Semiconductor Devices and Circuits

Unit 1-1
Dr Ayyem Pillai V
 Conductors
• Copper is a good conductor. The reason is clear when
we look at its atomic structure (Fig.).
• The nucleus of the atom contains 29 protons (positive
charges).
• When a copper atom has a neutral charge, 29
electrons (negative charges) circle the nucleus like
planets around the sun.
• The electrons travel in distinct orbits (also called
shells).
• There are 2 electrons in the first orbit, 8 electrons in
the second, 18 in the third, and 1 in the outer orbit.
• In electronics, all that matters is the outer orbit.
• It is called the valence orbit.
• This orbit controls the electrical properties of the atom.
• To emphasize the importance of the valence orbit, we define the
core of an atom as the nucleus and all the inner orbits.
• For a copper atom, the core is the nucleus (+29) and the first three
orbits (−28).
• The core of a copper atom has a net charge of +1 because it
contains 29 protons and 28 inner electrons.
• The valence electron is in a large orbit around a core that has a net
charge of only+1.
• Because of this, the inward pull felt by the valence electron is very
small.
• Since the attraction between the core and the
valence electron is weak, an outside force can
easily dislodge this electron from the copper
atom.
• This is why we often call the valence electron a
free electron.
• This is also why copper is a good conductor.
• The slightest voltage causes the free electrons to
flow from one atom to the next.
• The best conductors are silver, copper, and gold.
 Semiconductors
• The best conductors (silver, copper, and gold)
have one valence electron, whereas the best
insulators have eight valence electrons.
• A semiconductor is an element with electrical
properties between those of a conductor and
those of an insulator.
• The best semiconductors have four valence
electrons.
• Germanium is an example of a semiconductor.
• It has four electrons in the valence orbit.
• Many years ago, germanium was the only
material suitable for making semiconductor
devices.
• But these germanium devices had a fatal flaw (as
you will see they have excessive reverse current)
that engineers could not overcome.
• Eventually, another semiconductor named silicon
became practical and made germanium obsolete
in most electronic applications.
• Silicon
• Next to oxygen, silicon is the most abundant element
on the earth.
• But there were certain refining problems that
prevented the use of silicon in the early days of
semiconductors.
• Once these problems were solved, the advantages of
silicon (discussed later) immediately made it the
semiconductor of choice.
• Without it, modern electronics, communications, and
computers would be impossible.
• An isolated silicon atom has 14 protons and 14
electrons.
• As shown in Fig., the first orbit contains two
electrons and the second orbit contains eight
electrons.
• The four remaining electrons are in the valence
orbit.
• In Fig., the core has a net charge of +4 because it
contains 14 protons in the nucleus and 10
electrons in the first two orbits.
 Silicon Crystals
• When silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they
arrange themselves into an orderly pattern called
a crystal.
• Each silicon atom shares its electrons with four
neighboring atoms in such a way as to have eight
electrons in its valence orbit.
• For instance, Fig. shows a central atom with four
neighbors.
• The shaded circles represent the silicon cores.
Although the central atom originally had four
electrons in its valence orbit, it now has eight.
• Covalent Bonds
• Each neighboring atom shares an electron with the central atom.
• In this way, the central atom has four additional electrons, giving it a total of eight
electrons in the valence orbit.
• The electrons no longer belong to any single atom.
• Each central atom and its neighbors share the electrons.
• The same idea is true for all the other silicon atoms.
• In other words, every atom inside a silicon crystal has four neighbors.
• In Fig., each core has a charge of +4.
• Look at the central core and the one to its right.
• These two cores attract the pair of electrons between them with equal and
opposite force.
• This pulling in opposite directions is what holds the silicon atoms together.
• The idea is similar to tug-of-war teams pulling on a rope.
• As long as both teams pull with equal and opposite force, they remain bonded
together.
• Since each shared electron in Fig. 2-4a is being pulled
in opposite directions, the electron becomes a bond
between the opposite cores.
• We call this type of chemical bond a covalent bond.
• In Figure in a simpler way
• the concept of the covalent bonds has been shown.
• In a silicon crystal, there are billions of silicon atoms,
each with eight valence electrons.
• These valence electrons are the covalent bonds that
hold the crystal together—that give it solidity.
• When the valence orbit has eight electrons, it is
saturated because no more electrons can fit into this
orbit.
• Stated as a law:Valence saturation:n =8
• In words, the valence orbit can hold no more than eight
electrons.
• Furthermore, the eight valence electrons are called
bound electrons because they are tightly held by the
atoms.
• Because of these bound electrons, a silicon crystal is
almost a perfect insulator at room temperature,
approximately 25°C.
• The Hole
• The ambient temperature is the temperature of the
surrounding air.
• When the ambient temperature is above absolute zero
(−273°C), the heat energy in this air causes the atoms in a
silicon crystal to vibrate.
• The higher the ambient temperature, the stronger the
mechanical vibrations become.
• In a silicon crystal, the vibrations of the atoms can
occasionally dislodge an electron from the valence orbit.
• When this happens, the released electron gains enough
energy to go into a larger orbit, as shown in Fig..
• In this larger orbit, the electron is a free electron.
Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
Unit 1-2
Dr Ayyem Pillai V
 Recombination and Lifetime
• In a pure silicon crystal, thermal (heat) energy creates an
