MODULE 4
NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND
MECHANISMS
• Echolocation
• Photosynthesis
• Bird flying
• Lotus leaf effect
• Plant burrs
• Shark skin
• Kingfisher beak
• Human Blood substitutes
• Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and
• Perflourocarbons (PFCs).
ECHOLOCATION
• Echolocation is a physiological process for locating
distant or invisible objects (prey) by sound wave that is
reflected back as echo to the emitter, providing
information about the object‘s distance and size.
• Over a thousand species echolocate, including most
bats, all-toothed whales, and small mammals.
• Human echolocation is the ability of humans to detect
objects in their environment by sensing echoes from
those objects, and by actively creating sounds: for
example, by tapping their canes, lightly stomping their
feet, snapping their fingers, or making clicking noises
with their mouths.
2
• People trained to orient by echolocation can interpret
the sound waves reflected by nearby objects,
accurately identifying their location and size
• Many blind individuals passively use natural
environmental echoes to sense details about their
environment
• Both passive and active echolocation help blind
individuals sense their environments.
• Those who can see their environments often do not
readily perceive echoes from nearby objects, due to an
echo suppression phenomenon brought on by the
precedence effect.
• However, with training, sighted individuals with normal
hearing can learn to avoid obstacles using only sound,
showing that echolocation is a general human ability.
3
Mechanics:
• Vision and hearing are akin in that each interprets
detections of reflected waves of energy.
• Vision processes light waves that travel from their
source, bounce off surfaces throughout the
environment and enter the eyes.
• Similarly, the auditory system processes sound waves
as they travel from their source, bounce off surfaces,
these waves of reflected energy are referred to as
echoes and enter the ears.
• Both neural systems can extract a great deal of
information about the environment by interpreting the
complex patterns of reflected energy that their sense
organs receive.
4
5
Ultrasonography
• Ultrasound: Ultrasound refers to sound above the
human audible limit of 20 kHz.
• Ultrasound of frequencies up to 10 MHz and beyond is
used in medical diagnosis, therapy, and surgery.
• In investigative applications, an ultrasound source
(transmitter) directs pulses into the body.
• When the pulse encounters a boundary between
organs or between two tissue regions of different
densities, reflections of sound occur.
• By scanning the body with Ultrasound and detecting
echoes generated by various organs, called diagnostic
ultrasound, or sonography or diagnostic medical
sonography, a sonogram of the internal structure(s)
can be generated.
6
• It is an imaging method that uses sound waves to
produce images of structures within your body.
• The method is called diagnostic imaging by
echolocation.
• The images can provide valuable information for
diagnosing and directing treatment for a variety of
diseases and conditions.
7
Sonars
• Sonar (sound navigation and ranging or sonic
navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses sound
propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine
navigation) to navigate, measure distances (ranging),
communicate with or detect objects on or under the
surface of the water, such as other vessels.
• "Sonar" can refer to one of two types of technology:
• passive sonar means listening for the sound made by vessels;
• active sonar means emitting pulses of sounds and listening for
echoes.
• Sonar may be used as a means of acoustic location
and of measurement of the echo characteristics of
"targets" in the water.
8
9
10
• The term sonar is also used for the equipment used to
generate and receive the sound.
• The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary
from very low (infrasonic) to extremely high
(ultrasonic).
• The study of underwater sound is known as
underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics.
• Acoustic location in the air was used before the
introduction of radar.
• Sonar may also be used for robot navigation, and SODAR
(Sonic Detection and Ranging - an upward-looking in-air
sonar) is used for atmospheric investigations.
11
12
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis.
• The process is carried out by plants, algae, and some
types of bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to
produce oxygen (O2) and chemical energy is stored in
glucose (a sugar).
• Herbivores then obtain this energy by eating plants, and
carnivores obtain it by eating herbivores.
13
The Process
• During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O) from the air and soil.
• Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it
loses electrons and this transforms the water into
oxygen
• The carbon dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains
electrons and the carbon dioxide is transformed into
glucose.
• The plant then releases the oxygen back into the air,
and stores energy within the glucose molecules.
Chlorophyll
• Inside the plant cell are small organelles called
chloroplasts, which store the energy of sunlight.
