Class 9 Foundation | Chemistry
MASTER BOOK SERIES: CHEMISTRY
Chapter 4: Structure of the Atom (Exploration IV)
Comprehensive Lecture Notes for Class 9 CBSE, NTSE & Foundation Olympiads
1. Charged Particles in Matter & Discovery of Subatomic Particles
In Chapter 3, we learned from Dalton’s atomic theory that atoms were indivisible. However, the discovery of
static electricity and experiments with gases under low pressure completely disproved this assumption,
showing that atoms are actually composed of smaller, subatomic entities.
1.1 Discovery of the Electron (Cathode Rays)
In 1897, British physicist J.J. Thomson carried out experiments using a cathode ray tube (discharge tube).
When high voltage was passed through a gas at very low pressure, streams of negatively charged particles
moved from the cathode to the anode. He called these particles electrons.
• Mass: Negligible, taken as approximately 1/2000th of a Hydrogen atom.
• Charge: Absolute charge is -1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs (assigned a relative charge of -1).
1.2 Discovery of the Proton (Anode Rays / Canal Rays)
Even before Thomson, in 1886, E. Goldstein discovered the presence of new radiations in a gas discharge
tube which traveled in a direction opposite to cathode rays. He called them canal rays. These were positively
charged radiations that eventually led to the discovery of the proton.
• Mass: Approximately 1 u (equal to a hydrogen atom, 2000 times heavier than an electron).
• Charge: Absolute charge is +1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs (assigned a relative charge of +1).
HISTORICAL PREMISE
Because an atom is electrically neutral as a whole, it was reasoned that if it contains negatively charged
electrons, it must also contain an equal amount of positive charge to balance it out perfectly.
2. Early Atomic Models
As subatomic particles were discovered, scientists began proposing arrangements to illustrate how these
particles are distributed within an atom.
2.1 J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model (1898)
Thomson proposed that an atom resembles a Christmas pudding or a watermelon:
• An atom consists of a positively charged sphere in which electrons are embedded like seeds in a
watermelon.
• The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude, making the atom electrically neutral.
Limitation: Although it successfully explained neutrality, it failed to explain the results of scattering
experiments carried out later by Rutherford.
Page 1
Class 9 Foundation | Chemistry
3. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of an Atom
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford designed an experiment to find out how electrons are arranged. He bombarded a
very thin gold foil with fast-moving alpha (α) particles (doubly-charged Helium ions, He2+, mass = 4 u).
3.1 Observations from the Gold Foil Experiment
• Most of the fast-moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deflection.
• Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by very small angles.
• Surprisingly, a tiny fraction (about 1 out of every 12,000 particles) rebounded completely back (180°
deflection).
3.2 Conclusions Drawn by Rutherford
1. Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most particles passed through without deflecting.
2. Very few particles were deflected, indicating that the positive charge of the atom occupies very little space.
3. The complete rebound of a tiny fraction showed that all the positive charge and mass of the gold atom
were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom.
RUTHERFORD'S ATOMIC FEATURES
• There is a positively charged center in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom
resides here.
• The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined circular paths.
• The size of the nucleus is incredibly small compared to the total size of the atom (radius of nucleus is
roughly 105 times smaller than atomic radius).
3.3 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
According to classical electromagnetic theory, any accelerated charged particle must radiate energy
continuously. An electron revolving in a circular orbit experiences acceleration. Therefore, it should
continuously lose energy and spiral inward, eventually collapsing into the nucleus. If this were true, matter
would be highly unstable, which contradicts reality.
Page 2
Class 9 Foundation | Chemistry
4. Bohr’s Model of the Atom & Discovery of Neutrons
To overcome the limitations of Rutherford's model, Neils Bohr put forward his atomic model in 1913.
4.1 Postulates of Bohr’s Model
• Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom.
• While revolving in these discrete orbits, the electrons do not radiate energy.
• These circular orbits or shells are called energy levels. They are represented by the letters K, L, M, N,...
or the numbers n = 1, 2, 3, 4,... starting from the center outward.
4.2 Discovery of the Neutron
In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle that had no charge and possessed a mass
nearly equal to that of a proton. It was eventually named the neutron. Neutrons are located in the nucleus of
all atoms except Hydrogen-1 ($^1 ext{H}$).
Consequently, the mass of an atom is given by the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons present in its
nucleus.