equal number of free electrons and holes.
• The free electrons move randomly throughout the crystal.
• Occasionally, a free electron will approach a hole, feel its
attraction, and fall into it.
• Recombination is the merging of a free electron and a hole.
• The amount of time between the creation and
disappearance of a free electron is called the lifetime.
• It varies from a few nanoseconds to several microseconds,
depending on how perfect the crystal is and other factors.
• Example
• If a pure silicon crystal has 1 million free electrons inside it, how
many holes
• does it have? What happens to the number of free electrons and
holes if the
• ambient temperature increases?
• SOLUTION
• When heat energy creates a free electron, it automatically creates a
hole at the same time. Therefore, a pure silicon crystal always has
the same number of holes and free electrons. If there are 1 million
free electrons, there are 1 million holes. A higher temperature
increases the vibrations at the atomic level, which means that more
free electrons and holes are created. But no matter what the
temperature is, a pure silicon crystal has the same number of free
electrons and holes.
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure
semiconductor.
• A silicon crystal is an intrinsic semiconductor if
every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom.
• At room temperature, a silicon crystal acts like an
insulator because it has only a few free electrons
and holes produced by thermal energy.
• Figure shows a silicon crystal ingot and a sliced
wafer.
 Two Types of Flow
• Figure shows an intrinsic semiconductor.
• It has the same number of free electrons and
holes.
• This is because thermal energy produces free
electrons and holes in pairs.
• The applied voltage will force the free electrons
to flow left and the holes to flow right.
• When the free electrons arrive at the left end of
the crystal, they enter the external wire and flow
to the positive battery terminal.
On the other hand, the free electrons at the negative battery
terminal will flow to the right end of the crystal. At this point,
they enter the crystal and recombine with holes that arrive at
the right end of the crystal. In this way, a steady flow of free
electrons and holes occurs inside the semiconductor. Note that
there is no hole flow outside the semiconductor.
 Doping a Semiconductor
• One way to increase conductivity of a
semiconductor is by doping.
• This means adding impurity atoms to an
intrinsic crystal to alter its electrical
conductivity.
• A doped semiconductor is called an extrinsic
semiconductor.
 Increasing the Free Electrons
• How does a manufacturer dope a silicon crystal? The
first step is to melt a pure silicon crystal.
• This breaks the covalent bonds and changes the silicon
from a solid to a liquid.
• To increase the number of free electrons, pentavalent
atoms are added to the molten silicon.
• Pentavalent atoms have five electrons in the valence
orbit. Examples of pentavalent atoms include arsenic,
antimony,and phosphorus.
• Because these materials will donate an extra electron
to the silicon crystal, they are often referred to as
donor impurities.
• Figure 2-8a shows how the doped silicon crystal appears
after it cools down and re-forms its solid crystal structure.
• A pentavalent atom is in the center, surrounded by four
silicon atoms.
• As before, the neighboring atoms share an electron with
the central atom.
• But this time, there is an extra electron left over.
• Remember that each pentavalent atom has five valence
electrons.
• Since only eight electrons can fit into the valence orbit, the
extra electron remains in a larger orbit. In other words, it is
a free electron.
• Each pentavalent or donor atom in a silicon
crystal produces one free electron.
• This is how a manufacturer controls the
conductivity of a doped semiconductor.
• The more impurity that is added, the greater the
conductivity.
• In this way, a semiconductor may be lightly or
heavily doped.
• A lightly doped semiconductor has a high
resistance, whereas a heavily doped
semiconductor has a low resistance.
 Increasing the Number of Holes
• How can we dope a pure silicon crystal to get an excess of holes? By
using a trivalent impurity, one whose atoms have only three valence
electrons.
• Examples include aluminum, boron, and gallium.
• Figure shows a trivalent atom in the center.
• It is surrounded by four silicon atoms, each sharing one of its
valence electrons.
• Since the trivalent atom originally had only three valence electrons
and each neighbor shares one electron, only seven electrons are in
the valence orbit.
• This means that a hole exists in the valence orbit of each trivalent
atom.
• A trivalent atom is also called an acceptor atom because each hole
it contributes can accept a free electron during recombination.
 Two Types of Extrinsic
Semiconductors
n-Type Semiconductor
• Silicon that has been doped with a pentavalent
impurity is called an n-type semiconductor,
where the n stands for negative.
• Figure shows an n-type semiconductor.
• Since the free electrons outnumber the holes in
an n-type semiconductor, the free electrons are
called the majority carriers and the holes are
called the minority carriers.
p-Type Semiconductor
• Silicon that has been doped with a trivalent
impurity is called a p-type semiconductor,
where the p stands for positive.
• Figure shows a p-type semiconductor.
• Since holes outnumber free electrons, the
holes are referred to as the majority carriers
and the free electrons are known as the
minority carriers.
• Because of the applied voltage, the free electrons
move to the left and the holes move to the right.
• In Fig. , the holes arriving at the right end of the
crystal will recombine with free electrons from
the external circuit.
• There is also a flow of minority carriers show in
Fig..
• The free electrons inside the semiconductor flow
from right to left.
• Because there are so few minority carriers, they
have almost no effect in this circuit.
• Because of the applied voltage, the free electrons