14
• Within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast is a
light-absorbing pigment called chlorophyll, which is
responsible for giving the plant its green color.
• During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy
from blue- and red-light waves and reflects green-light
waves, making the plant appear green.
15
16
• Understanding better the way by which natural
photosynthetic complexes perform these processes may
lead to insight into the design of artificial photosynthetic
systems and the development of new technologies for
solar energy conversion.
• A broad variety of bio-inspired concepts and applications
are emerging, ranging from light-induced water splitting,
Plant Microbial Fuel Cells to hybrid systems.
17
Photovoltaic Cells
• One of the applications that can contribute to bringing
together the worlds of photosynthesis and
photovoltaics is the photovoltaic cell.
• A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electronic device
that converts the energy of light directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and
chemical phenomenon.
• It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current,
voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light.
• Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical
building blocks of photovoltaic modules, known
colloquially as solar panels.
• The common single-junction silicon solar cell can
produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 volts to 0.6 volts.
18
19
20
Application:
• Remote Locations
• Stand-Alone Power
• Power in Space
• Building-Related Needs
• Military Uses
• Transportation
21
Bionic Leaf
• The Bionic Leaf is a biomimetic system that gathers
solar energy via photovoltaic cells that can be stored or
used in several different functions.
• Bionic leaves can be composed of both synthetic
(metals, ceramics, polymers, etc.) and organic
materials (bacteria), or solely made of synthetic
materials.
• The Bionic Leaf has the potential to be implemented in
communities, such as urbanized areas to provide clean
air as well as providing needed clean energy
22
23
Mechanics
• Artificial photosynthesis, as performed by the Bionic
Leaf, is approximately 10 times more efficient than
natural photosynthesis.
• The efficiency of the Bionic Leaf's artificial
photosynthesis is the result of bypassing obstacles in
natural photosynthesis through its artificiality
• Using a catalyst, the Bionic Leaf can remove excess
carbon dioxide in the air and convert that to use
alcohol fuels, like isopropanol and isobutanol.
• When the catalysts of the Bionic Leaf are coupled with
the bacterium Ralstonia eutropha, this results in a
hybrid system capable of carbon dioxide fixation.
• This system can store more than half of its input
energy as products of carbon dioxide fixation.
24
• Overall, the hybrid design allows for artificial
photosynthesis with efficiencies rivaling that of natural
photosynthesis.
Applications
• Agriculture
• Atmosphere
• Bionic Facades
25
BIRD FLYING
• Bird flight is the primary mode of locomotion used by
most bird species in which birds take off and fly.
• Flight assists birds with feeding, breeding, avoiding
predators, and migrating.
• Bird flight is one of the most complex forms of
locomotion in the animal kingdom.
• Each facet of this type of motion, including hovering,
taking off, and landing, involves many complex
movements.
• As different bird species adapted over millions of years
through evolution for specific environments, prey,
predators, and other needs, they developed
specializations in their wings and acquired different
forms of flight.
26
• When a bird flies, it leaves a wake.
• The idea is that another bird can get a boost from an
updraft of air in that wake by flying behind the first bird
and off to the side.
• When a bunch of birds use this trick, they form a V.
27
GPS and Bird Flight
• Scientists have long known that birds navigate using the
earth‘s magnetic field.
• Now, a new study has found subtle mechanics in the
brain of pigeons that allow them to find their way.
• A team at Baylor College of Medicine in the U.S.
identified a group of 53 cells in a pigeon‘s brain that
record detailed information on the Earth‘s magnetic field, a
kind of internal global positioning system (GPS).
• Each cell also showed a sensitivity to field strength, with
the maximum sensitivity corresponding to the strength of
the Earth‘s natural field
• And like a compass, t h e neurons had opposite
responses to different field polarity, the magnetic north
and south of a field, which surprised the researchers
most of all.
• Several hypotheses hold that birds‘ magnetic navigation
arises in cells that contain tiny chunks of metal in their
noses or beaks, or possibly in an inner ear organ.
28
GPS
• GPS is Global Positioning System.
• It‘s made up of three parts:
• Satellites-act like stars in constellations—we know
where they are supposed to be at any given time
• Ground stations - use radar to make sure
they are actually where we think they are
• Receivers- constantly listening for a signal from
these satellites.