Particle Symbol Discoverer Relative Charge Relative Mass Location
Electron e- J.J. Thomson -1 1/2000 u Extra-nuclear
Proton p+ E. Goldstein +1 1u Inside Nucleus
Neutron n J. Chadwick 0 1u Inside Nucleus
5. Distribution of Electrons in Different Orbits
The distribution of electrons into various shells of an atom was suggested by Bohr and Bury. The distribution
follows three primary rules:
1. The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2, where 'n' is the orbit
number or energy level index.
2. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost shell is 8 (Octet rule).
3. Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell unless the inner shells are completely filled. Shells are
filled in a step-wise manner.
Page 3
Class 9 Foundation | Chemistry
6. Valency and Electronic Configurations
The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as valence electrons. The outermost
shell itself is termed the valence shell.
6.1 Concept of Valency
An atom’s tendency is to achieve a completely filled outermost shell (either a duplet of 2 electrons for K-shell
or an octet of 8 electrons for others), which gives it maximum stability. The number of valence electrons lost,
gained, or shared to achieve this configuration determines the valency of that element.
• If the number of valence electrons is ≤ 4: Valency = Number of valence electrons.
• If the number of valence electrons is > 4: Valency = 8 - (Number of valence electrons).
6.2 Electronic Configuration Table (First 10 Elements)
Atomic Number of K L M
Element Symbol Valency
Number (Z) Electrons (n=1) (n=2) (n=3)
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 - - 1
0 (Stable
Helium He 2 2 2 - -
duplet)
Lithium Li 3 3 2 1 - 1
Beryllium Be 4 4 2 2 - 2
Boron B 5 5 2 3 - 3
Carbon C 6 6 2 4 - 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 2 5 - 8-5 = 3
Oxygen O 8 8 2 6 - 8-6 = 2
Fluorine F 9 9 2 7 - 8-7 = 1
0 (Stable
Neon Ne 10 10 2 8 -
octet)
CALCULATION SPOTLIGHT: 2N 2 RULE APPLICATION
• For K-shell (n = 1): Max electrons = 2(1)2 = 2
• For L-shell (n = 2): Max electrons = 2(2)2 = 8
• For M-shell (n = 3): Max electrons = 2(3)2 = 18
Page 4
Class 9 Foundation | Chemistry
7. Atomic Number and Mass Number
7.1 Atomic Number (Z)
The atomic number of an element is equal to the total number of protons present in the nucleus of its atom. It
is denoted by the letter Z. Since an atom is neutral, its atomic number is also equal to the total number of
electrons around the nucleus.
Z = Number of Protons = Number of Electrons (in a neutral atom)
7.2 Mass Number (A)
The mass number is defined as the total sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus
of an atom. They are collectively called nucleons. It is denoted by the letter A.
A = Number of Protons (Z) + Number of Neutrons (n)
A
An element is symbolically represented alongside both numbers using the notation:
ZX
8. Isotopes and Isobars
8.1 Isotopes
Isotopes are defined as atoms of the same element which possess the same atomic number but different
mass numbers. This means they have the same number of protons but differ in their neutron count.
Examples:
• Hydrogen has three isotopes: Protium ($^1_1 ext{H}$), Deuterium ($^2_1 ext{H}$), and Tritium ($^3_1
ext{H}$).
• Carbon: $^{12}_6 ext{C}$ and $^{14}_6 ext{C}$.
• Chlorine: $^{35}_{17} ext{Cl}$ and $^{37}_{17} ext{Cl}$ (occurring in nature in a 3:1 ratio).
AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS CALCULATION
When an element exists in multiple isotopic forms, its fractional relative atomic mass is evaluated based
on its natural abundances.
For Chlorine: $ ext{Avg Mass} = \left(35 imes rac{75}{100} ight) + \left(37 imes rac{25}{100} ight) =
rac{105}{4} + rac{37}{4} =$ 35.5 u.
8.2 Applications of Isotopes
1. An isotope of Uranium ($^{235} ext{U}$) is utilized as a vital fuel source in nuclear reactors.
2. An isotope of Cobalt ($^{60} ext{Co}$) is actively applied in the medical treatment of cancer.
3. An isotope of Iodine ($^{131} ext{I}$) is regularly used for diagnosing and treating goiter.
Page 5
Class 9 Foundation | Chemistry
8.3 Isobars
Isobars are atoms of different elements which possess different atomic numbers but share the same
mass number. This happens because the total sum of nucleons remains identical across those different
elements.
Example: Calcium (atomic number 20) and Argon (atomic number 18). Both elements share an identical
mass number of 40 ($^{40}_{20} ext{Ca}$ and $^{40}_{18} ext{Ar}$).
Page 6