move to the left and the holes move to the right.
• When a hole arrives at the right end of the
crystal, one of the free electrons from the
external circuit enters the semiconductor and
recombines with the hole.
• The free electrons shown in Fig. flow to the left
end of the crystal, where they enter the wire and
flow on to the positive terminal of the battery.
 The Unbiased Diode
• By itself, a piece of n-type semiconductor is about as
useful as a carbon resistor.
• The same can be said for a p-type semiconductor.
• But when a manufacturer dopes a crystal so that one-
half of it is p-type and the other half is n-type,
something new comes into existence.
• The border between p-type and n-type is called the pn
junction.
• The pn junction has led to all kinds of inventions,
including diodes, transistors, and ntegrated circuits.
• Understanding the pn junction enables you to
understand all kinds of semiconductor devices.
• Each trivalent atom in a doped silicon crystal
produces one hole.
• For this reason, we can visualize a piece of p-
type semiconductor as shown on the left side
of Fig..
• Each circled minus sign is the trivalent atom,
and each plus sign is the hole in its valence
orbit.
• Similarly, we can visualize the pentavalent atoms
and free electrons of an n-type semiconductor as
shown on the right side of Fig..
• Each circled plus sign represents a pentavalent
atom, and each minus sign is the free electron it
contributes to the semiconductor.
• Notice that each piece of semiconductor material
is electrically neutral because the number of
pluses and minuses is equal.
• A manufacturer can produce a single crystal
with p-type material on one side and n-type
on the other side, as shown in Fig..
• The junction is the border where the p-type
and the n-type regions meet, and junction
diode is another name for a pn crystal.
• The word diode is a contraction of two
electrodes, where di stands for “two.”
 The Depletion Layer
• Because of their repulsion for each other, the free electrons on the n side of
• Fig. tend to diffuse (spread) in all directions.
• Some of the free electrons diffuse across the junction.
• When a free electron enters the p region, it becomes a minority carrier.
• With so many holes around it, this minority carrier has a short lifetime.
• Soon after entering the p region, the free electron recombines with a hole.
• When this happens, the hole disappears and the free electron becomes a
valence electron.
• Each time an electron diffuses across a junction, it creates a pair of ions.
• When an electron leaves the n side, it leaves behind a pentavalent atom that is
short one negative charge.
• This pentavalent atom becomes a positive ion.
• After the migrating electron falls into a hole on the p side, it makes a negative
ion out of the trivalent atom that captures it.
• Figure shows these ions on each side of the
junction.
• The circled plus signs are the positive ions,
and the circled minus signs are the negative
ions.
• The ions are fixed in the crystal structure
because of covalent bonding, and they cannot
move around like free electrons and holes.
• Each pair of positive and negative ions at the
junction is called a dipole.
• The creation of a dipole means that one free
electron and one hole have been taken out of
circulation.
• As the number of dipoles builds up, the
region near the junction is emptied of carriers.
• We call this charge-empty region the
depletion layer.
 Barrier Potential
• Each dipole has an electric field between the positive and negative
ions.
• Therefore, if additional free electrons enter the depletion layer, the
electric field tries to push these electrons back into the n region.
• The strength of the electric field increases with each crossing
electron until equilibrium is reached.
• To a first approximation, this means that the electric field
eventually stops the diffusion of electrons across the junction.
• In Fig., the electric field between the ions is equivalent to a
difference of potential called the barrier potential.
• At 25°C, the barrier potential equals approximately 0.3 V for
germanium diodes and 0.7 V for silicon diodes.
Forward Bias
• Current flows easily in a forward-biased diode.
• As long as the applied voltage is greater than
the barrier potential, there will be a large
continuous current in the circuit.
• In other words, if the source voltage is greater
than 0.7 V, a silicon diode allows a continuous
current in the forward direction.
• In Fig., the battery creates and E field.
• If the battery voltage is less than the barrier
potential, the free electrons do not have
enough energy to get through the depletion
layer.
• When they enter the depletion layer, the ions
will push them back into the n region. Because
of this, there is no current through the diode.
• When the dc voltage source is greater than the barrier
potential, the battery again pushes holes and free electrons
toward the junction.
• This time, the free electrons have enough energy to pass
through the depletion layer and recombine with the holes.
• If you visualize all the holes in the p region moving to the
right and all the free electrons moving to the left, you will
have the basic idea.
• Somewhere in the vicinity of the junction, these opposite
charges recombine.
• Since free electrons continuously enter the right end of the
diode and holes are being continuously created at the left
end, there is a continuous current through the diode.
Semiconductor Devices and
Circuits
Dr Ayyem Pillai V
 Forward Bias
• The negative source terminal is connected to the n-type material, and the
positive terminal is connected to the p-type material.
• This connection produces what is called forward bias.
• When the dc voltage source is greater than the barrier potential, free
electrons diffuse toward the junction. This time, the free electrons have
enough energy to pass through the depletion layer and recombine with the
holes.
• If you visualize all the holes in the p region moving to the right and all the free
electrons moving to the left, you will have the basic idea.
