will pass no. 4 sieve, that is; a sieve with four openings per
linear inch
2. Coarse Aggregate is a material which is coarser than fine aggregates
1

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

D. Types of Concrete and its Unit Weight
1. Stone Concrete is a concrete with natural stone aggregate and varies from about 140 to 152 pcf and can
generally be assumed to be 145 pcf (2320 kg/cu.m.)

2. Lightweight Concrete
2.1. Low Density Concrete is chiefly employed for insulation and whose unit weight rarely exceeds 50
pcf (800 kg/cu.m.)
2.2. Moderate Strength Concrete is a lightweight concrete with unit weight from about 60 to 85 pcf and
compressive strength of 1000 to 2500 psi which are chiefly use as fill (e.g. over light-gage steel
floors panels)
2.3. Structural Concrete is a lightweight concrete with a unit weight from 90 to 120 pcf (1440 to 1920
kg/cu.m.) and compressive strengths equal to those of stone concretes.
3. Heavyweight concrete is frequently required for shielding against gamma and -x-ray radiation in nuclear
reactor and similar installation, for protective structures and for special purposes such as counterweights
of lift bridges.
Unit weights of heavy concrete with natural heavy rock aggregates range from about 200 to 230 pcf and if
iron punching are added to high density ores, unit weights will be as high as 270 pcf are achieved. the unit
weight may be as high as 330 pcf if ores are used for the fine aggregates only and steel for the coarse
aggregates.

E. Advantages of Concrete as a Structural Material

1. It has considerable compressive strength as compared to most other materials
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water and in fact, it is the best
structural material available for situations where water is present. During fires of average intensity,
members with satisfactory cover of concrete over the reinforcing bars suffer only surface damage
without failure.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.
5. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life. Under proper conditions reinforced
concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load-carrying abilities. This
can be explained by the fact that the strength of concrete does not decrease with time but actually
increases over a very long period, measured in years due to the lengthy process of the solidification
of the cement paste.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, basement walls, piers, and similar
applications.
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes from
simple slabs, beams, and columns to great arches and shells.
8. In most areas, concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local material (sand, gravel and water) and
requires relatively small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel.
9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared to other materials such as
structural steel. 2

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

F. Disadvantages of Concrete as a Structural Material
1. Concrete has a very low tensile strength requiring the use of tensile reinforcements
2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently. In addition, falsework or
shoring may be necessary to keep the forms in place for roofs, walls, and similar structures until the
concrete members gain sufficient strength to support themselves. Formwork is very expensive. It cost
run from one-third to two-thirds of the total cost of a reinforced concrete structure with average
values of about 50 percent.

3. The low strength per unit weight of weight of concrete leads to heavy members. This becomes an
increasingly important matter for long-span structures where concrete’s large dead weight has a great
effect on bending moments.
4. Similarly, the low strength per unit of volume of concrete means members will be relatively large, an
important consideration for tall buildings and long span structures.
5. The properties of concrete vary widely due to variations in its proportioning and mixing.
Furthermore, the placing and curing is not as carefully controlled as in the production of other
materials such as structural steel and laminated wood.
6. The ability of the concrete to shrink. The concept of this is after the concrete has been cured and
begins to dry, the extra mixing water that was used begins to work its way out of the concrete to the
surface where it evaporates. As a result, the concrete shrinks and cracks. These may reduce the shear
strength of the members and be detrimental to the appearance of the structure.
In addition, the cracks may permit the reinforcing to be exposed to the atmosphere, thereby
increasing the possibility of corrosion. The amount of shrinkage is heavily dependent on the type of
exposure.
To minimize shrinkage, it is desirable to:
a. keep the amount of mixing water to a minimum
b. cure the concrete well
c. place the concrete for walls, floors, and other large items in small sections, thus allowing some
of the shrinkage to take place before the next section is placed
d. use construction joints to control the position of cracks
e. use shrinkage reinforcement
7. The ability of the concrete to creep. Under sustained loads concrete will continue to deform for long
periods of time. This additional deformation is known as creep or plastic flow. This amount of
deformation is about two to three times the initial deformation.

G. Compatibility of Concrete and Steel Reinforcement

Concrete and steel work together beautifully in reinforced concrete structures. The advantages of each
material seem to compensate for the disadvantages of the other. The shortcoming of concrete is its lack of
tensile strength but tensile strength is one of the great advantages of steel. Reinforcing bars have tensile strength
equal to approximately 100 times that of the usual concretes used.