• The receiver figures out how far away they are from
some of them.
• Once the receiver calculates its distance from four or
more satellites, it knows exactly where you are within a
few yards of your actual location.
• More high-tech receivers, though, can figure out where
you are within a few inches!
29
AIRCRAFTS
• The fundamentals of bird flight are similar to those of
aircraft, in which the aerodynamic forces sustain flight
lift, drag, and thrust.
• Lift force is produced by the action of airflow on the
wing, which is an airfoil and is shaped such that the air
provides a net upward force on the wing, while the
movement of air is directed downward.
• The additional net lift may come from airflow around
the bird's body in some species, especially during
intermittent flight while the wings are folded or semi-
folded
30
31
• Aerodynamic drag is the force opposite to the direction
of motion, and hence the source of energy loss in flight.
• The drag force can be separated into two portions
• lift-induced drag, which is the inherent cost of the wing
producing lift (this energy ends up primarily in the wingtip
vortices), and
• parasitic drag, including skin friction drag from the friction of
air and body surfaces and form drag from the bird's frontal
area.
• The streamlining of the bird's body and wings reduces
these forces.
• Unlike aircraft, which have engines to produce thrust,
birds flap their wings with a given flapping amplitude
and frequency to generate thrust.
32
LOTUS LEAF EFFECT
• The lotus leaf is well-known for having a highly water-
repellent, or superhydrophobic, surface, thus giving the
name to the lotus effect.
• Water repellency has received much attention in the
development of self-cleaning materials, and it has been
studied in both natural and artificial systems.
33
Superhydrophobic and Self-cleaning Surfaces
• The self-cleaning function of superhydrophobic
surfaces is conventionally attributed to the removal of
contaminating particles by impacting or rolling water
droplets, which implies the action of external forces
such as gravity.
• The cicada wing is used as a model superhydrophobic
surface.
• Most cicadas as well as other ―large-winged‖ insects
have extremities that are too short to actively clean the
wings, but are exposed to a multitude of contaminants,
including soil fragments, industrial dusts, plant pollen,
and pathogenic microorganisms (e.g., bacteria).
• For these insects, self-cleaning is important to preserve
wing functionalities such as those involving flight and
anti-reflection.
34
• Although self-cleaning can be accomplished on the
wings with the lotus effect, rain may not be available for
prolonged periods of time and, in extreme
circumstances, may be absent during the short life
span of an insect.
• On the other hand, many insects live in a humid
environment in which condensation of atmospheric
vapor takes place on a daily basis.
• The jumping condensate occurring during vapor
condensation is highly effective in removing both pollen
and silica particles on cicada wings.
• The cicada wings are superhydrophobic because the
wing cuticle consists of arrays of conical protuberances
covered with a hydrophobic wax layer.
• The protuberances are spherically capped and
hexagonally arranged, with a spacing and height of
∼200 nm and a radius of curvature at the apex in the
range of 25–45 nm.
35
36
• The jumping-condensate mechanism is shown to
spontaneously clean superhydrophobic cicada wings,
where the contaminating particles cannot be removed
by gravity, wing vibration, or wind flow.
37
• Flat sheet polymer membranes were prepared by
Spray-assisted nonsolvent induced phase separation
(SANIPS) approach to fabricate self-cleaning
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes with high
porosity and hierarchical micro/nanostructures.
• Membranes were named as SANIPS-A, SANIPS-E,
and SANIPS-W, corresponding to air, ethanol, and
water as the spraying materials, respectively.
• A control membrane (NIPS) without spraying treatment
was also prepared for comparison (Supplementary).
• In contrast to the small water contact angle of the
control NIPS membrane (75.8°), all the SANIPS
membranes exhibit water contact angles over 150°.
38
• The water surface is distorted downward when
SANIPS membranes are immersed in water, as a result
of the strong water repellency of the superhydrophobic
surface.
• Besides pure water, SANIPS membranes also show
great repellence toward various types of aqueous
solutions that contain 0.2 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate
(SDS), 1% Rose Bengal, 2000 p.p.m. graphene oxide
(GO), or 10% ethanol, indicating their potential for wide
applications in the field of wastewater treatment.