• Somewhere in the vicinity of the junction, these opposite charges recombine.
• Since free electrons continuously enter the right end of the diode and holes
are being continuously created at the left end, there is a continuous current
through the diode.
 Reverse Bias
Turn the dc source around and you get Fig..
This time, the negative battery terminal is connected to the p side and the positive battery
terminal to the n side.
This connection produces what is called reverse bias.
The negative battery terminal attracts the holes, and the positive battery terminal attracts the
free electrons. Because of this, holes and free electrons flow away from the junction.
Therefore, the depletion layer gets wider.
When the holes and electrons move away from the junction, the newly created ions increas the
difference of potential across the depletion layer.
The wider the depletion layer, the greater the difference of potential.
The depletion layer stops growing when its difference of potential equals the applied reverse
voltage.
When this happens, electrons and holes stop moving away from the junction.
 Minority-Carrier Current
• A small current exists with reverse bias.
• Recall that thermal energy continuously creates pairs
of free electrons and holes.
This means that a few minority carriers exist on both sides of the
junction.
Most of these recombine with the majority carriers.
But those inside the depletion layer may exist long enough to get
across the junction.
When this happens, a small current flows in the external circuit.
• The reverse current caused by the thermally produced minority
carriers is called the saturation current.
• In equations, the saturation current is symbolized by I S .
• The name saturation means that we cannot get more minority-carrier
current than is produced by the thermal energy.
• In other words, increasing the reverse voltage will not increase the
number of thermally created minority carriers.
 Surface-Leakage Current
• Besides the thermally produced minority-carrier current, there is
another current existing in a reverse-biased diode.
• A small current flows on the surface of the crystal.
• Known as the surface-leakage current, it is caused by surface
impurities and imperfections in the crystal structure.
 Breakdown
• If you continue increasing the reverse voltage, you will eventually reach the
breakdown voltage of the diode.
• For many diodes, breakdown voltage is at least 50 V.
• The breakdown voltage is shown on the data sheet for the diode. A data
sheet, produced by the manufacturer of the diode, lists important information
and typical applications for the device.
• Once the breakdown voltage is reached, a large number of the minority
carriers suddenly appears in the depletion layer, and the diode conducts
heavily.
• Where do the carriers come from? They are produced by the avalanche effect
, which occurs at higher reverse voltages.
• As usual, there is a small reverse minority-carrier current.
• When the reverse voltage increases, it forces the minority carriers to move more quickly.
• These minority carriers collide with the atoms of the crystal.
• When these minority carriers have enough energy, they can knock valence electrons
loose, producing free electrons.
• These new minority carriers then join the existing minority carriers to collide with other
atoms.
• The process is geometric because one free electron liberates one valence electron to get
two free electrons.
• These two free electrons then free two more electrons to get four free electrons.
• The process continues until the reverse current becomes huge.
• The breakdown voltage of a diode depends on how heavily doped the
diode is.
With rectifier diodes (the most common type), the breakdown voltage
is usually greater than 50 V.
Barrier Potential and Temperature
• The barrier potential depends on the junction temperature.
Anincrease in junction temperature creates more free electrons and
holes in the doped regions.
• As these charges diffuse into the depletion layer, it becomes
narrower. This means that there is less barrier potential at higher
junction temperatures.
• Assuming a barrier potential of 0.7 V at an ambient temperature of
25°C, what is the barrier potential of a silicon diode when the
junction temperature is 100°C? At 0°C?
• SOLUTION When the junction temperature is 100°C, the change in
barrier potential is:
Reverse Saturation Current
Diodes
Knee Voltage
• In the forward region, the voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called the knee
voltage of the diode.
• The knee voltage equals the barrier potential.
Bulk Resistance
• Above the knee voltage, the diode current increases rapidly. This means that small increases in
the diode voltage cause large increases in diode current.
• After the barrier potential is overcome, all that impedes the current is the ohmic resistance of the
p and n regions.
• In other words, if the p and n regions were two separate pieces of semiconductor, each would
have a resistance that you could measure with an ohmmeter, the same as an ordinary resistor.
• The bulk resistance depends on the size of the p and n regions and how heavily doped they are.
• Often, the bulk resistance is less than 1 Ω.
Diode Approximations
• Use the Ideal diode to calculate the load voltage and load current in
the figure.
• Use the second approximation to calculate the load voltage, load
current, and diode power in t
• he figure.
• In the third approximation of a diode, we include the bulk resistance
RB.
• Figure shows the effect that RB has on the diode curve. After the
silicon diode turns on, the voltage increases linearly with an increase
in current.
• The greater the current, the larger the diode voltage because of the
voltage drop across the bulk resistance.
• The AC adapters consist of all the essential components needed for AC to
DC conversion.
• These components are a transformer, capacitor, and several diodes. Out of
these components, the main key component is a diode which converts the
alternating current into direct current.
• The transformer in the AC adapter reduces the high AC voltage to a low AC
voltage.