The two materials bond together very well so there is no slippage between the two and thus they will act
together as a unit in resisting forces. The excellent bond obtained is due to the chemical adhesion between the
two materials, the natural roughness of the bars and the closely spaced rib-shaped deformation rolled on the bar
surfaces.

Reinforcing bars are subject to corrosion but the concrete surrounding them with excellent protection.
The strength of exposed steel subject to the temperatures reached in fires of ordinary intensity is nil, but the
enclosure of the reinforcement in concrete produces very satisfactory fire ratings.
3

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 Finally, concrete and steel work very well together in relation to temperature changes because their
coefficients of thermal expansion are quite close to each other. For steel, the coefficient is 0.0000065, while for
concrete the average value is taken as 0.0000055.

H. Mechanical Properties of Reinforced Concrete

1. Compressive Strength of Concrete, fc’
This compressive strength of concrete is determined by testing to failure 28-day old 150mm diameter
x 300 mm long (6” x 12”) concrete cylinders at specified rate of loading. For ordinary applications,
3000 psi and 4000 psi concretes are used whereas prestressed construction 5000 psi and 6000 psi
strengths are common.
2. Modulus of Elasticity, Ec
Concrete has no clear-cut modulus of elasticity. Its value varies with different concrete strengths,
concrete age, type of loading, and the characteristics of the cement and aggregates.

Section 8.5 of the ACI code states that the following expression can be used for calculating the
modulus of elasticity of concretes weighing from 90 to 155 pcf. This formula is given by the
equation:

Ec = 4700 f' c in MPa, wc in kg/m3

Ec = 57000 f' c in Psi, wc in lb/ft3

3. Poisson’s Ratio
This is the ratio of lateral expansion to the longitudinal shortening of the concrete when subjected to
compressive loads. Its value varies from about 0.11 for the higher strength concretes to as high as
0.21 for the weaker grade concretes with average values of about 0.16.
4. Tensile Strength
The tensile strength of concrete varies from about 10 to 15 percent of its compressive strength. This
is measured by the so-called split- cylinder test.
5. Shear Strength
It is extremely difficult in testing to obtain pure shear failures unaffected by other stresses. As a
result, the tests of concrete shearing strength through the years have yielded values all the way from
one-third to four-fifths of the ultimate compressive strengths.

For normal weight of concrete weighing approximately 145 pcf, the ACI code states that the
following simplified version of the previous formula may be used to determine the modulus of
elasticity. This expression is given by:

f ' c bw d
Vc =
6

I. Considerations in the Design of Concrete Mixes

1. Strength and Durability

This factor is attained by many causes but most strongly from the class of mixture or the right
proportion of cement, aggregates and water. Note that any amount of water in excess of the 25 percent
needed for hydration ultimately evaporates and produces pores. Since only the solid part of concrete
could resist stress, then more water means more pores and less strength.

Factors the regulate the strength of concrete are as follows: 4

a. correct proportion

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 b. suitability or quality of the materials
c. proper placement or depositing of concrete inside the form
d. adequate protection of concrete during the period of curing

2. Workability
It is the property of freshly mixed concrete that permits it to be placed in the form with ease and worked
around the reinforcing concrete, around the reinforcing bars in crowded areas. It is obviously difficult to
place a dry or stiff concrete around reinforcing bars.
A very fluid concretes are readily placed in reinforced concrete members but if they are too wet there is
not only a loss of strength but also the segregation of particles in the mixture. Therefore, to ensure that the
concrete flows completely around the formworks in which it is cast, some means of compaction or
consolidation is desirable to prevent void from occurring.

J. Various Laboratory Tests on Concrete

1. Slump Test
The slump test affords a ready means of determining the consistency of the freshly mixed concrete. It is
not necessarily a measure of workability and should not be used to compare mixes of wholly different
proportions or kinds of aggregates.
Procedure:
The equipment consists of a piece of sheet metal in the shape of a truncated cone 12 inches in height, a
base diameter of 8 inches, and a top diameter of 4inches. Both top and bottom are left open. Handles are
attached to the outside of the mold. Freshly mixed concrete is placed in the mold in three layers each
being rodded separately 25 times with a 16mm or 5/8-inch diameter rod.
When the mold is filled and rodded, the top is leveled 00, and the mold is lifted at once. Immediately
the slumping action of the concrete is measured by taking the difference in height between the top of the
mold of the slumped mass of concrete. If the concrete settles 3 inches, we say the particular concrete
sample has a 3 inches slump. Thus, the degree of consistency of the concrete is ascertained.
Recommended Slumps for Various Types of Construction
Types of construction Slump in inches
Maximum Minimum
Reinforced Foundation Walls and Footings 5 2
Plain Footings, Caissons and Substructure
Walls 4 1
Slabs, Beams, and Reinforced Walls 6 3
Building Columns 6 3
Pavements 3 2
Heavy Mass Construction 3 1
NOTE: When high frequency vibrators are used, the values given should be reduced about one third.