• When being taken out from the dye solutions, all the
SANIPS membranes remain unstained, contrasting
sharply with the control NIPS membrane.
39
a Schematic diagram and b proposed mechanism of the
SANIPS method.
40
PLANT BURRS
• A bur (also spelled burr) is a seed or dry fruit or
infructescence that has hooks or teeth.
• The main function of the bur is to spread the seeds of
the bur plant, often through epizoochory.
• The hooks of the bur are used to catch on to for
example fur or fabric, so that the bur, which contains
seeds, then can be transported along with the thing it
attached itself to.
• Another use for the spines and hooks is physical
protection against herbivores.
• Their ability to stick to animals and fabrics has shaped
their reputation as bothersome.
• Some other forms of diaspores, such as the stems of
certain species of cactus also are covered with thorns
and may function as burs.
41
• Bur-bearing plants such as Xanthium species are often
single-stemmed when growing in dense groups, but
branch and spread when growing singly.
• The number of burs per fruit along with the size and
shape can vary largely between different bur plants.
Bur of Burdock
42
• Burs are best known as sources of irritation, injury to
livestock, damage to clothing, punctures to tires, and
clogging equipment such as agricultural harvesting
machinery.
• Furthermore, because of their ability to compete with
crops over moisture and nutrition, bur plants can be
labeled as weeds and therefore also be subject to
removal.
• Methods of controlling the spread of bur plants include
the use of herbicides, slashing, and cultivation among
others.
• Some have however been used for such purposes as
fabric fulling, for which the fuller's teasel is a traditional
resource.
43
Velcro
• The bur of burdock was the inspiration for the hook and
loop fastener, also known as Velcro.
• Mr. de Mestral examined the burr under a microscope
and realized the small hooks of the burr and loops of
the fur/fabric allowed the burr to adhere exceedingly
well.
• This sparked his idea to mimic the structure as a
potential fastener.
• Originally VELCRO is envisioned as a fastener for
clothing
• Today, Velcro is used across a wide array of industries
and applications; including
• Healthcare
• Military
• Land vehicles
• Aircraft
• Spacecraft.
44
45
SHARK SKIN
• The texture is rough since it has small scales similar to
teeth, called Dermal Denticles.
• Each species has a uniquely V shaped denticle.
• They have a covering of dentine, a central pulp canal
containing blood vessels, and a single nerve.
• The denticles play an important part in swimming
efficiency.
• The water is channeled by the ‗skin teeth' and flows
across the fins and around the body.
• The teeth also break up the interface between skin and
water, reducing the friction between the two entities.
• The teeth and skin also help protect the shark from
injuries and several elements in the water.
• It's like a suit of armor for sharks.
46
47
Relevance to humans
• Sharkskin describes a specific woven or warp-
knitted fabric with a distinctive sheen.
• Sharkskin is a twill weave fabric.
• Materials used in its construction
include: acetate, rayon, worsted wool, lycra, and other
plastic fibers.
• In sharkskin, the arrangement of darker and brighter
threads in a twill weave creates a subtle pattern of
lines that run across the fabric diagonally and a two
tone, lustrous appearance.
• Primarily a suiting material, lightweight and wrinkle-
free, the fabric is seen in light jackets and non-fashion
items such as curtains, tablecloths, and as a liner
in diving suits and wetsuits.
48
49
Shark Skin and Swimsuits
• Scientists have been able to replicate the dermal
denticles in swimsuits and also the bottom of ships or
boats.
• Sharkskin-inspired swimsuits received a lot of media
attention during the 2008 Summer Olympics when the
spotlight was shining on Michael Phelps.
• However, they are now banned in most of the major
competitions.
• When cargo ships can squeeze out even a single
percent in efficiency, they burn less bunker oil and
don‘t require cleaning chemicals for their hulls.
• Besides that, this sharkskin mechanism is also applied
to create surfaces in hospitals that resist bacteria
growth since the bacteria can‘t catch hold of the rough
surface.
50
51
KINGFISHER BEAK
• The kingfishers have long, dagger-like bills.
• The bill is usually longer and more compressed in species
that hunt fish, and shorter and broader in species.