• The rectifier (made up of diodes) converts this low AC voltage or AC current

into low DC voltage or DC current. However, the converted current is not
pure DC current. It is a pulsating DC current.

• The capacitor filters this pulsating DC current to pure DC current.

 Rectifiers
• In a large number of electronic circuits, we require DC voltage for
operation. We can easily convert the AC voltage or AC current into DC
voltage or DC current by using a device called P-N junction diode.
• One of the most important applications of a P-N junction diode is the
rectification of Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC).
• A P-N junction diode allows electric current in only forward bias
condition and blocks electric current in reverse bias condition. In simple
words, a diode allows electric current in one direction. This unique
property of the diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.
• A rectifier is an electrical device that converts an Alternating Current (AC)
into a Direct Current (DC) by using one or more P-N junction diodes.
 Types of rectifiers

The rectifiers are mainly classified into two types:

• Half wave rectifier
• Full wave rectifier
 The Half-Wave Rectifier
• A half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which allows only half cycle
(either positive half cycle or negative half cycle) of the input AC
signal while the another half cycle is blocked.
• The half wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier. We use
only a single diode to construct the half wave rectifier.

• The half wave rectifier is made up of an AC source, transformer

(step-down), diode, and resistor (load). The diode is placed
between the transformer and resistor (load)
AC source
• The AC source supplies Alternating Current to the circuit. The alternating
current is often represented by a sinusoidal waveform.
Transformer
• Transformer is a device which reduces or increases the AC voltage. The step-
down transformer reduces the AC voltage from high to low whereas the step-up
transformer increases the AC voltage from low to high. In half wave rectifier, we
generally use a step-down transformer because the voltage needed for the
diode is very small. Applying a large AC voltage without using transformer will
permanently destroy the diode. So we use step-down transformer in half wave
rectifier. However, in some cases, we use a step-up transformer.
• In the step-down transformer, the primary winding has more turns than the
secondary winding. So the step-down transformer reduces the voltage from
primary winding to secondary
 Diode
• A diode is a two terminal device that allows electric current in one
direction and blocks electric current in another direction.
Resistor
• A resistor is an electronic component that restricts the current flow
to a certain level.
Positive half wave rectifier
• When high AC voltage (60 Hz) is applied, the step-down transformer
reduces this high voltage into low voltage. Thus, a low voltage is
produced at the secondary winding of the transformer. The low
voltage produced at the secondary winding of the transformer is
called secondary voltage (VS). The AC voltage or AC signal applied to
the transformer is nothing but an input AC signal or input AC
voltage.
• The low AC voltage produced by the step-down transformer is
directly applied to the diode.
• When low AC voltage is applied to the diode (D), during the positive half cycle
of the signal, the diode is forward biased and allows electric current whereas,
during the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and blocks electric
current. In simple words, the diode allows the positive half-cycle of the input
AC signal and blocks the negative half-cycle of the input AC signal.
• The positive half-cycle of the input AC signal or AC voltage applied to the diode
is analogous to the forward DC voltage applied to the p-n junction diode
similarly the negative half-cycle of the input AC signal applied to the diode is
analogous to the reverse DC voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
• We know that diode allows electric current when it is forward biased and
blocks electric current when it is reverse biased. Similarly, in an AC circuit, the
diode allows electric current during the positive half cycle (forward biased) and
blocks electric current during the negative half cycle (reverse biased)
Negative half wave rectifier
• The construction and working of negative half wave rectifier is almost
similar to the positive half wave rectifier. The only thing we change here
is the direction of a diode.
• When AC voltage is applied, the step-down transformer reduces the high
voltage to low voltage. This low voltage is applied to the diode.
• Unlike the positive half wave rectifier, the negative half wave rectifier
allows electric current during the negative half-cycle of input AC signal
and blocks electric current during the positive half-cycle of the input AC
signal.
 Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter

• A filter converts the pulsating direct current into pure direct current. In
half wave rectifiers, a capacitor or inductor is used as a filter to convert
the pulsating DC to pure DC.
• The output voltage produced by a half wave rectifier is not constant; it
varies with respect to time. In practical applications, a constant DC supply
voltage is needed.
• In order to produce a constant DC voltage, we need to suppress the
ripples of a DC voltage. This can be achieved by using either a capacitor
filter or inductor filter at the output side. In the below circuit, we are
using the capacitor filter. The capacitor placed at the output side
smoothen the pulsating DC to pure DC.
•
 Characteristics of half wave rectifier