2. Compression Test
This is the test given for concrete for the determination of its strength.

Procedure: 5

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 The specimen to be tested are cylindrical in shape and have a length twice its diameter. The standard is 6
inches in diameter and 12 inches in height when the aggregate does not exceed 2 inches in size. If the
coarse aggregate is larger than 2 inches in size, the cylinder should have a diameter of at least three times
the maximum nominal size of the aggregate.

The most important structural property of concrete is its compressive strength and it is measured by the
standard cylinder test or the concrete tube test. This is done by placing the cylindrical concrete specimen
(about 28 days old) between the plates of the machine (Universal Testing Machine). Through this machine,
compressive force is applied and increased gradually until the specimen fails. The load that makes the
specimen fails is recorded through the gage which is part of the machine.

A non-destructive test conducted to existing concrete structures are

a. Direct Stress This is done with the use of a Rebounding Hammer Test.

b. Indirect Stress Test. Core Drilling is used to determine the actual compressive stress of the concrete

3. Tension Test
a. Direct Tensile Test

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 b. Split Cylinder Test

c. Beam Test

K. Various Laboratory Test on Reinforcing Bars

1. Tensile Test is a measure of the strength of the steel especially yielding capacity, fy

2. Bending Test is a test on the ductility of the steel bar

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 3. Welding Test is a measure of its weldability

4. Discoloration Test is a test on the composition and malleability of the material

L. Different Grades of Reinforcing Bars

Reinforcing bars may consist of billet steel, axle steel, or rail steel. Most bars are made from new or
billet steel, but very occasionally they are rolled from old train rails or locomotive axles. The following
grades are used in building construction:
1. Grade 230. This is a structural grade commonly used for housing. Its yielding stress capacity is 230 MPa
2. Grade 275. This is an intermediate grade of steel used for medium rise buildings wherein the value of fy is
275 MPa.
3. Grade 414. This is known as hard steel and it is also used for high rise buildings. The fy value is 414 MPa.

Several types of reinforcing bars designated by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
These are as follows:
1. ASTM A615, billet steel, grades 40 and 60
2. ASTM A616, rail steel, grades 50 and 60
3. ASTM A617, axle steel, grades 40 and 60
4. ASTM A706, low-alloy steel, grade 60

NOTE: In this listing grade 40 means the steel has a specified yield point of 40,000 psi, 50 means
50,000 psi and so on.

M. Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete and Reinforcing Bars

a. For Concrete
Ultimate Compressive Strength Modulus of Elasticity Modular Ratio
of Concrete, fc’ in MPa Ec in MPa n = Es/Ec

20.70 21,760
24.10 23,503
27.60 25,130
31.00 26,650
8
34.50 28,090

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 b. For Steel: The modulus of elasticity of steel has an average value of 29,000,000 psi or 200,000 MPa.

N. Philippine Standard Sizes of Rebars

Nominal Diameter, mm Unit Mass, kg/m Area,[Link]. No. of dots

8 0.394 50 1
10 0.616 78 2
12 0.888 113 3
16 1.578 201 4
20 2.466 314 5
25 3.853 490 6
28 4.834 615 7
32 6.313 804 8
36 7.990 1017 9

NOTE:
1. The length of bars is at 6.0 m, at 7.50 m, at 9.0 m, at 10.5m and at 12 m .

2. The tolerance in diameter are as follows:

8 to 12 mm 0.40 mm
16 to 25 mm 0.50 mm
28 and over 1.80 percent

3. The tolerance in length are as follows:

a. 40 mm for every 6.0 m
b. 45 mm or o mm for every additional 1 m or fraction thereof add 5 mm to the above but no
more than 60 mm
c. 50 mm and 0 mm if minimum length is specified

LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS:

It is important to determine the accurate estimation of the loads that may be applied to a structure during
its life. These loads may be classified as Dead Loads, Live Loads, Wind Loads, Environmental Loads.
After loads are estimated, determine the worst possible combination of the loads that might occur at one
time. 9