Relationship with humans
• Kingfishers are generally shy birds, but despite this, they
feature heavily in human culture, generally due to the large
head supporting its powerful mouth, their bright plumage, or
some species' interesting behavior.
• For the Dusun people of Borneo, the Oriental dwarf
kingfisher is considered a bad omen, and warriors who see
one on the way to battle should return home.
• Another Bornean tribe considers the banded kingfisher an
omen bird, albeit generally a good omen.
52
53
The Beak that Inspired a Bullet Train
The Strategy
• The secret is in the shape of the kingfisher‘s beak.
• A long and narrow cone, the kingfisher‘s beak enters the
water without creating a compression wave below the
surface or a noisy splash above.
• The fine point of the conical beak presents little surface
area or resistance to the water upon entry, and the
evenly and gradually enlarging cross-section of the beak
keeps fluid flowing smoothly around it as it penetrates
further into the water column.
• The length of the beak is critical here: the longer it is,
the more gradually the angle of the wedge expands.
• A shorter, fatter, or rounder beak would increase the
wedge angle, resulting in a splash, a compression
wave, and a fleeing fish.
54
The Potential
• Eiji Nakatsu, the chief engineer of the company
operating Japan‘s fastest trains, wondered if the
kingfisher‘s beak might serve as a model for how to
redesign trains not to create such a thunderous noise
when leaving tunnels and breaking through the barrier
of tunnel air and outside-air.
• Sure enough, as his team tested different shapes for
the front of the new train, the train became quieter and
more efficient as the geometry of its nose became
more like the shape of a kingfisher‘s beak, requiring
15% less energy while traveling even faster than
before.
55
56
HUMAN BLOOD SUBSTITUTES
• Shortages in blood supplies and concerns about the
safety of donated blood have fueled the development
of so-called blood substitutes. The two major types of
blood substitutes are
• volume expanders, which include solutions such as saline that
are used to replace lost plasma volume, and
• oxygen therapeutics, which are agents designed to replace
oxygen normally carried by the hemoglobin in red blood cells.
• Of these two types of blood substitutes, the
development of oxygen therapeutics has been the
most challenging.
• One of the first groups of agents developed and
tested were perfluorocarbons, which effectively
transport and deliver oxygen to tissues but cause
complex side effects, including flulike reactions, and
are not metabolized by the body.
57
58
• Blood from the human umbilical cord has been studied
for its potential as a substitute source of red blood cells
for transfusion.
• Red blood cells can be extracted from cord blood via
sedimentation as the blood is cooled.
• Donated cord blood can be screened for infectious
organisms and other contaminants.
• Research concerning its potential use for transfusion is
ongoing.
• Of particular concern for implementation are the
establishment of safe, effective, and ethical procedures
for cord blood collection as well as the development of
criteria that help to ensure safe transfusion and the
preservation of cord blood quality.
59
HBOCs
• Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) are ―made
of‖ natural hemoglobins that were originally developed
as blood substitutes but have been extended to a variety
of hypoxic clinical situations due to their ability to release
oxygen.
• Compared with traditional preservation protocols, the
addition of HBOCs to traditional preservation protocols
• provides more oxygen to organs to meet their energy metabolic
needs,
• prolongs preservation time,
• reduces ischemia-reperfusion injury to grafts,
• improves graft quality, and
• even increases the number of transplantable donors.
60
• These are made by genetically or chemically
engineering hemoglobin isolated from the red blood
cells of humans or bovines.
• HBOCs do not require refrigeration, are compatible
with all blood types, and efficiently distribute oxygen to
tissues.
61
PFCs
• One of the first groups of agents developed and tested
were perfluorocarbons, which effectively transport and
deliver oxygen to tissues
• PFCs remain in the bloodstream for about 48 hours.
• Because of their oxygen-dissolving ability, PFCs were
the first group of artificial blood products studied by
scientists.
• They are first-generation blood substitutes.
• Unlike the red-colored HBOCs, PFCs are usually
white.
• However, since they do not mix with blood they must
be emulsified before they can be given to patients.
62
• PFCs are such good oxygen carriers that researchers
are now trying to find out if they can reduce swollen
brain tissue in traumatic brain injury.
• PFC particles may cause flu-like symptoms in some
patients when they exhale these compounds.
63