Ripple factor
• The direct current (DC) produced by a half wave rectifier is not a pure DC but a
pulsating DC. In the output pulsating DC signal, we find ripples. These ripples in
the output DC signal can be reduced by using filters such capacitors and
inductors.
• In order to measure how much ripples are there in the output DC signal we use
a factor known as ripple factor. The ripple factor is denoted by γ.
• If the ripple factor is very low then it indicates that the output DC current is
closer to the pure DC current. In simple words, the lower the ripple factor
• Ripple factor can be mathematically defined as the ratio of rms value of AC
component of the output voltage to the DC component of the output voltage.
• Ripples factor = rms value of AC component of the output voltage / DC
component of the output voltage Where, rms = root mean square
DC current
• The DC current is given by,

Output DC voltage (VDC)

The output DC voltage (VDC) is the voltage appeared at the load
resistor (RL). This voltage is obtained by multiplying the output DC
current with load resistance RL.
It can be mathematically written as,
VDC = IDC RL
The output DC voltage is given by,

Where, VSmax = Maximum secondary voltage

Peak inverse voltage (PIV)

Peak inverse voltage rectifier diode is the maximum voltage appearing across it when it is non-conducting (reverse
polarized).
• During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and allow electric current. This current is dropped at the
resistor load (RL). However, during the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and does not allows electric
current, so the input AC current or AC voltage is dropped at the diode.
• The maximum voltage dropped at the diode is nothing but an input voltage.
• Therefore, peak inverse voltage (PIV) of diode = Vsmax
Rectifier efficiency
• Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power.
• The rectifier efficiency of a half wave rectifier is 40.6%
Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS

• The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a half wave rectifier is
Root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage VRMS

• The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a half
wave rectifier is

Form factor
Form factor is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the DC value

AC to DC converters
It can be mathematically written as
F.F = RMS value / DC value

The form factor of a half wave rectifier is

F.F = 1.57
 Full wave rectifier
• A full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts both half
cycles of the AC signal into pulsating DC signal.
• As shown in the above figure, the full wave rectifier converts both
positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal into output
pulsating DC signal.
Center tapped transformer
• When an additional wire is connected across the exact middle of the
secondary winding of a transformer, it is known as a center tapped
transformer.
• The center tapped full wave rectifier uses a center tapped transformer to convert the input AC
voltage into output DC voltage.
• Transformer winding service
• Center tap transformer
• When input AC voltage is applied, the secondary winding of the center tapped transformer
divides this input AC voltage into two parts: positive and negative.
• During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become positive, terminal B
become negative and center tap is grounded (zero volts). The positive terminal A is connected
to the p-side of the diode D1 and the negative terminal B is connected to the n-side of the diode
D1. So the diode D1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle and allows electric current
through it.
• During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become negative, terminal B
become positive and center tap is grounded (zero volts). The negative terminal A is connected
to the p-side of the diode D1 and the positive terminal B is connected to the n-side of the diode
D1. So the diode D1 is reverse biased during the negative half cycle and does not allow electric
current through it.
 Full Wave Rectifier with Filter

• During the positive half cycle, the diode (D1) current reaches the filter and charges the capacitor. However, the charging of the
capacitor happens only when the applied AC voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage.
• During this conduction period, the capacitor charges to the maximum value of the input supply voltage. The capacitor stores a
maximum charge exactly at the quarter positive half cycle in the waveform. At this point, the supply voltage is equal to the
capacitor voltage.
• The working of the full wave rectifier with filter is almost similar to that of the half wave rectifier with filter. The only difference
is that in the half wave rectifier only one half cycle (either positive or negative) of the input AC current will charge
the capacitor but the remaining half cycle will not charge the capacitor. But in full wave rectifier, both positive and negative half
cycles of the input AC current will charge the capacitor.
• When the AC voltage starts decreasing and becomes less than the capacitor voltage, then the capacitor starts slowly
discharging.
• The discharging of the capacitor is very slow as compared to the charging of the capacitor. So the capacitor does not get enough
time to completely discharged. Before the complete discharge of the capacitor happens, the charging again takes place. So only
half or more than half of the capacitor charge get discharged.
• When the input AC supply voltage reaches the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased (blocks electric current)
whereas the diode D2 is forward biased (allows electric current).
• During the negative half cycle, the diode (D2) current reaches the filter and charges the capacitor. However, the charging of the
capacitor happens only when the applied AC voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage.
 Full wave Bridge Rectifier

• The center tapped full wave rectifier has one drawback that is the
center-tapped transformer used in it is very expensive and occupies
large space.
• To cut this extra cost, scientists developed a new type of rectifier
known as a bridge rectifier. In bridge rectifier, center tap is not
required.
Bridge rectifier with filter
 Clipper
• A clipper is a device that either limits the positive amplitude or negative amplitude or
both positive and negative amplitudes or removes either positive of negative half
cycle.
• Types of clippers
• The clipper circuits are generally categorized into three types: series clippers, shunt
clippers and dual (combination) clippers. In series clippers, the diode is connected in
series with the output load resistance. In shunt clippers, the diode is connected in
parallel with the output load resistance.
• The series clippers are again classified into four types: series positive clipper, series
positive clipper with bias, series negative clipper and series negative clipper with bias.
The shunt (parallel) clippers are again classified into four types: shunt positive clipper,
shunt positive clipper with bias, shunt negative clipper, and shunt negative clipper with
bias.
 Series Positive Clipper
• In series positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input AC
signal is removed.
• If the diode is arranged in such a way that the arrowhead of the
diode points towards the input and the diode is in series with the
output load resistance, then the clipper is said to be a series positive
clipper.
• During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is
negative. That means the positive terminal A is connected to n-side and the
negative terminal B is connected to p-side of the diode. Diode D is reverse
biased during the positive half cycle.
• During reverse biased condition, no current flows through the diode. So the
positive half cycle is blocked or removed at the output.
• During the negative half cycle, terminal A is negative and terminal B is
positive. That means the negative terminal A is connected to n-side and the
positive terminal B is connected to p-side of the diode. The diode D is
forward biased during the negative half cycle.
• During forward biased condition, electric current flows through the diode.
So the negative half cycle is allowed at the output.
 Series Positive Clipper with Bias
• Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or
negative half cycles.
• In such cases, the biased clippers are used.
• During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B
is negative.
• That means the positive terminal is connected to n-side and the
negative terminal is connected to p-side.
• Initially, the input supply voltage Vi is less than the battery voltage VB (Vi < VB). So the battery
voltage dominates the input supply voltage. Hence, the diode is forward biased by the battery
voltage and allows electric current through it. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
• When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB, the diode D is
reverse biased. So no current flows through the diode. As a result, input signal does not appear
at the output.
• During the negative half cycle, terminal A is negative and terminal B is positive. That means the
diode D is forward biased due to the input supply voltage. Furthermore, the battery is also
connected in such a way that the positive terminal is connected to p-side and the negative
terminal is connected to n-side. So the diode is forward biased by both battery voltage VB and
input supply voltage Vi.
• That means, during the negative half cycle, it doesn’t matter whether the input supply voltage
is greater or less than the battery voltage, the diode always remains forward biased. So the
complete negative half cycle appears at the output.
Shunt positive clipper
• In shunt clipper, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load resistance. The
operating principles of the shunt clipper are nearly opposite to the series clipper.
• The series clipper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is forward
biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is reverse biased.
• The shunt clipper on the other hand passes the input signal to the output load when
the diode is reverse biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is forward
biased.
Shunt positive clipper with positive bias
• During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB. However, initially, the input supply voltage Vi is less
than the battery voltage VB. Hence, the battery voltage VB makes the diode to be reverse
biased. Therefore, the signal appears at the output. However, when the input supply voltage Vi
becomes greater than the battery voltage VB, the diode D is forward biased by the input supply
voltage Vi. As a result, no signal appears at the output.
Shunt positive clipper with negative bias
• During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased by both
input supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB. Therefore, no signal
appears at the output during the positive half cycle.

• During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by the
input supply voltage and forward biased by the battery voltage.
However, initially, the input supply voltage Vi is less than the battery
voltage VB. So the battery voltage makes the diode to be forward
biased. As a result, no signal appears at the output. However, when
the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery
voltage VB, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage
Vi. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
Shunt negative clipper

• In shunt negative clipper, during the positive half cycle the diode is
reverse biased and hence the entire positive half cycle appears at
the output. On the other hand, during the negative half cycle the
diode is forward biased and hence no output signal is generated.
Shunt negative clipper with bias
Dual (combination) clipper
• During the positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased by the
input supply voltage Vi and reverse biased by the battery voltage
VB1. On the other hand, the diode D2 is reverse biased by both input
supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB2.
• Initially, the input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. So
the diode D1 is reverse biased by the battery voltage VB1. Similarly,
the diode D2 is reverse biased by the battery voltage VB2. As a result,
the signal appears at the output. However, when the input supply
voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB1, the diode
D1 is forward biased by the input supply voltage. As a result, no
signal appears at the output.
• During negative half cycle:
• During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased by both
input supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB1. On the other hand,
the diode D2 is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB2.
• Initially, the battery voltage is greater than the input supply voltage.
Therefore, the diode D1 and diode D2 are reverse biased by the
battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
• When the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery
voltage VB2, the diode D2 is forward biased. As a result, no signal
appears at the output.
 Clampers