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 1. DEAD LOADS: These are loads that have constant magnitude that remain in one position. These
include the weight of the structure under consideration as well as any fixtures that are permanently
attached to it. For reinforced concrete building, some dead loads are frames, walls, floors, ceilings,
stairways, roofs, and plumbing. The unit weight of normal weight concrete is 23.54KN/m3.
2. LIVE LOADS: These are loads that change in magnitude and position. These include occupancy loads,
warehouse materials, construction loads, overhead service cranes, equipment operating loads,
furnitures and many others. In other words, they are induced by gravity
3. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS: These are loads caused by environment where the structure is located.
For buildings, they are caused by rain, snow, wind, temperature change and earthquake. These are also
live loads but they are the result of environment where the structure is located. Also, they vary with
time, they are not all caused by gravity or operating conditions as a typical with the other live loads.
LOAD COMBINATIONS
1.6.1. LOAD COMBINATIONS USING STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD OR LOAD AND
RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN(NSCP 2015 Section 203.3)
Where Strength Design Method(ASD) or Load and Resistance Factor Design(LRFD) is used, the load
combination which gives the largest magnitude from the following load combinations of load factors.
a. 1.4(D + F)
b. 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6( L + H) + 0.5(LT or R)
c. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1L OR 0.5W)
d. 1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R)
e. 1.2D + 1.0E +f1L
f. 0.9D +1.0W +1.6H
g. 0.9D +1.0E + 1.6H
Where: D- DEAD LODS
L-LIVE LOADS
W-WIND LOADS
E-EARTHQUAKE LOADS
LT-ROOF LIVE LOADS
T-TEMPERATURE LOADS
F-FLUID LOADS
[Link] COMBINATIONS USING ALLOWABLE STRESS OR ALLOWABLE STRENGTH
DESIGN(NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.4)
Where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used, structures and all portions shall resist the
most critical effects from the following combinations of loads.
a. D + F
b. D + H + F + L + T
c. D + H + F +(LT or R)
d. D + H + F +0.75[L + T +(LT or R)]
e. D + H + F (0.6W or E/1.4)
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE MOST COMMON LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR MOST
APPLICATIONS:
a. 1.4D
b. 1.2D +1.6L
c. 1.2D + 1.0L +1.0W
d. 1.2D + 1.0L +1.0E
e. 0.9D +1.0W
f. 0.9D + 1.0E

MINIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCEMENTS (NSCP 2015 SECTION 425.2)

➢ For parallel non-pre-stressed reinforcements in horizontal layer, the clear spacing shall be at least the
greatest of 25mm, db, and (4/3)dagg 10

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 ➢ For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement in two or more layers, reinforcement in the upper layers shall
be placed directly above reinforcements in the bottom layer with a clear spacing of 25mm
➢ For longitudinal reinforcements in columns and boundary elements in walls, the clear spacing between
bars shall be at least the greatest of 40mm, 1.5db and (4/3)dagg
➢ For bundled reinforcements as per NSCP 2015 Section 425.6,
a. Non-prestressed reinforcements
b. Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in
any one bundle
c. Bundled bars shall be enclosed within transverse reinforcement. Bundled bars in compression
members shall be enclosed by transverse reinforcement at least 12mm diameter in size
d. Bar larger than 36mm dia shall not be bundled in beams
e. Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members shall terminates
at different points with at least 40db stagger.
f. Development length for individual bars within a bundle, in tension or compression shall be that
of the individual bar increased 20 for three-bar bundle and 33 for four-bar bundle
g. A unit bundled bars shall be treated as single bar with an area equivalent to that of the bundle
and centroid coinciding with that of the bundle. The diameter of the equivalent bars shall be used
for db in,
1. Spacing limitations based on db
2. Cover requirements based on db
3. Spacing and cover values in Section [Link]
4. Confinement terms in Section 425.2.3.

BUNDLED BAR ARRANGEMENT:

ARRANGEMENT OF REINFORCING BARS FOR MOST EFFICIENT RECTANGULAR BEAM

bmin= 2cc+ 2ds+ ndb +(n-1)sc
where cc-concrete cover
ds-diameter o stirrup
db-diameter of bar
sc-clear spacing between the longitudinal bars
n-number of longitudinal bars

11

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE

 Table [Link].2
Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place Pre-stresses Concrete Members
Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Specified
Cover, mm
Cast against and permanently All All 75
in contact with ground
Exposed to weather or in Slabs, joists and All 25
contact with ground walls
All other All 40
Not exposed to weather or in Slabs, joists and All 20
contact with the ground walls
Beams, columns and Primary reinforcement 40
tension ties Stirrups, ties, spirals 25
and hoops

[Link].4 For bundled bars, the specified concrete cover shall be at least the smaller of
a. the equivalent diameter of the bundle
b. 50mm
And for concrete cast against and permanently in contact with ground, the specified cover shall
be 75mm

12

Prepared By:

Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE