Chapter 3

Transistor biasing and stabilization

techniques

*************************** Prepared by*************************************************

Subject: Semiconductor Devices and Circuits, CSE
[Link] Professor„Department of ECE
GRIET, Hyderabad
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Syllubus of unit -3 NIT – III: BJT Biasing: Need for biasing and stabilization, Load line and
operating point, Biasing techniques: Fixed bias, Collector-to-base bias, Voltage divider bias,
Stability factors and thermal runaway.
BJT biasing: If the output (o/p) signal must be a faithful reproduction of the input (i/p)
signal, the transistor must be operated in the active region. That means an operating point
has to be established in this region. To establish an operating point (proper values of
collector current IC and collector-to-emitter voltage VCE ), appropriate supply voltages
and resistances must be suitably chosen in the circuit. This process of selecting proper
supply voltages and resistance for obtaining the desired operating point or Q-point is
called biasing, and the circuit used for transistor biasing is called a biasing circuit. The
circuits that fixes the operating point is called the biasing circuits.
Requirements of a biasing circuit:
The following are the requirements of a biasing circuit.

1. Establish the operating point in the centre of the active region of the characteristics,
so that on applying the input signal the instantaneous operating point does not move
either to the saturation region or to the cut-off region, even at the extreme values of
the input signal.

2. Stabilise the collector current IC against temperature variations.

3. Stabilise the the collector current IC against the transistor parameters.

2 Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques

Selection of operating point or quiescent point

Q-point is an acronym for quiescent point.Q-point is the operating point of the transis-
tor ICQ ,VCEQ at which it is biased. The concept of Q-point is used when transistor act as an
amplifying device which is operated in active region of output characteristics. To operate at
this point, in BJT it is necessary to provide voltages and currents through external sources.

DC load line
The dc load line is the locus of IC and VCE at which BJT remains in active region i.e. it
represents all the possible combinations of IC and VCE for a given amplifier.
Procedure to draw DC load line
To draw DC load line of a transistor we need to find the saturation current and cutoff
voltage.
The saturation current is the maximum possible current through the transistor and occurs
at the point where the voltage across the collector is minimum. The DC equivalent of

amplifier of Fig 3.1.a is shown in Fig.3.1.b.

To find the cutoff point equate the collector current to zero(actually in cutoff the collector
current is ICO which will be of micro amperes order and hence can be assumed to be zero).
Equating Ic to zero the cutoff point is (Vcc , 0). To find the saturation point equate the
collector voltage to zero(actually in saturation the collector voltage will be around 0.2Volts
which is small and hence can be assumed to be zero). Equating VCE to zero the saturation
Vcc
point is (0, ). The line joining cut-off point and saturation point is called dc load line.
Rc
So the centre of dc load line is taken Q point, which results signal with no distortion.
 3

Need for bias stabilization Only the fixing of a suitable operating point is not sufficient.
It must also be ensured that it remains where it was fixed. It is unfortunate that in the
transistor circuits the operating point shifts with the use of the circuit. Such a shift of
operating point may drive the transistor into an undesirable region. The amplifier then
becomes useless. There are two reasons for the operating point to shift. First, the transistor
parameters are temperature dependent. Secondly, the parameters (such as β ) change
from unit to unit. In spite of tremendous advancement in semiconductor technology, the
transistor parameters vary between wide limits even among different units of the same type.
Thus, when a transistor is replaced by another of the same type, the operating point may
shift.
When the operating point near A, positive portion is clipped. When the operating point
near C, negative portion is clipped.

When a distortion less output is needed, the operating point is near the middle of load line.
Methods of Biasing

1. Base Biasing or Fixed Biasing

2. Base Biasing with collector bias.

3. Voltage divider bias.

Fixed Bias circuit:

4 Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques

In this circuit the end of base and collector resistor is connected to VCC supply.
Input Section: Let us first consider only the input section of the circuit.. We can apply
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) to this base–emitter loop and get

VCC = IB RB +VBE (3.1)

from which the base current is given as

VCC −VBE
IB = (3.2)
RB
Since VBE is very small compared to VCC , not much error will be committed if it is neglected.
The base current is then given by the simple expression,
VCC
IB ≃ (3.3)
RB
The supply voltage VCC being of fixed value—once the resistance RB is selected—the base
current IB is also fixed. Hence the name fixed-bias circuit.
Base Circuit
IB can be computed using Equation below
VCC −VBE
IB = (3.4)
RB
Output Section: Apply KVL to the output loop. We obtain

VCE = VCC − IC RC

. The collector current IC that flows through the resistor RC is given as

IC = β IB + ICEO (3.5)

If IB increases Ic increases, thereby increase the temperature at the collector junction.

The rise in temperature again increases the reverse saturation current ICEO which further
increases IC . This finally destruct the transistor due to the effect of the thermal runaway.
If β varies, IC varies briging transistor into saturation which is undesirable.
So fixed bias circuit is seldom used.
The operating point in the fixed-bias circuit can be calculated in the following three steps:

1. Calculate the base current IB .

2. Calculate the collector current IC . Make sure that this value is not greater than Icsat .

3. Calculate the collector-emitter voltage VCE .

 5

Stability factor of Fixed-bias circuit we know in Common Emitter the input current is
base current and output current is collector current and are related by the following formula

IC = β IB + ICEO (3.6)

IC = β IB + (β + 1)ICO (3.7)
If we differentiate the above equation with respect to IC and consider β constant the above
equation is reduced to

∂ ICO ∂ IB
1 = (β + 1) + β (3.8)
∂ IC ∂ IC
∂ IC β +1
S= = (3.9)
∂ ICO ∂ IB
1−β
∂ IC
In fixed bias circuit IB is independent of IC . If β is 50, then the stability factor S is 51
which is very large value.
6 Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques

Advantages of Fixed-bias circuit

1. Simple circuit

2. Small number of components are required.

3. The operating point can be fixed any where in the dc load line by simply changing
the value of RB .

Disadvantages of Fixed Bias circuit

1. Stabilization of operating point against variations of Ico , β and VBE is poor.

Collector-to-Base Bias Circuit

Here, the base resistor RB is connected to the collector instead of connecting it to the
battery VCC . Writing the loop equation for the input circuit, we get

VCC = RC (IC + IB ) + IB RB +VBE (3.10)

or

VCC = RC IC + (RC + RB )IB +VBE (3.11)

or

VCC − IC RC −VBE
IB = (3.12)
RC + RB
 7

From the output section of the circuit, we have

VCE = VCC − (IC + IB )RC (3.13)

or
VCE ≈ VCC − IC RC (since IB ≪ IC ) (3.14)
Let us now see what happens when the temperature rises. Suppose the temperature
increases, causing the leakage current (and also β ) to increase. This increases the collector
current (since
VCE −VBE
IB = (3.15)
RC + RB
Suppose the transistor in this circuit is replaced by another having a different value of β .
The shift in the operating point will not be as much as it occurs in the case of a fixed-bias
circuit. This can be seen as follows.
For determining the operating point, we substitute β IB for IC in Eq. (7.10) to get

VCC = RC β IB + (RC + RB )IB +VBE .

Or,
VCC = VBE + [RB + (β + 1)RC ] IB .
Hence,
VCC −VBE VCC
IB = ≈ . (3.16)
RB + (β + 1)RC RB + β RC
Since IC = β IB , we can determine the collector current. To determine the collector voltage
use Eq.3.10.
Calculation of stability factor of Collector to base bias circuit: Since VBE is almost inde-
pendent of IC , then  
dIB Re
=− . (8.22)
dIC Re + Rb
dIB
Substituting for from Eq. (8.22) in Eq. (8.6), S can be expressed for the emitter-
dIC
feedback circuit as
1+β
S= . (8.23)
Re
1+β
Re + Rb
Since S is ≤ β + 1, a better stabilization is obtained in collector to base bias circuit.
8 Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques

Suppose the temperature increases, causing the leakage current (and also β ) to increase.
This increases the collector current (since

IC = β IB + ICEO .

As the collector current increases, the voltage VCE decreases (since

VCE = VCC − IC RC .

As can be seen from Eq. (7.13), the reduced VCE causes a decrease in the base current IB .
The lowered base current, in turn, reduces the original increase in collector current. Thus,
a mechanism exists in the circuit because of which the collector current is not allowed
to increase rapidly. There is a tendency in the circuit to stabilise the operating point.
Advantages of collector-base feedback

1. If IC tends to increase because of rise in temperature or because the transistor has

been replaced by another transistor of β , then as shown in Fig ??, VCE is decreased.
Therefore IB reduced. It would decrease the collector current IC and not allowed to
increase IC as much as would have in the fixed bias.

Disadvantages of collector-base feedback

1. For large value of RC , Collector supply voltage must be large.

2. It increases the negative feedback and it reduces the gain.

 9

Advantages of collector-base feedback

1. If IC tends to increase because of rise in temperature or because the transistor has

been replaced by another transistor of β , then as shown in Fig ??, VCE is decreased.
Therefore IB reduced. It would decrease the collector current IC and not allowed to
increase IC as much as would have in the fixed bias.

