CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design

A. Definition of Terms:

1. Concrete is a mixture of sand gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike mass with
a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one or more admixtures are added to change certain characteristics
of the concrete as its workability, durability, and time of hardening.

2. Plain Concrete is a simply a mixture of sand, gravel or other aggregates with a paste of cement and water. It
is a concrete containing no steel or reinforcing bars or containing not more than two-tenths of one percent
of reinforcing.

3. Reinforced Concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the
tensile strength lacking in the concrete.
B. Components of Concrete

1. Cement is a cementitious material which has the adhesive and cohesive properties necessary to bond inert
aggregates into a solid mass of adequate strength and durability.
2. Water is needed for the chemical process in which the cement powder sets and hardens into one solid mass.
For complete hydration of a given amount of cement, an amount of water equal to 25 percent of that cement
by weight is needed. This liquid must be free from salts, alkaline or other minerals which react in an
undesirable manner with the cement.
3. Aggregates in an ordinary structural concrete the aggregates occupy about 70 to 75 percent of the volume of
the hardened mass.
4. Admixture it is often used for special purposes to improve workability, accelerate or retard setting and
hardening, to aid in curing, to improve durability, to add color, and to impart other properties. An example
of this is an air-entraining agent. This type of agent is most important and most widely used admixtures and
they cause the entrainment of air in the form of small-dispersed bubbles in the concrete.

C. Classification of Aggregates

1. Fine Aggregates or Sand is any material which will pass no. 4 sieve, that is; a sieve with four openings per
linear inch
2. Coarse Aggregate is a material which is coarser than fine aggregates
D. Types of Concrete and its Unit Weight
1. Stone Concrete is a concrete with natural stone aggregate and varies from about 140 to 152 pcf and can
generally be assumed to be 145 pcf (2320 kg/cu.m.)

2. Lightweight Concrete 8/15/2025

2.1. Low Density Concrete is chiefly employed for insulation and whose unit weight rarely exceeds 50 pcf
(800 kg/cu.m.)
2.2. Moderate Strength Concrete is a lightweight concrete with unit weight from about 60 to 85 pcf and
compressive strength of 1000 to 2500 psi which are chiefly use as fill (e.g. over light-gage steel floors
panels)
2.3. Structural Concrete is a lightweight concrete with a unit weight from 90 to 120 pcf (1440 to 1920
kg/cu.m.) and compressive strengths equal to those of stone concretes.

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Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE
 3. Heavyweight concrete is frequently required for shielding against gamma and -x-ray radiation in nuclear
reactor and similar installation, for protective structures and for special purposes such as counterweights of
lift bridges.
Unit weights of heavy concrete with natural heavy rock aggregates range from about 200 to 230 pcf and if
iron punching are added to high density ores, unit weights will be as high as 270 pcf are achieved. the unit
weight may be as high as 330 pcf if ores are used for the fine aggregates only and steel for the coarse
aggregates.

E. Advantages of Concrete as a Structural Material

1. It has considerable compressive strength as compared to most other materials
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water and in fact, it is the best
structural material available for situations where water is present. During fires of average intensity,
members with satisfactory cover of concrete over the reinforcing bars suffer only surface damage
without failure.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.
5. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life. Under proper conditions reinforced
concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load-carrying abilities. This can be
explained by the fact that the strength of concrete does not decrease with time but actually increases over
a very long period, measured in years due to the lengthy process of the solidification of the cement paste.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, basement walls, piers, and similar
applications.
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes from simple
slabs, beams, and columns to great arches and shells.
8. In most areas, concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local material (sand, gravel and water) and
requires relatively small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel.
9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared to other materials such as structural
steel.

F. Disadvantages of Concrete as a Structural Material

1. Concrete has a very tensile strength requiring the use of tensile reinforcements
2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently. In addition, falsework or
shoring may be necessary to keep the forms in place for roofs, walls, and similar structures until the
concrete members gain sufficient strength to support themselves. Formwork is very expensive. It cost
run from one-third to two-thirds of the total cost of a reinforced concrete structure with average values of
about 50 percent.

3. The low strength per unit weight of weight of concrete leads to heavy members. This becomes an
increasingly important matter for long-span structures where concrete’s large dead weight has a great
effect on bending moments.
4. Similarly, the low strength per unit of volume of concrete means members will be relatively large, an 8/15/2025

important consideration for tall buildings and long span structures.

5. The properties of concrete vary widely due to variations in its proportioning and mixing. Furthermore,
the placing and curing is not as carefully controlled as in the production of other materials such as
structural steel and laminated wood.
6. The ability of the concrete to shrink. The concept of this is after the concrete has been cured and begins
to dry, the extra mixing water that was used begins to work its way out of the concrete to the surface

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Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE
 where it evaporates. As a result, the concrete shrinks and cracks. These may reduce the shear strength of
the members and be detrimental to the appearance of the structure.
In addition, the cracks may permit the reinforcing to be exposed to the atmosphere, thereby increasing
the possibility of corrosion. The amount of shrinkage is heavily dependent on the type of exposure.
To minimize shrinkage, it is desirable to:
a. keep the amount of mixing water to a minimum
b. cure the concrete well
c. place the concrete for walls, floors, and other large items in small sections, thus allowing some of
the shrinkage to take place before the next section is placed
d. use construction joints to control the position of cracks
e. use shrinkage reinforcement
7. The ability of the concrete to creep. Under sustained loads concrete will continue to deform for long
periods of time. This additional deformation is known as creep or plastic flow. This amount of
deformation is about two to three times the initial deformation.

G. Compatibility of Concrete and Steel Reinforcement

Concrete and steel work together beautifully in reinforced concrete structures. The advantages of each
material seem to compensate for the disadvantages of the other. The shortcoming of concrete is its lack of tensile
strength but tensile strength is one of the great advantages of steel. Reinforcing bars have tensile strength equal to
approximately 100 times that of the usual concretes used.

The two materials bond together very well so there is no slippage between the two and thus they will act
together as a unit in resisting forces. The excellent bond obtained is due to the chemical adhesion between the two
materials, the natural roughness of the bars and the closely spaced rib-shaped deformation rolled on the bar
surfaces.

Reinforcing bars are subject to corrosion but the concrete surrounding them with excellent protection. The
strength of exposed steel subject to the temperatures reached in fires of ordinary intensity is nil, but the enclosure
of the reinforcement in concrete produces very satisfactory fire ratings.

Finally, concrete and steel work very well together in relation to temperature changes because their
coefficients of thermal expansion are quite close to each other. For steel, the coefficient is 0.0000065, while for
concrete the average value is taken as 0.0000055.

H. Mechanical Properties of Reinforced Concrete

1. Compressive Strength of Concrete, fc’
This compressive strength of concrete is determined by testing to failure 28-day old 150mm diameter x
300 mm long (6” x 12”) concrete cylinders at specified rate of loading. For ordinary applications, 3000
psi and 4000 psi concretes are used whereas prestressed construction 5000 psi and 6000 psi strengths are
common. 8/15/2025

2. Modulus of Elasticity, Ec
Concrete has no clear-cut modulus of elasticity. Its value varies with different concrete strengths,
concrete age, type of loading, and the characteristics of the cement and aggregates.

Section 8.5 of the ACI code states that the following expression can be used for calculating the modulus
of elasticity of concretes weighing from 90 to 155 pcf. This formula is given by the equation:

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Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE
 Ec = 4700 in MPa, wc in kg/m3
Ec = 57000 in Psi, wc in lb/ft3
3. Poisson’s Ratio
This is the ratio of lateral expansion to the longitudinal shortening of the concrete when subjected to
compressive loads. Its value varies from about 0.11 for the higher strength concretes to as high as 0.21
for the weaker grade concretes with average values of about 0.16.
4. Tensile Strength
The tensile strength of concrete varies from about 10 to 15 percent of its compressive strength. This is
measured by the so-called split- cylinder test.
5. Shear Strength
It is extremely difficult in testing to obtain pure shear failures unaffected by other stresses. As a result,
the tests of concrete shearing strength through the years have yielded values all the way from one-third
to four-fifths of the ultimate compressive strengths.

For normal weight of concrete weighing approximately 145 pcf, the ACI code states that the following
simplified version of the previous formula may be used to determine the modulus of elasticity. This
expression is given by:

Vc =

I. Considerations in the Design of Concrete Mixes

1. Strength and Durability

This factor is attained by many causes but most strongly from the class of mixture or the right proportion
of cement, aggregates and water. Note that any amount of water in excess of the 25 percent needed for
hydration ultimately evaporates and produces pores. Since only the solid part of concrete could resist stress,
then more water means more pores and less strength.

Factors the regulate the strength of concrete are as follows:

a. correct proportion
b. suitability or quality of the materials
c. proper placement or depositing of concrete inside the form
d. adequate protection of concrete during the period of curing

2. Workability
It is the property of freshly mixed concrete that permits it to be placed in the form with ease and worked
around the reinforcing concrete, around the reinforcing bars in crowded areas. It is obviously difficult to place
a dry or stiff concrete around reinforcing bars.
A very fluid concretes are readily placed in reinforced concrete members but if they are too wet there is not 8/15/2025
only a loss of strength but also the segregation of particles in the mixture. Therefore, to ensure that the
concrete flows completely around the formworks in which it is cast, some means of compaction or
consolidation is desirable to prevent void from occurring.

J. Various Laboratory Tests on Concrete

1. Slump Test

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Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE
 The slump test affords a ready means of determining the consistency of the freshly mixed concrete. It is not
necessarily a measure of workability and should not be used to compare mixes of wholly different proportions
or kinds of aggregates.
Procedure:
The equipment consists of a piece of sheet metal in the shape of a truncated cone 12 inches in height, a base
diameter of 8 inches, and a top diameter of 4inches. Both top and bottom are left open. Handles are attached to
the outside of the mold. Freshly mixed concrete is placed in the mold in three layers each being rodded
separately 25 times with a 16mm or 5/8-inch diameter rod.
When the mold is filled and rodded, the top is leveled 00, and the mold is lifted at once. Immediately the
slumping action of the concrete is measured by taking the difference in height between the top of the mold of
the slumped mass of concrete. If the concrete settles 3 inches, we say the particular concrete sample has a 3
inches slump. Thus, the degree of consistency of the concrete is ascertained.

Recommended Slumps for Various Types of Construction

Types of construction Slump in inches
Maximum Minimum
Reinforced Foundation Walls and Footings 5 2
Plain Footings, Caissons and Substructure
Walls 4 1
Slabs, Beams, and Reinforced Walls 6 3
Building Columns 6 3
Pavements 3 2
Heavy Mass Construction 3 1

NOTE: When high frequency vibrators are used, the values given should be reduced about one third.

2. Compression Test
This is the test given for concrete for the determination of its strength.

Procedure:
The specimen to be tested are cylindrical in shape and have a length twice its diameter. The standard is 6
inches in diameter and 12 inches in height when the aggregate does not exceed 2 inches in size. If the coarse
aggregate is larger than 2 inches in size, the cylinder should have a diameter of at least three times the
maximum nominal size of the aggregate.

The most important structural property of concrete is its compressivestrength and it is measured by the
standard cylinder test or the concrete tube test. This is done by placing the cylindrical concrete specimen
(about 28 days old) between the plates of the machine (Universal Testing Machine). Through this machine,
compressive force is applied and increased gradually until the specimen fails. The load that makes the
specimen fails is recorded through the gage which is part of the machine. 8/15/2025

3. Tension Test

a. Direct Tensile Test

b. Split Cylinder Test
c. Beam Test
K. Various Laboratory Test on Reinforcing Bars

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Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE
 1. Tensile Test is a measure of the strength of the steel especially yielding capacity, fy
2. Bending Test is a test on the ductility of the steel bar
3. Welding Test is a measure of its weldability
4. Discoloration Test is a test on the composition and malleability of the material

L. Different Grades of Reinforcing Bars

Reinforcing bars may consist of billet steel, axle steel, or rail steel. Most bars are made from new or billet
steel, but very occasionally they are rolled from old train rails or locomotive axles. The following grades are
used in building construction:

1. Grade 230. This is a structural grade commonly used for housing. Its yielding stress capacity is 230 MPa
2. Grade 275. This is an intermediate grade of steel used for medium rise buildings wherein the value of fy
is 275 MPa.
3. Grade 414. This is known as hard steel and it is also used for high rise buildings. The fy value is 414
MPa.

Several types of reinforcing bars designated by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). These
are as follows:

1. ASTM A615, billet steel, grades 40 and 60

2. ASTM A616, rail steel, grades 50 and 60
3. ASTM A617, axle steel, grades 40 and 60
4. ASTM A706, low-alloy steel, grade 60

NOTE: In this listing grade 40 means the steel has a specified yield point of 40,000 psi, 50 means 50,000
psi and so on.

M. Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete and Reinforcing Bars

a. For Concrete
Ultimate Compressive Strength Modulus of Elasticity Modular Ratio
of Concrete, fc’ in MPa Ec in MPa n = Es/Ec

20.70 21,760
24.10 23,503
27.60 25,130
31.00 26,650
34.50 28,090

b. For Steel: The modulus of elasticity of steel has an average value of 29,000,000 psi or 200,000 MPa.
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N. Philippine Standard Sizes of Rebars

Nominal Diameter, mm Unit Mass, kg/m Area,[Link]. No. of dots

8 0.394 50 1
10 0.616 78 2
12 0.888 113 3

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 16 1.578 201 4
20 2.466 314 5
25 3.853 490 6
28 4.834 615 7
32 6.313 804 8
36 7.990 1017 9

NOTE:
1. The length of bars is at 6.0 m, at 7.50 m, at 9.0 m, at 10.5m and at 12 m .

2. The tolerance in diameter are as follows:

8 to 12 mm 0.40 mm
16 to 25 mm 0.50 mm
28 and over 1.80 percent

3. The tolerance in length are as follows:

a. 40 mm for every 6.0 m
b. 45 mm or o mm for every additional 1 m or fraction thereof add 5 mm to the above but no more
than 60 mm
c. 50 mm and 0 mm if minimum length is specified

8/15/2025

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Jojo Jim F. Subala, MSCE