• A Clamper circuit is designed to add a DC level to an AC signal, shifting the entire signal waveform either
upwards or downwards. Clamper shift an input signal by an amount defined by an independent voltage
source. Typically, clamper circuits use a combination of diodes, capacitors, and sometimes resistors to
achieve this effect. Clampers are also know as dc restores or clamped capacitors.
• Types of Clamper Circuits
• Clamper circuits come in several varieties, each suited for different applications. The most common types
include:
• Positive Clampers
• Positive clamping circuit clamps the input signal to the +ve Dc level i.e. above the zero level.
• Negative Clampers
• Negative clamping circuit clamps the input signal to the -ve Dc level i.e. below the zero level.
• Biased Clampers
• A biased clamper allows a waveform to be shifted above (or below) a dc reference other than 0 V.
• By using a voltage source and resistor, the clamper can be biased to bind the output voltage to a different
value.
• The voltage supplied to the resistor will be equal to the offset from 0.7V (assuming an Si diode) in the case
of either a positive or negative clamper - the clamper type will determine the direction of the offset..
Positive Clampers
• During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward biased, thus
conducts and acts like a short circuit. The output Vo -> 0 volts. The capacitor is charged ton
the peak value of input Vm and it behaves like a battery.
• During the positive half-cycle, the diode becomes reverse-biased, the diode does not
conduct and acts as a open circuit. Capacitor can only discharge thought the R(load). Since
the R(load) is high resistance, the capacitor discharges very little each period.
• Appling KVL across the loop

• Vout peak = Vin(peak) +Vm = Vm +Vm

• Vout peak = Vm + Vm = 2Vm.

 Negative Clampers

• During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward
biased, thus conducts and acts like a short circuit.. The capacitor is
charged ton the peak value of input Vm and it behaves like a battery.
During this interval the output Vo which is taken across the short circuit
will be zero.
• During the negative half cycle of the input signal, the diode does not
conduct and act as an open circuit.
• The output voltage can be found by applying KVL
• Vo = -2Vm
 Zener Diode

• A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias

conditions is called a Zener Diode. They are special semiconductor
devices that allow the current to flow in both forward and backward
directions. For the Zener diode, the voltage drop across the diode is
always constant irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener
diodes are used as a voltage regulator.
• A Zener diode which is also called a Breakdown diode works in
reverse bias conditions. An electrical breakdown occurring in the
reverse-biased condition of the PN junction diode is called the Zener
effect. In this condition when the electric field increases to a high
value it enables breaking of valence bonds.
• The figure given below is the circuit diagram of the Zener diode. The
Zener diode has applications in various electronic devices and it
works in reverse biasing conditions. In reverse biasing, the P-type
material of the diode is connected with the negative terminal of the
power supply, and the n-type material is connected with the
positive terminal of the power supply. The diode consists of a very
thin depletion region as it is made up of heavily doped
semiconductor material.
• Zener Diode Working in Reverse Biased
• In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal
diode but in the reverse-bias condition, a small leak current flows
through the diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage it reaches a
point where the reverse voltage equals the breakdown voltage. The
breakdown voltage is represented as Vz and in this condition the current
start flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage the current
increase drastically until it reaches a stable value.
• In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for Zener Diode
which are,
Avalanche Breakdown
Zener Breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown
• The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary diode
and Zener Diode at high reverse voltage. For a high value of reverse voltage, the
free electron in the PN junction diode gains energy and acquires high velocity
and these high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and knock electrons
from that atoms. This collision continues and new electrons are available for
conducting current thus the current increase rapidly in the diode.
• This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche
breakdown. This phenomenon damages the diode permanently whereas the
Zener diode is a specific diode that is made to operate in this reverse voltage
area.
• If the reverse voltage is greater than 6V the avalanche breakdown happens in
the Zener diode.
Zener Breakdown
• Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In
these diodes, if the reverse bias voltages reach closer to Zener
Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient enough to
pull electrons from the valance band. These electrons then gain
energy from the electric field and break free from the atom.
• Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight
increase in the voltage causes a sudden increase in the current.
Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown
There is a clear difference between Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown which can easily be understood by the table discussed below,

Avalanche breakdown occurs when the high voltage increase the free Zener breakdown happens when electrons from the valance band gain
electron in the semiconductor and a sudden increase in current is seen. energy and reaches the conduction band which then conducts electricity.

Avalanche breakdown is seen in the diodes having breakdown voltage Zener breakdown is seen in the diodes having breakdown voltage in the
greater than 8 volts. range of 5 to 8 volts.

Avalanche breakdown is observed in diodes that are lightly doped. Zener breakdown is observed in diodes that are highly doped.

In the Avalanche breakdown, the VI characteristics curve is not as sharp as

the VI characteristics curve in the Zener breakdown. Zener Breakdown has a sharp VI characteristics curve.

For Avalanche breakdown increase in temperature increases the breakdown For Zener breakdown increase in temperature decreases the breakdown
voltage. voltage.
VI Characteristics of Zener Diode
• The graph given underneath shows the V-I characteristics of the
Zener diode.
• The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode,
i.e. the diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V
characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode has a region
in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.
• This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current
providing the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and its maximum current rating IZ(max).
• This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect
to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations.
The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is
almost constant turns out to be an important characteristic and one
which can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator applications.
• The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output
voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples
in the supply voltage or variations in the load current. A zener diode
will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes holding current
falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown
region.
• A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V
DC power supply input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the
zener diode is 2W. Using the zener regulator circuit above calculate:
• a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.
• b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS
• c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the
zener diode.
• d). The zener current IZ at full load.