Disadvantages of collector-base feedback

1. For large value of RC , Collector supply voltage must be large.

2. It increases the negative feedback and it reduces the gain.

Self-Bias
This is the most widely used method to provide biasing and stabilization to a tran-
sistor. In this form of biasing, R1 and R2 divide the supply voltage VCC , and the
voltage across R2 provides a fixed bias voltage VT h at the transistor base. Also,
a resistance RE is included in series with the emitter that provides stabilization.

Voltage Divider Bias

The Thevenin equivalent for the circuit is
R2VCC
VT h = (3.17)
R1 + R2
R1 R2
RT h = (3.18)
R1 + R2
RT h is the effective resistance seen looking back from the base terminal. Applying KVL
around the base–emitter circuit yields

VT h = IB RT h + IB RE + IC RE +VBE (3.19)
If we apply KVL to the collector–emitter junction,

VCE = VCC − IC RC − IB RE − IC RE (3.20)

10 Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques

β +1
S= (3.17)
∂ IC
1−β
∂ IB
Differentiating Eq. (3.14) with respect to IB ,
dIB dIC
0= (RB + RE ) + RE (3.21)
dIB dIB
dIB RE
=−
dIC RB + RE
Substituting Eq. (3.19) in Eq. (3.9), we obtain

(β + 1)(RB + RE )
S=
RB + RE + β RE
Dividing numerator and denominator by RE , we get
 
RB
(β + 1) 1 +
RE
S=
RB
+1+β
RE
RB
If is made much smaller, then S ≈ 1. Self-bias circuit is called β independent circuit.
RE
The voltage across the emitter resistor RE equals the voltage across R2 minus the base-to-
emitter voltage VBE . That is,

VE = VT h −VBE (7.24)
The current in the emitter is then calculated as
VE V2 −VBE
IE = = (3.22)
RE RE
The voltage at the collector (measured with respect to ground) VC equals the supply voltage
VCC minus the voltage drop across RC ,

VC = VCC − IC RC (7.24)
The collector-to-emitter voltage is then given as

VCE = VC −VE = (VCC − IC RC ) − IE RE (7.24)

or

VCE ≈ VCC − (RC + RE )IC (7.24)

since IC and IE are approximately equal.
 11

Advantages of Self-Bias Circuit

1. The smaller the value of S, the better the stabilization. Since the self-bias circuit has
the lowest S value among all biasing circuits, it is widely used.

2. It is insensitive to variations in β . Hence, replacement of one transistor by another

does not significantly affect the operating point.

Disadvantages of Self-Bias Circuit

The voltage across RE provides negative feedback, which reduces the gain of the amplifier.
Stabilization against variations of VBE , ICO and β . The sources of instability of IC are
essentially [Link] are the reverse saturation current ICO , which doubles for every 10◦ C
increase in temperature; the base–to–emitter voltage VBE , which decreases at the rate of
2.5 mV/◦ C for both Ge and Si transistors; and β , which increases with temperature.
We shall neglect the effect of the change of VCE with temperature, because this variation
is very small and we assume that the transistor operates in the active region, where IC is
approximately independent of VCE .

Stabilization techniques refers to the use of resistive biasing circuits which allows IB to
vary to keep IC relatively constant with variations of ICB0 , β ,VBE .
Stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to
reverse saturation current, keeping β and VBE constant.

∂ IC ∆IC
S= ≈ (3.19)
∂ IC0 ∆IC0
′
Stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to
VBE , keeping β and ICO constant.

′ ∂ IC ∆IC
S = ≈ (3.20)
∂VBE ∆VBE
′′
Stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to β ,
keeping VBE and ICO constant.
′′ ∂ IC ∆IC
S = ≈ (3.21)
∂β ∆β
Out of the three stability factors, S is significant compared to S’ and S”.
12 Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques

Assignment 3

1. Explain the term “biasing”.

2. Explain why a transistor should be biased.

3. Draw and explain the dc load line.

4. Define operating point

5. Why transistor should not be operated in cut–off and saturation region.

6. Draw the circuit diagram of a fixed– bias circuit. Calculate the operating point of the
fixed bias circuit by writing necessary KVL to input and output loop of the circuit?

7. Calculate the stability factor of fixed–bias circuit.

8. Draw the circuit diagram of a Collector–to–base bias circuit. Calculate the operating
point of the Collector–to–base bias circuit by writing necessary KVL to input and
output loop of the circuit?

9. Calculate the stability factor of collector to base bias circuit.

10. Draw the circuit diagram of a self bias circuit. Calculate the operating point of the self
bias circuit by writing necessary KVL to input and output loop of the circuit?

11. Calculate the stability factor of Self bias circuit.

12. Prove mathematically that the operating point in a potential-divider biasing circuit is
independent of β . Make relevant assumptions.

13. Explain why the fixed-bias circuit, in spite of its simplicity, is not much used in
amplifiers.
 13

Table 3.1 Objective Questions with Answers

No. Question
1 What is the suitable location of operating point? [c]
(a) At cut-off point
(b) At saturation point
(c) At the middle of a DC load line
(d) All of the above
2 The Q point in a voltage amplifier is selected in the middle of the
active region because [a]

(a) it gives a distortionless output.

(b)the operating point then becomes very stable.
(c) the circuit then requires less number of resistors.
(d) it then requires a small dc voltage.
3 The operating point of an NPN transistor amplifier should not be
selected in the saturation region as ? [c]
(a) it may drive the transistor to thermal runaway
(b) it may cause output to be clipped in the negative half of the input
signal
(c)it may cause output to be clipped in the positive half of the input
signal
(d)it may require high dc collector supply
4 The Q point in a voltage amplifier is selected in the cut-off region
because [b]
(a) it may drive the transistor to thermal runaway
(b) it may cause output to be clipped in the negative half of the input
signal
(c)it may cause output to be clipped in the positive half of the input
signal
(d)it may require high dc collector supply
5 A transistor is operating in the active region. Under this condition:
[d]
(a) Both the junctions are forward biased
(b) Both the junctions are reverse biased
(c) Emitter–base junction is reverse biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is forward biased
(d) Emitter–base junction is forward biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is reverse biased
14 Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques

Table 3.2 Objective Questions with Answers

No. Question
6 A transistor is operating in the active region. Under this condition:
[d]
(a) Both the junctions are forward biased
(b) Both the junctions are reverse biased
(c) Emitter–base junction is reverse biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is forward biased
(d) Emitter–base junction is forward biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is reverse biased
7 A transistor is operating in the saturation region. Under this condition:
[a]
(a) Both the junctions are forward biased
(b) Both the junctions are reverse biased
(c) Emitter–base junction is reverse biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is forward biased
(d) Emitter–base junction is forward biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is reverse biased
8 A transistor is operating in the cut off region. Under this condition:
[b]
(a) Both the junctions are forward biased
(b) Both the junctions are reverse biased
(c) Emitter–base junction is reverse biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is forward biased
(d) Emitter–base junction is forward biased, and collector–base junc-
tion is reverse biased
9 The signal handling capacity of an amplifier is high if [c]
(a) the operating point is selected near the cut off region.
(b) the operating point is selected near the saturation region.
(c) the operating point is selected in the middle of the active region
(d) an NPN transistor of similar characteristics is used instead of a
PNP one
10 The main purpose of transistor biasing is to: [b]
(a) Reduce power consumption.
(b) Set the operating point in the middle of a dc load line
(c) Increase output voltage
(d) Improve frequency response.
11 In a fixed bias circuit, the base current IB mainly depends on: [c]
(a) Collector resistor
(b) Emitter resistor
(c) Base resistor
(d) Load resistor
 15

Table 3.3 Objective Questions with Answers

No. Question
12 The voltage-divider bias is also known as: [b]
(a) Beta-dependent biasing
(b) Self bias
(c) Collector to base bias
(d) Fixed bias
13 In collector to base bias, the negative feedback helps in: [b]
(a) Reducing collector current
(b) Stabilizing the operating point
(c) Increasing β
(d) Improving the cutoff frequency
14 Thermal runaway occurs when the collector current: [c]
(a) Remains constant
(b) Decreases with temperature
(c) Increases uncontrollably with temperature
(d) Is independent of β
15 The most effective way to prevent thermal runaway is to [b]
(a) Use a large base resistor
(b) Use a heat sink
(c) Use an emitter resistor RE for negative feedback
(d) Reduce supply voltage
16 The stability factor S indicates: [c]
(a) Input impedance of the transistor
(b) Variation of IB with temperature
(c) Sensitivity of IC to changes in ICBO
(d) Voltage gain of an amplifier
17 For a perfectly stable biasing circuit, the stability factor should be:
[b]
(a) Very high
(b) Exactly 1
(c) Equal to β
(d) Infinite
18 For a fixed bias circuit, the stability factor should be: [c]
(a)β
(b) Exactly 1
(c) β + 1
(d) None of the above
19 For a self bias circuit, the stability factor is [b]
(a)β
(b) very low
(c) β + 1
(d) None of the above